Comparison study of tidal stream and wave energy technology development between China and some Western Countries

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 701–716

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Comparison study of tidal stream and wave energy technology development between China and some Western Countries

MARK

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Yijin Liua,b,c, Ye Lia,b,c,d, , Fenglan Hea,b,c, Haifeng Wange a State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai 200240, PR China b Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Ship and Deep-Sea Exploration, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China c Multi-function Towing Tank, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China d China Strategy Institute of Ocean Engineering, Shanghai 20040, China e National Ocean Technology Center, Tianjin 300112, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O

A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Tidal stream energy Wave energy Technology development Policy incentives

During the last decade, tidal stream and wave energy technologies have made significant progress. A number of large-scale prototypes have been deployed around the world. In this article, the recent development in some western countries and China is presented. Taken as the representatives from European and American continent, UK, Portugal and US are chosen to compare with China in resource assessment, research & development, and policy aspects. With an analysis of similarities and differences, the major elements that have great effect on development of ocean energy industry are concluded, and some suggestions are given to improve the development of tidal stream and wave energy technology.

1. Introduction As human society and economy is under a rapid development, the demands for energy resources are getting more and more increased nowadays. However, our excessive consumption on traditional fossil fuels brings serious environment pollution and great pressure of energy crisis. To achieve the sustainable development, an increasing number of countries start to transfer their focus on renewable energy [1]. Compared with the other renewable energy, the potential of ocean energy is giant. It is estimated that global resources are over 30,000 TWh/year theoretically [2]. The boom of developing of ocean energy technology has been lasting for decades. Especially, tidal stream and wave energy have been identified as technology with the potential to offer a significant contribution for most countries with ocean resource in the medium to long term. Based on a recent assessment result, the potential resource of tidal stream and wave energy in China are about 8.33 GW and 7.7 GW respectively [3], which would be a substantial amount of energy for the town and countryside on coastal area and isolated islands. It is a complicated and challenged national strategic goal to develop tidal stream and wave energy industry, with a necessity of a comprehensive framework to support. In this aspect, many western countries have accumulated a lot of experience. On the other hand, we have also explored on this way for so many years. Therefore, this article ⁎

provides a comparison study of tidal stream and wave energy technology development between China and some western countries. 2. Recent development in some western countries The exploration on ocean energy has been keeping since a notable article in Nature by Stephen Salter in 1974 [4]. To date, having the oldest ocean energy industry, vast tidal stream and wave energy resource, Europe became a pioneer in recent development [5]. In the most abundant region– European Atlantic Arc [6], a combination of policy accelerator and market condition makes this region become one of the world's most-promising areas. There are six countries, including Denmark, France, Ireland and Portugal, Spain and UK. Compared with European countries, those on American continent are relatively later in this field. They realized the potential of ocean energy but also the importance of environment guidelines [7]. With a developed industry system and a series of stimulations, they have made a rapid growth on capturing the benefit of these resources. Currently, it is taken as one of the most potential area in the near to medium [8]. 2.1. Deployment Since the beginning of the century, tidal stream technology and wave energy technology development has started to ramp up. Fig. 1 and

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.049 Received 5 February 2016; Received in revised form 17 February 2017; Accepted 8 March 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 3. The 1.2 MW SeaGen tidal energy system (UK). Adapted from [11]. Fig. 1. Distribution of large-scale tidal stream prototype deployments. Data obtained from IRENA 2014 [10].

development in US recent years. A handful of developers take some small-scale ( < 100 kW) sea trials. One of the top wave energy companies in US, Ocean Power Technologies (OPT), shift their focus to smaller-scale devices such as APB-350 (a 350-Watt-rated PowerBuoy) (Fig. 4). The deployment of devices is relative to the construction of infrastructures closely. As seen from the deployment of tidal stream and wave energy device, UK and Portugal are very outstanding, which supporting infrastructures for ocean energy contributes a lot. Currently, many counties developed testing facilities for ocean energy actively. Europe takes a large proportion of test centers in the world, such as EMEC [13] in Scotland, Wave Hub [14] in UK, Ocean Plug – Pilot Zone in Portugal [15], AMETS in Ireland, BIMEP in Spain, Lysekil in Sweden, and so on. In the American continent, there is Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (US), Pacific Marine Energy Center (US), Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy (Canada), etc [16]. As EMEC is active to the promotion of global wave and tidal power device standards under the International Electro-Technical Commission (IEC) [17], a consensus is reached to gather experiences from these test centers to form a general disciplines and standard [18]. In the aspect of power distribution system, small grid technology is developed to overcome the traditional issues [19,20].

Fig. 2. Distribution of large-scale WEC prototype deployments. Data obtained from IRENA 2014 [10].

Fig. 2 show the geographic distribution of tidal stream turbine and wave energy converter deployments at a significant scale ( > 100 kW capacity) respectively. Although the situation of some smaller scale ( < 100 kW) deployments has not been shown up, the recent development in western countries could be illustrated in a way. As shown in Fig. 1, the distribution is scattered in the first half of this period, but it is getting more and more concentrated in the last half. UK is largely the hub of tidal stream activity, which implies its ability to attract demonstration deployments have increased obviously. To date, there are several front-running industrial players, such as Marine Current Turbines −1.2 MW SeaGen device (Fig. 3), Andritz Hydro Hammerfest HS1000 device, Tidal Generation Limited Deep Gen device, etc. Simultaneously, Fig. 2 shows that UK and Portugal have the vast majority of wave energy deployments. In early time, the main form of WEC is onshore like Pico Wave Energy in Portugal. With the technology development, offshore WEC technology is getting more and more popular. Contributed a lot in both UK and Portugal deployment history, Pelamis is the first full-scale prototype generated electricity into UK national grid in 2004 and the first pre-commercial array tested at the Portuguese site from 2008 to 2009. Although it called in administrators in 2014, more forms of offshore WEC are getting deployed in test centers, such as Aquamarine Power Oyster, Wave Dragon, etc. Apart from these European countries, the deployments in others indicate the progress in American Continent, Asia and Oceania. As there is few large-scale WEC prototypes deployed in US, it is not included in Fig. 2 [9]. However, there is a great leap forward of WEC

2.2. Technology innovation In general, document and patent activities are taken as the access to the information of technology innovation. For policy makers, it helps to assess the effectiveness of different policy and make adjustments. For institute researchers, it helps to indicate the possible break through and innovative technologies. For industrial players, it helps to perceive the potential market activity.

Fig. 4. OPT PowerBuoy wave energy generation system (US). Adapted from [12].

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Fig. 5. Number of documents from 2001 to 2015 for ocean energy technology. Data obtained from Scopus.

Fig. 5 shows the number of documents from 2001 to 2015 for ocean energy technology. This data is obtained from Scopus database, and document type contains article, conference paper, book, etc. It's observed that the number of ocean energy technology is continually increasing year by year, coordinated with the rapid development of ocean energy. UK and US are keeping the top position over a decade, and a noted increase is shown for US after 2009, which is with respect to the effective policy incentive. As the patent application can indicate some trend and potential market, so many reports take it as an important index to measure industrialization of ocean energy [21]. In fact, patent activity is a mix of technology innovation and commercialization. Fig. 6 shows the number of patents of some western countries in 2013 on the base of data from IRENA. It is noted that UK and US have an outstanding performance, which sends a clear message on the leadership of ocean energy development.

public funding schemes for ocean energy, including the EPSRC SuperGen Consortium [25], Carbon Trust Technology Accelerators, Marine Renewables Proving Fund (MRPF), etc. Ireland financed Irish companies through the Prototype Development Funding. Besides, there are various policy incentives, such as feed-in tariffs, preferential tax and credits, production quotas, etc,. However, there is an evolution between development and policy. They have to seek those industry barriers [26] and solutions continuously.

2.3. Policy

3.1. Recent activities

National policy is critical for the emerging ocean energy industry to development. Sustained support is required to accelerate ocean energy [22]. To make a clear target, the western countries publish roadmap to set out the national commitment on wave and tidal stream development, which boosts the release of related policies. UK Renewable Energy Roadmap was published by DECC, and it keeps on update. Scotland's National Renewable Infrastructure Plan was published to establish renewable energy sector in Scotland [23]. Ireland SEAI released Ocean Energy Roadmap in 2010 [24]. Canada published Marine Renewable Energy Technology Roadmap in 2011. To promote technology innovation and stimulate potential market, western countries carry out a series of policy incentives. UK has many

The release of Renewable Energy Law in 2005 is a milestone in the history of Chinese renewable energy development. In the next decade, with the stimulation of related policies, a lot of ocean energy activities emerge one by one. This article tries to summarize the recent activities of China tidal stream and wave energy activities recent years.

3. What is going on in China As the second-largest energy consumer in the world, China is promoting to exploit its great potential of renewable energy to solve the energy crisis and reduce carbon emission. Tidal stream and wave energy are taken as one of ocean energy to get some promotion in this energy structure revolution.

3.1.1. Tidal stream energy 3.1.1.1. “Haineng” series. Under the financial aid of “863″ Program, Harbin Engineering University (HEU) uniting with a Shandong Electric Power Company (SDEPCI) developed a 2*150 kW tidal stream power plant “HainengⅠ”, which used the floating double vertical axis fourblade tidal stream turbines with the blade diameter of 4 m(Fig. 7(a)). In July 2012, “HainengⅠ” was deployed in Guishan channel, Daishan District, Zhejiang to take a 3-months sea test. With the support of ocean energy special fund in 2010, China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) developed the “500 kW ocean energy independent power demonstration project” in Zhaitang Island, Qingdao, Shandong. As one of important power-generating devices, “HainengⅡ” was a 2*100 kW floating horizontal-axis tidal stream power plant with the turbine diameter of 12 m(Fig. 7(b)). Sea test was carried out around Zhaitang Island in Nov 2013. Zhejiang Daishan Technology and Development Center and Gaoting Shipyard were approved to develop “2*300 kW Ocean Energy Independent Power-Generating System Demonstration Project” with financial aid of ocean energy special fund in 2010. According to [25], this 2*300 kW “HainengⅢ” vertical axis tidal stream device with the blade diameter of 6 m was developed mainly by HEU, and deployed about 40 m depth in Dec 2013, in Daishan sea area, Zhejiang(Fig. 7(c)).

Fig. 6. Number of patents in 2013 for tidal stream and wave energy technology. Data obtained from IRENA 2014.

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Fig. 7. “Haineng” series [27]. (a) 2*150 kW tidal stream power plant “HainengⅠ”(HEU & SDEPCI). (b) 2*100 kW horizontal axis tidal stream power plant “HainengⅡ”(HEU & CNOOC). (c) 2*300 kW vertical axis tidal stream device “HainengⅢ”(HEU & Gaoting Shipyard).

Fig. 8. 10 kW“HaimingⅠ”horizontal axis tidal stream device(HEU & HEC) [28].

3.1.1.2. “HaimingⅠ” horizontal axis tidal stream device. Designed by Harbin Engineering University (HEU), “HaimingⅠ”horizontal axis tidal stream device has two forms–one with guide hood and the other without guide hood. As shown in Fig. 8, the testing power plant was deployed in the channel of Daishan, Zhejiang in Sep 2011, and it is continued to generate power to date. Therefore, it is the first long-time demonstrating horizontal axis tidal stream power generating system with fixed base independently designed by China. Under the same special fund of ocean energy, HEU and Harbin Electric Corporation (HEC) have been taking further research on the development of this system.

Fig. 9. 20 kW device(NENU) [26].

3.1.1.3. Northeast Normal University (NENU) horizontal-axis turbine series. Since 2006, NENU has developed the horizontal-axis turbine supported by “863″ Program. In 2013, a 20 kW horizontal-axis tidal stream device was deployed in the channel of Zhaitang Island, Shandong. As shown in Fig. 9, the device with 4 blades is supported by four legs, and the technology of self-adaptive 180 degree reversing tail makes the blades rotating towards bidirectional flow, which avoids the wrap of cable. Based on the technology, HangZhou JiangHe HydroElectric Science & Technology Co., Ltd (HJHE) and NENU have started the construction of 2*150 kW horizontal-axis turbine stereotype with the support of 2013 special fund of ocean energy.

Fig. 10. 60 kW semi-direct-drive horizontal axis tidal stream turbine prototype(ZJU & GDUPC) [25].

type which obtained 8 national patents (Fig. 10). In May 2014, sea test was carried out in Zhairuoshan Island, Zhoushan, Zhejiang. According to [25], the maximum output reached 31.5 kW, and the transfer efficiency of the whole device is 0.371. United Power Technology Company built a national tidal and ocean energy technology key laboratory, which was accredited by National Energy Administration (NEA) in 2011. ZJU and this company established cooperation to jointly launch “Design and Manufacture of 2*300 kW Tidal Stream Turbine Prototype” project, which obtained the aid of ocean energy special fund in 2013. With the same support in 2010, Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University started the project of “Independent Power Generation System and Desalination System Based on Coupling of Tidal Stream Energy and Wave Energy for Island”. From July to

3.1.1.4. Zhejiang University (ZJU) tidal stream turbine series. With the support of NSFC (Nature Science Foundation of China) from 2005, ZJU have carried on a study of “underwater turbine”, which developed a 5 kW horizontal axis turbine and a 25 kW Stand-alone horizontal axis turbine one after another, and each of sea tests was carried out in May 2006 [29] and May 2009 [30,31] separately. In the support of ocean energy special fund in 2010, ZJU developed a 60 kW semi-direct-drive horizontal axis tidal stream turbine proto704

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Fig. 11. the device of power generation system and desalination system on coupling of tidal stream energy and wave energy(ZJU). Fig. 13. 100 kW horizontal axis tidal stream device “haiyuan” (OUC & CNOOC).

September 2013, the sea test was carried out in Shipu harbor, Xiangshan District, Ningbo, Zhejiang. As shown in Fig. 11, this device has floating catamaran type platform, with the horizontal axis tidal stream part deployed in the middle and wave buoys on both sides. The whole platform device is 14 m in overall length, 11 m in width, and 4.5 m in depth.

enterprises have involved with the research of tidal stream devices and the construction of demonstration project. Besides the companies mentioned before, there are also China Three Gorges Corporation (CTGPC), China LongYuan Power Group Corporation Limited (CLYPG), Shanghai Electric Group, etc.

3.1.1.5. Ocean University of China (OUC) tidal stream turbine series. With a grant from the 863 Program in 2006, Ocean University of China (OUC) developed a tidal stream conversion device with flexible material used in blades. A 5 kW vertical axis turbine prototype was taken a test in Zhaitang Island Channel in 2008 (Fig. 12). A floating moored system was used as a supporting structure, and it's shown that the turbine performed well [32].

3.1.2. Wave energy 3.1.2.1. Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion (GIEC) WEC series. With the pace of WEC development in the world, GIEC started to develop duck buoy wave power system since 2007. Several sea tests of 10 kW wave energy converter “Duck” were witnessed after 2009 (Fig. 15(a)). By ways of continuous adjustment and improvement, 100 kW wave energy converter “Duck” was invented and deployed successfully in the sea near Dawanshan Island, Zhuhai in April 2013 (Fig. 15(b)). During the test, the device continued to generate power on huge wave, and suspended on small wave.

In the “500 kW Ocean Energy Independent Power Demonstration Project” developed by CNOOC, a 100 kW horizontal axis tidal stream device “haiyuan” was developed by the same team in OUC (Fig. 13). The device with a height of 18 m and a turbine diameter of 10.5 m was deployed about 35 m depth around Zhaitang Island Qingdao to have a sea test in August 2013.

To enhance the performance, a combination of WEC “Duck” and semi-submersible barge motivated the invention of WEC “sharp eagle” technology with high efficiency and easy maintenance. With a grant from ocean energy special fund, GIEC carried out numbers of model tests based on the experience. The movement of the buoy matched waves very well, which helped to absorb wave and decrease diffraction to a large extent. Besides, a semi-submerged ship was used to be a carrier dragging the load and a stable buoy at working time, which decreased the operating costs effectively. In December 2012, 10 kW WEC “sharp eagle” was deployed in Wanshan Island to take a sea test (Fig. 15(c)). After stable performance of 10 kW WEC “sharp eagle”, GIEC and China Shipping Industry Co., Ltd.(CSGCIC) jointly took on the research and development of 100 kW WEC “sharp eagle” with the support from ocean energy special fund 2013. In July 2015, the new device 100 kW WEC “sharp eagle” –“Wanshan” was announced to finish the construction. As shown in Fig. 15(d), this device is 36 m in length, 24 m in width and 16 m in height in accordance with [34]. In November, it was deployed in Wanshan Island to take a sea test.

3.1.1.6. Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) tidal stream turbine. Since 2013, Shanghai Jiao Tong University started the research of horizontal axis tidal stream turbine. According to [34], to develop a tidal stream device with the diameter of 12.5 m and rated power of 250 kW, a tanking test was carried out in the towing tank, as shown in the Fig. 14. In conclusion, not only institutes and universities but also many

3.1.2.2. National Ocean Technology Center (NOTC) bottom-hinged flap WEC device. NOTC focused on the bottom-hinged flap technology. With the support of national Science and Technology Plan, NOTC developed a 100 kW bottom-hinged flap WEC device [36,37] and carried out a sea test around Daguan Island, Jimo, Qingdao, Shandong in 2012 (Fig. 16). The device was through the 12-level typhoon, and continued to output under tiny wave condition.

3.1.2.3. Shandong University (SDU) oscillating buoy WEC device. In November 2012, a 120 kW oscillating buoy WEC device was developed

Fig. 12. 5 kW Flexible vane turbine (OUC) [33].

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Fig. 14. horizontal axis tidal stream turbine model in a tanking test(SJTU).

fund in 2012, China Shipbuliding Industry Corporation 710 research institute (CSIC710) carried on the research and construction of “Dawanshan Island Wave Energy Independent Power-generating System Demonstration Project”. In this project, a 300 kW floating hydromantic WEC device–“HailongⅠ” was invented and deployed around the island, as shown in Fig. 18. This device is consisted of 4 floating cylinders and 3 connection parts with the total length of 86 m and the weight of about 400 t.

by SDU, and then the sea test was carried out around Hailv Island, Shandong [38]. As shown in Fig. 17, this device is 30.77 m in overall height, and about 93 t in weight in accordance with [25].

3.1.2.4. China Shipbuliding Industry Corporation 710 research institute (CSIC710) WEC device. Supported by ocean energy special

Fig. 15. GIEC WEC series (a) 10 kW wave energy converter “Duck” (GIEC) [35] (b) 100 kW wave energy converter “Duck” (GIEC) [25] (c) 10 kW WEC “sharp eagle” (GIEC) [25] (d) 100 kW WEC “sharp eagle” –“Wanshan” (GIEC & CSGCIC) [25].

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3.2. Evolution of tidal steam and wave energy development 3.2.1. Tidal stream energy To date, hydrokinetic turbines are generally classified as following types: horizontal-axis axial flow turbines, vertical-axis cross flow turbines, reciprocating device (such as oscillating hydrofoils) and ducted, shrouded, or Venturi-effect turbines, etc. Similar to the development of wind turbine, there is a trend to horizontal axis type. IRENA release a report, in which the proportion of horizontal and vertical axis turbines are 76% and 12% respectively to all existing tidal stream projects [10]. In an investigation of research initiatives, it shows that horizontal and vertical axis turbines account for 43% and 33%, respectively. It seems that both of them are still the main research focus in medium to long term [39]. In China, the origin of tidal stream energy dates back a long time. During the period of Great Leap Forward, a department of water and power in Guangzhou carried out a tidal stream test in 1958, in which the turbine diameter is 0.6 m. However, the generated power was only about 700 W. In the winter of the same year, Shandong Water Conservancy Research Institute carried out a test in Rongcheng, driving a 5 kW generator by two turbines fixed on two connected boats (diameter 0.8 m, length 2.78 m). However, due to the structure flaw, the output was less than 200 V at maximum flow 0.8–0.9 m/s [40]. In 1978, He Shijun, a farmer-entrepreneur from Dinghai District, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, made a tidal stream conversion testing in Xihoumen Channel, the device has two horizontal-axis turbines, generating 5.7 kW capacity at the velocity of 3 m/s [41]. Systematic study in universities and institutes started since early 1980s. An increasing number of institutes and companies got involved with the exploration of tidal stream technology after 2000, and the last few years witnessed an explosion that the number of related institutes and companies reached up to 50. The early exploration on tidal stream energy started with the vertical axis turbines by HEU. Their straightblade turbine of a 60 W prototype carried out a laboratory test in 1984. Based on the experience, then kilo-watt level devices were developed. In 2002, 70 kW vertical axis WanXiang I became the first floating moored tidal stream turbine. In 2005, WangXiang II was developed. It was a 40 kW fixed power plant with two straight-blade vertical rotors. From 2007–2009 witnessed a 250 kW floating vertical axis ocean current device. Coinciding with the development of the world, an increasing number of universities and research institutes went into the research of horizontal axis turbines. Since 2005, NENU developed a small floating horizontal axis device and took a sea test [42], and then a few lager scale horizontal axis type was developed. ZJU also devoted to the horizontal axis tidal turbine research. In 2005, a 5 kW horizontal axis tidal stream turbine was developed and taken a sea test.

Fig. 16. 100 kW bottom-hinged flap WEC(NOTC) [25].

Fig. 17. 120 kW oscillating buoy WEC device(SDU) [25].

3.2.2. Wave energy Compared with tidal stream technology, the maturity level of wave energy technology is relatively lower, so there is no obvious trend on WEC type. Generally, oscillating water columns (OWC), oscillating body converters and overtopping converters are three common categories [43]. And each category can be subdivided according to their characteristics. In China, the technical exploration of wave energy dates back to 1970s. Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion (GIEC) developed a 1 kW wave energy buoy and carried out a test around Shengshan Island, Zhejiang [44]. However, the rapid growth in wave energy development is seen after 1980s. From 1985–1987, a series of beacon lights utilizing the power generated by wave energy were invented and put into use. The year of 1989 witnessed the establishment of shoreline OWC power plant in Dawanshan Island, Zhuhai, Guangdong. As the first attempt, the output of 3 kW wasn’t ideal. Based on the experience, a 20 kW shoreline OWC power plant was established at the same spot. The project lasted for 3 years since 1992, withstanding typhoons a few

Fig. 18. “HailongⅠ” floating hydraumatic WEC device(CSIC710).

Besides the institutes and universities, an increasing number of enterprises have been expanding their business into wave energy market. There are not only the state-owned enterprises such as CSIC, CNOOC, China Huaneng Group (CHNG), but also some private and foreign enterprises. For example, in 2012, Israel S.D.E. Energy Ltd and Chinese company cooperated to export the second plant to Guangzhou, and the wave energy device can provide 150 kW power per hour.

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3.3.2. Renewable energy policies To meet the need on energy resources, renewable energy was developed since the beginning. However, a few of policies and strategies under the boundary of planning economy haven’t promoted the development of renewable energy effectively. To date, China's effort to develop renewable energy can be divided into three phases.

times. However, without common electric grid on the island, this power plant went closed after 3-months test. On the other side, the first floating wave energy device– a 5 kW OWC boat was developed during that period. In the five years from 1997 to 2002, a 100 kW shoreline OWC power plant was built in Guangdong Province. The main technology before 2002 is OWC technology. Apart from that, the main type of wave energy technology in China also includes pendulum technology and oscillating buoy technology [45,46]. Both of them are the subdivision of oscillating body converters. The research on pendulum technology started from 1992. An 8 kW pendulum device was built in Xiaomai Island, Jimo, Shandong in 1995. In 2001, the Ocean Technology Institute (renamed as NOTC now) deployed a 30 kW pendulous power plant in Daguan Island, Shandong [47]. The study of oscillating buoy technology started from 2002. After 4 years, a 40 kW shoreline oscillating buoy wave power plant was built in Shanwei, Guangdong. Due to the flexibility and other advantages, the floating WEC technology is getting increasingly concerned. Since 2009, GIEC developed a series of oscillating buoy WEC, such as “Duck”, “sharp eagle” WEC. NOTC focused on the bottom-hinged flap technology, and developed a 100 kW bottom-hinged flap WEC in 2012.

3.3.2.1. From 1949–1980. At the beginning of new China, ordinary energy resources are very inadequate. To make up this lack, small-scale water power, solar power, biogas digester and wind power have been developed. However, due to the lack of some effective support, this development of small-scale water power and biomass did not convert to some high-value technology.

3.3.2.2. From 1980s to 1990s. After realizing the importance of renewable energy, central government began to issue some policy. These policies can be divided into comprehensive policies, laws and fiscal policies. From 1980s to 1990s, some policies concerning renewable energy have been released during this period, as shown in Table 1. In 1982, the 6th Five-Year Plan proposed specific instructions on rural energy effectively. In 1990s, central government makes a general policy of “Adjusting measures to local conditions, complementing each other between multiple energy resources, comprehensive utilization, stressing efficiency”. Based on this principle, a series of development outlines, legal papers and economy incentives are increasingly formulated. The most outstanding is “Energy Saving Law” in 1997. With the implement of related policies and strategies, some consequence has shown up in the last ten years. However, the essential of these policies follows the planning economy frame, exposing the disability to match market economy requirements and ignorance of government's role in market economy later.

3.3. National policy Nowadays, there are still few specific policies for ocean energy in China. However, to develop renewable energy, China has formulated various policies during the last decade, which are expected to promote the development of ocean energy to some degree. Moreover, China is planning to draw up the ocean energy roadmap.

3.3.1. Management system Currently in China, State Oceanic Administration (SOA) directly charges the development of ocean energy, but it also has a relationship with National Energy Administration (NEA) as a renewable energy. State Oceanic Administration (SOA) takes charge of “comprehensive marine management, ecological environmental protection, construction of science and technology innovation system mechanism, optimization of marine affairs overall planning and comprehensive coordination mechanism to promote marine industry”. Science and Technology Department in NEA takes on the responsibility to draft marine technology development planning, technology standard and measurement standard, supervising the implementation and organizing investigation, etc [48]. National Energy Administration (NEA) takes charge of “drafting energy development strategy and supervise the implementation, formulating new resource and renewable energy policy and standard, and involvement in other policy related energy. Science and Technology Department in SOA takes on the responsibility to instruct new resource and renewable energy development, drafting water power, biomass energy and other new resource development strategy and supervise the implementation, National Ocean Technology Center (NOTC) is a public-benefit institution of State Oceanic Administration (SOA). At the end of 2010, NOTC established an ocean renewable energy development and utilization management center under the permission of SOA. This center takes on the responsibility of national ocean energy special fund management. In December 2013, China Association of Oceanic Engineering (CAOE) Ocean Renewable Energy Branch was established in Tianjin. This branch was proposed by NOTC, including 49 institutions and over 130 individual members involved with government, universities, research institutions and industries. The aim is to create an information exchange platform for different departments related to ocean energy to co-research on ocean energy policies, strategies and to coordinate ocean resource development.

3.3.2.3. After 2000. The next decade witnessed some large improvement on renewable energy development, especially wind energy. The year 2005 was considered to be a milestone in the process of renewable energy development. This law attempted to build a national framework for the development firstly, and targets about electricity market share of renewable energy were created. Some related departments issued and implemented concrete incentives successively, which leads to a leap on wind energy development. Table 2 shows a majority of policies about renewable energy in this decade. Although most of them is concerning about wind energy, solar energy and biomass which are more mature than ocean energy, a policy promotion frame is established. In recent years, the number of policies aiming at ocean energy is increasing, and the setout of laws and more fiscal policies shows the policy system is getting built. 3.3.3. Ocean energy roadmap Nowadays, China is planning to draw up the ocean energy roadmap, which mainly contains experiment part and normative analysis part. In the first part, the condition of tank test is redesigned based on the data of Chinese sea area. Corresponding to characteristic of Chinese ocean resource, the innovative experiment method and technology is developed. To take a deep research on the performance of ocean energy device, an effective monitor and measuring system is undertaken. In the second part, China is gathering the data and information of current domestic ocean energy development, and investigating on western countries standard and method. With a systematic analysis, the information suitable for Chinese characteristics is concluded and taken a further study. China is planning to formulate its own standard 708

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Table 1 A chronology of events concerning renewable energy from 1980 to 1999 in China. Year

Event

Sector involved

Category

1982

The 6th Five-Year Plan: Suggestions to Promote the Development of Rural Energy [49] Ten Strategies on China's Environment and Development [50] China Agenda 21 [51] Blue Paper No. 4: China Energy Technology Policy Outline of New and Renewable Energy Development in China (1996– 2010) [52] New and Renewable Energy Development Projects in Priority (1996– 2010) Electric Power Law National Energy Technology Policy The 9th Five-Year Plan and 2010 Plan of Energy Conservation and New Energy Development The 9th Five-Year Plan of Industrialization of New and Renewable Energy China Brightness Program and Ride the Wind Program [53] Energy Saving Law Provisional Regulations on New Energy Capital Construction Project Management Incentive Policies for Renewable Energy Technology Localization Further Support on Renewable Energy Development

State Council

Comprehensive policies

State Council State Council State Science and Technology Commission (SSTC) State Planning Commission (SPC); SSTC; State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC) SSTC; State Power Corporation; SETC

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies comprehensive policies

National People's Congress (NPC) SPC; SSTC; SETC State Power Corporation

Law Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies

SETC

Comprehensive policies

State Development Planning Commission (SDPC) NPC SDPC

Comprehensive policies Law Comprehensive policies

SDPC; Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) SDPC; MOST

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies

1992 1994 1995 1995 1995 1995 1996 1996 1996 1997 1997 1997 1998 1999

Comprehensive policies

Table 2 A chronology of events concerning renewable energy after 2000 in China. Year

Event

Sector involved

Category

2001 2001

The 10th Five-Year Plan of Energy Development [54] The 10th Five-Year Plan of New and Renewable Energy Commercialization Development Adjustment of Value-Added Tax for Some Resource Comprehensive Utilization Products The Renewable Energy Law Outline of National Plan for Medium and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2010) [55] Provisional Measures on Special Fund Management for Development of Renewable Energy [56] The 11th Five-Year Plan of Ocean Science and Technology Development

NEA; SDPC SETC

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies

Ministry of Finance (MOF); State Tax Administration

Fiscal policies

NPC State Council

Law Comprehensive policies

MOF

Fiscal policies

SOA; MOST; State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence (SASTIND); NSFC National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) NDRC

Comprehensive policies

MOST; NDRC

Comprehensive policies

NDRC NPC MOST State Council State Council NEA; NDRC SOA MOF; NDRC; NEA

Comprehensive Law Comprehensive Comprehensive Comprehensive Comprehensive Comprehensive Fiscal policies

State Council State Council

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies

SOA NDRC NDRC

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies Fiscal policies

NDRC; Ministry of Land and Resource of PRC(MLR); SOA SOA State Council NDRC MOF

Comprehensive Comprehensive Comprehensive Comprehensive Fiscal policies

2001 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2014 2014 2015

The 11th Five-Year Plan of Energy Development (2006–2010) Medium and Long-term Development Plan of Renewable Energy in China (2007–2020) International Science and Technology Cooperation Program on New and Renewable Energy The 11th Five-Year Plan of Energy Development Renewable Energy Law (revised version) The 12th Five-Year Plan of Science and Technology Development [57] The 12th Five-Year Plan for national strategic emerging industry development The 12th Five-Year Plan for national ocean economy development The 12th five-year plan of Renewable Energy Development [58] National Marine Functional Zoning The Provisional Measures for the Administration of Renewable Energy Electricity Price Extra Subsidy The 12th Five-Year Plan of Energy Development Medium and Long-term Development Plan of National Major Science and Technology Infrastructure Construction (2012–2030) [59] Science and Technology Priorities for 2013 [60] Temporary Management Methods for Distributed Generation Adjustment of Additional Standards on Renewable Energy Electricity Tariff Matters and Environmental Protection Electricity Tariff Matters [61] The 12th Five-Year Plan of National Ocean Business Development [62] Outline of Ocean Renewable Energy Development Plan (2013–2016) [63] Energy Development Strategic Action Plan (2014–2020) [64] National Plan on Climate Change (2014–2020) [65] Provisional Measures on Renewable Energy Development Special Funds Management

Comprehensive policies Comprehensive policies

policies policies policies policies policies policies

policies policies policies policies

(1) Analysis of western countries ocean energy device TRL standard. By analyzing the western countries ocean energy device TRL standard, China can learn the direct experience. With a combination of domestic characteristics and market requirements, China

system of technology readiness levels (TRL) with design standard, experiment standard and testing center assessment standard. Some detailed aspects are described below:

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representative sites in North America. The US Tidal current and wave potential were estimated at 400 TWh/year approximately, which was equal to about 10% of the national energy demand [75]. The estimated wave resource was found to be approximately 2100 TWh/year, and the power potential of tidal energy was estimated to be 6.6 TWh/year [76]. US Department of Energy's (DOE) Water Power Program is missioned to promote the development of renewable energy from water resources. As one of major focus areas, Resource Characterization is set to enhance understanding of ocean energy resources that can contribute to US energy needs. DOE established awards for the assessment of marine and hydrokinetic resources [77,78]. Due to the complex of vast marine area and variety of modeling methods, it is more common to take a regional study [79–84]. However, the resource of wave is definitely much more abundant than others in US, especially in Hawaii, Alaska, and the Pacific Northwest [85]. The coastline in China is about 18,000 km long, and this number is up to 32,000 km with all islands included. Along with this coastline, there are Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea one by one. To date, four times of ocean resource assessments totally are carried out.

can formulate its own TRL standard system. (2) Design standard of ocean energy device. To complete the industrialization of technology and export it to the world, it is quite important to standardize the design, manufacture, grid connection, environment assessment, etc. Therefore, the standardization should get concerned since the beginning of design. (3) Testing standard of ocean energy device. The process and method of test have a strong effect on the data quality, leading to different assessment result. A standardized test process and method are used to avoid some mistakes and improve the efficiency. (4) Method of resource assessment in demonstration center. Before the establishment of demonstration center, it is quite important to have a clear and full-scale assessment and recognition of environment and resource. To keep sustainable, demonstration center should have many kinds of testing zones meeting different device requirement. 4. Comparison

(1) The first is the national coastal tidal power resources assessment in 1958. According to the requirement of the national tidal power conference held by MOWE (the Ministry of Water and Electricity, 1958–1979) and CAS (Chinese Academy of Sciences) in Shanghai, all the departments of water and electricity in coastal provinces and cities finished the assessment, which is called the first national coastal tidal power resources assessment [86]. (2) From 1978–1985, the second national coastal tidal power resources assessment was carried out by PowerChina HuaDong Engineering Corporation and other hydropower investigation institutes in coastal area [87]. (3) Chinese rural coastal marine energy resources regionalization. From 1986–1989, State Oceanic Administration (SOA) No. 2 Ocean Institute and PowerChina HuaDong Engineering Corporation finished this marine energy resources regionalization, which is the first time resources regionalization including tidal stream and wave energy. According to the estimation of marine resource division in 1989, tidal stream resource is about 13.95 GW technically available in 130 channels. The theoretical average power of wave energy is 12.84 GW in the near shore [88]. However, some rich sea regions are excluded for the lack of measured data that time, and the data of Taiwan is estimated without verification of measured data. (4) “908 Special Program” was permitted by State Council in 2003, and implemented by SOA. The special program has three subjects: offshore ocean resource comprehensive survey (2004–2007), offshore ocean resource comprehensive assessment (2005–2008), and construction of offshore “digital ocean” information infrastructure (2005–2009).

In the last two parts, recent development in western countries is introduced generally. In order to make a clear comparison, the article chooses UK, Portugal and US as three representative countries to analyze from resource assessment, research & development, and policy aspects. 4.1. Resource assessment Table 3 shows the comparison among UK, Portugal, US and China in resource assessment. UK is widely recognized to have abundant wave and tidal resource. In the latest assessment in 2011 and 2012, it is estimated that UK has around 70 TWh/year of practically accessible wave resource [65] and 29 TWh/year of tidal resource [69,70], which give a total of 99 TWh/ year, up to 20% of the country's annual electricity consumption [71]. This study of tidal stream energy and wave resource are commissioned by Carbon Trust. Both of the studies use the concept of “total”, “technical” and “practical” resource. Having a very large exclusive economic zone, Portugal has a rich ocean energy resource. Unlike the relative balanced resource on tidal stream and wave in UK, the wave energy resource in Portugal is way better than tidal stream. Due to the oil crisis of 1973, the interest in wave power was aroused in 1990s. In the project “Utilization of Wave Power in Portugal” [72], the overall resource of continental coast is estimated at 10 GW mean, and the exploitable is nearly half. With the development of assessment method and wave power technology, the resource assessment is getting more and more specific [73,74]. US has great potential on ocean energy resource. From 2005–2006, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) was first to study Table 3 Comparison in resource assessment. Country

Tidal stream Energy

Wave Energy

Data Resource

UK

Theoretical around 95 TWh/year (which equals to a power output of 32 GW) practically and economically capture around 29 TWh/ year Low/not evaluated yet Theoretical resource：455 TWh/year; Technical resource: 222–334 TWh/year 13.95 GW The potential resource of key 99 channels: about 8.33 GW; Technically feasible capacity: about 1.66 GW.

Theoretical around 146 TWh/year

[66,67]

around 70 TWh/year of practically accessible

The latest assessment in 2011 and 2012 [5] Department of Energy: Resource Characterization [68] The material in 1989 “908 special program” (2004–2009)

Portugal US(50 states) China

Exploitable 14 TWh Theoretical resource： 1851 TWh/year; Technical resource: 899 TWh/year 12.84 GW The potential capacity of wave energy in the 20 km coastal area: about 16 GW; Technically feasible capacity: about 14.71 GW.

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of important breakthroughs since its establishment. Established in 2001, Carbon Trust is a non-profit organization funded by government. It contributes a lot on reducing carbon emission in UK. There are a number of universities and research institutes involved with the development of wave energy resources in Portugal, and many of them have a long histroy focus on this area. The Instituto Superior Técnico (IST) has begun the research on wave energy since 1978. With a few decades development, its areas contain modeling, controlling and testing for relative equipment in wave energy power plants. Another a long histroy institute, the Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Tecnologia e Inovação (INETI) has started in this field from 1983, and a multiple of research focus are undertaken, such as resource assessment, controlling, modeling, etc. And also, the non-profit organization WavEC contribute a lot. Established in 2003, this center provide support to development of wave energy in many aspects like technology, strategy. It also carried out a wide cooperation with the domestic and international partners, including IST, INETI, industrial and consulting companies. DOE Wind and Water Power Technologies Office (WWPTO) is the authorized institution to take research on ocean renewable energy, now it expands its ability to testing, evaluation, demonstration, etc. Sometimes, DOE supports ocean energy projects through its national laboratories, including National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Sandia National Laboratory (SNL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). These National laboratories make significant contribution on the technology advancement research and development activities, especially on the systematic and coordinated R & D activities. For example, NREL cooperated with SNL to develop a modeling tool for WEC (WECSim) [89]. PNNL developed a management system Tethys [90]. There are three important ocean energy research centers in US, Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (NNMREC), National Marine Renewable Energy Center in Hawaii (HINMREC) and Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center. These ocean energy research centers have a deep connection with universities, as many universities have respective expertise in wave and tidal energy. NNMREC is formed from Oregon State University and Washington University in 2008 [91]. HINMREC is led by University of Hawaii's Hawaii Natural Energy Institute. These centers play an active role in the cooperation with utilities, industrial partners and other research institutions. Besides, a number of organizations including the Oregon Wave Energy Trust, Pacific Northwest Economic Region, etc. are involving with ocean energy related projects. In general, China fundamental research tends to be concentrated in a few institutes in early stage. Harbin Engineering University and Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion take a leadership role in tidal stream technology and wave technology respectively. In recent decade, with an increasing number of national grants and findings,

Except for Taiwan, the offshore potential ocean renewable energy resource is 1.58 GW. It turns out that tidal stream resource is rich but uneven. The potential resource of key channels (99 channels) is about 8.33 GW, in which the technically feasible capacity is about 1.66 GW. Among coastal provinces, Zhejiang province has the richest capacity, about 5.17 GW, over the half of total potential capacity. The potential capacity of wave energy in 20 km coastal area is about 16 GW, in which the technically feasible capacity is about 14.71 GW. The distribution of wave energy resource is also uneven, much richer in the south. Compared with UK, Portugal and US, the hydrodynamic methodology in China needs to be continually improved. It is obvious that the potential resource condition of tidal stream and wave is close to the direction of technology development. Therefore, it is a vital factor to clarify the objective limits and to focus on the development of tidal stream and WEC device adapted to the unique resource in China. Except for the abundant area, small-scale but high power-generating efficiency device might have more market for China. 4.2. Research and development When analyzing the evolution of ocean energy development, it's noted that scientific community and testing sites are two key factors to put forward the technology. This article compares UK, Portugal, US and China in these two sides. 4.2.1. Scientific community Although some developers have achieved advanced levels of technology readiness, ocean energy technology is still not marketable. Scientific community is the main propellant of technical progress. Therefore, the number of the research and development unit involved in knowledge creation could show the status of research and development of tidal stream and wave energy in a way. Table 4 shows the number of important organizations in UK, Portugal, US and China. According to an assessment of ocean energy technology in Europe, UK is identified as a leader in the knowledge-creation process [19]. As shown in Table 4, the institutes on ocean energy field are quite many. Different institutes relatively focus on different specialization on research activities. For example, University of Southampton concentrates on tidal energy conversion, while Queen's University Belfast is on wave energy, and University of Plymouth is on costal/ environmental research. Apart from the universities, some private organizations and consultancy firms also contribute to technology innovation, such as Gharrad Hassan, Black & Veatch, etc. Notably, the not-for-dividend or non-profit makes a significant effect on the ocean development in UK. SuperGen Marine Energy Research Consortium operates with a structure of four core institutions in addition to a further seven associate universities, collaborating on a series of topics on ocean energy. This consortium has made a number Table 4 Number of important organizations on tidal stream and wave energy. Number

Representative organizations

UK

96

Portugal

Unknown

US

Unknown

China

Nearly 50

Southampton University, Edinburgh University, Strathclyde University, Oxford University, Plymouth University, Lancaster University; Gharrad Hassan, Black & Veatch, Itpower, Qinetic; SuperGen Marine Energy Research Consortium, Carbon Trust. Lisbon University; Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Tecnologia e Inovação (INETI); WavEC Offshore Renewables (former Wave Energy Center, WavEC) DOE's WWPTO, Naval Facilities Command (NAVFAC); National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL); Oregon State University, Washington University, Hawaii University's Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Connecticut University, Michigan University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Georgia Tech University, etc.; Oregon Wave Energy Trust, Ocean Research Advisory Panel (ORAP), Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Pacific Northwest Economic Region; Harbin Engineering University, Zhejiang University, Shandong University, Northeast Normal University, Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion; CNOOC, United Power, SDEPCI, Shanghai Electric, etc.

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Table 5 Tidal stream & wave energy test infrastructures in UK, Portugal, US and China.

UK

Wave

Portugal

Tidal Wave

US

Wave

Ocean Current and offshore thermal Wave China

Wave Tidal Comprehensive

Name

Description

Start date

EMEC EMEC- nursery Wave Hub FaB Test EMEC Pico Wave Energy Plant The Aguçadoura test center The Portuguese Pilot Zone (PZ) Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (NNMREC)– Pacific Marine Energy Center South Energy Test Site (PMEC-SETS) Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center (SNMREC) Hawaii National Marine Renewable Energy Center (HINMREC)– Wave Energy Test Site (WETS) National wave energy testing center in Zhuhai, Guangzhou National tidal stream energy testing center in Zhoushan, Zhejiang North national offshore comprehensive testing center in Weihai, Shandong

Full scale and part scale testing Nursery Array testing Nursery Full scale and part scale testing Grid-connected test center Grid-connected wave farm Grid-connected test center Grid-connected wave energy test facility

Small-Scale Ocean Current Turbine Test

2002 2011 2010 2011 2008 1999 2004 2010 The general site selection process was completed in January 2013 2010

firstgrid-connected wave energy test site

2014 onwards

Full scale sea test and demonstration

Under construction

Full scale prototype sea test

Under construction

Wave energy converter and tidal stream energy converter small-scale prototype sea test and assessment Nursery

Under construction

or eventually array test. In China, State Oceanic Administration (SOA) decides to build sea test facilities by Nation Ocean Technology Center (NOTC). By learning the experience of successful foreign test centers, NOTC make a strategy to develop sea-testing facilities based on the development status of wave and tidal stream energy technology. As shown in Table 5, three sea test centers are established. As a comprehensive sea test center, North national offshore comprehensive testing site in Weihai, Shandong is used to carry out model/ small-scale prototype sea test of wave and tidal stream devices and make assessment, with an aim of a nursery for ocean energy devices. As for the abundant resource of tidal stream in Zhoushan, Zhejiang, national tidal stream sea test center is set as a full-scale tidal stream sea test. Designed to have 3 test berths within the distance of 3 km off the shore, this center meets the requirement of rate power 1 MW device sea test. National wave energy sea test center is established in Zhuhai, Guangzhou, which has the richest wave energy resources in China. Especially, with a steady flow, the water off southern Dawanshan Island has no conflict with other sea utilizations. This wave energy sea test center will comprise a 300 kW demonstration site and a 300 kW test site. 3 test berths in test site have mooring system, AC/DC ports, working power supply system, cable and other auxiliaries, which satisfy many types of wave energy devices’ requirements. Compared with UK, the maturity level of sea test facilities in China is still lower. After having been operated EMEC and others for so many years, UK has rich experience on operation and management, and now it starts to move to a new phase with the pace of technology. Although Portugal established test center very early, its facilities on grid infrastructure is quite sufficient. In the establishment of new test center, it formed where it is positioned and cooperated with other test zones. US has been developing its sea site currently, but it has learned a lot of experiences from others, which help to take more far-sight measurement in the construction of sea facilities. By learning the advanced technology and method of management and operation, China will find a better way combining the characteristic of sea condition.

Northeast Normal University, Zhejiang University and other universities and research institutes devote into the research of ocean technology. According to preliminary statistics [30], the number of units involved with ocean energy research and development is nearly 50. Now the involved enterprises are largely stated-owned as shown in Table 4. As introduced in Section 3.3.1, the management system is just built up. More national, social and private resources will be devoted into the tidal stream and wave energy as the complement of management. Compared with UK, Portugal and US, the number of research institutes in China is still less, while the diversified initiatives on research activates side is far from enough. When it comes to innovation system, it is not enough to support the full development in ocean energy. Especially, some private organizations and consultancy firms should be involved with in technology innovation, to form a unique public-private partnership structure may benefit to develop more innovative technology incentives and programs. 4.2.2. Testing sites Table 5 shows a list of tidal stream and wave energy test infrastructures in UK, Portugal, US and China. UK has three national sea test facilities: EMEC, Wave Hub and FaB Test. EMEC is an experienced tidal and wave energy sites into grid, whilst Wave Hub is developed for array testing. Nursery test sites including FaB Test are developed to help reduce the risk, cost and time for developers. [92]. With the development of ocean energy technology, new testing facilities for further application have been developed in recent years. In Portugal, there is three test centers for wave energy: Pico wave energy plant, the Aguçadoura site, and the Portuguese Pilot Zone (PZ). Although some test centers are established very early (Pico wave energy plant was built in 1999), its grid connection is very completed. And grid facilities become a serious problem to many other countries. Learning experience from European testing facilities, US concludes their infrastructure requirements to solve the issues in the Roadmap [93]. There is an open water testing berth, a controllable water tank with the sufficient scale, and an oscillating drivetrain simulator. Besides, expandable grid connected test berths and other supporting systems like protocols, instrumentation and data collection methodologies are recommended strongly. The entire requirements help US testing facilities more sustainable to carry out TRL 7/8 demonstration

4.3. Policy Table 6 shows the comparison in target, market pull and technology push. 712

Technology push

Market pull

Target

Table 6 Policies comparisons.

713

Capital grants: (1) Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult (2) Marine Energy Array Demonstrator (MEAD) (3) Marine Renewables Commercialization Fund (MRCF) (4) ETI Marine Program (5) Wave and Tidal Energy: Research, Development and Demonstration Support fund (WATERS) [96].

(1) Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROC) program [98]. (2) Levy Exemption Certificates (LECs) (3) Saltire Prize (Scottish Government) (4) Revenue support through Banded Renewables Obligation R & D grants: (1) Supergen 2 (2) Technology Strategy Board Marine Energy Program

(1) 15% of energy from renewables by 2020 [94], 80% by 2050 [6]. (2) An installed capacity of 2 GW by 2020 from wave and tidal streams energy [95]. (3) Target levelised cost reduces to 10–20 p/kWh by 2020 and 5–8 p/kWh by 2050 [96]. Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS)

UK

Capital grants: (1) Agência de inovação SA PRIME (Incentives Program for the Modernization of Economic Activities).

R & D grants: (1) Foundation for Science & Technology (FCT) (2) Government enterprise within the Ministry of Economy and Innovation

Capital grants: (1) Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) (2) The Oregon Wave Energy Trust (3) DOE, in collaboration with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and the National Oceanographic Partnership Program: (4) Sea test sites.

(1) some incentives in renewable energy, but not expand to ocean energy yet (2) Investment Tax Credit: for eligible tidal projects. (3) Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency: compile states' incentives to support water power development. R & D grants: (1) Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Technology Transfer (STTR) programs (2) Wave Energy Prize

(1) Setting a basic Feed-in Tariff of €80/MWh for projects applicable to the first 20 years. (2) Older scheme suspended.

R & D grants: (1) Ocean energy special fund: (2) “863″ Program (3) National science and technology support plan (4) National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (5) China Renewable Energy Scale-Up Program (CRESP): Capital grants: (1) Several experiment test tanks. (2) 3 sea testing centers.

Feed-in Tariff in renewable energy currently, but to Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in the future (1) Renewable energy electricity price additional bonus. (2) Distributed electricity generation projects exemption Certificates

(1) Add the percentage of non-fossil fuels to over 15% by 2020 [63]. (2) Establish several plants with an installed capacity of 50 MW by 2015 from ocean energy.

(1) 25% of Fed. Govt. electricity consumption from RE by 2025. (2) No government target for MHK installation, only industry goal– at least 15 GW installed capacity by 2030 [91]. (3) MHK cost aims to be 12–15 cents/kWh by 2030 [97]. Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS)

(1) 31% of energy from renewables by 2020, not defined by 2050 [6]. (2) The installed capacity of tidal stream and wave energy devices turns to 250 MW by 2020 [6]. Feed-in Tariff

China

US

Portugal

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power system demonstration, industrialization demonstration, technology research and test, standard and supported service system. It has devoted about 1 billion until May 2015. Since 2006, China released some market incentives about renewable energy, including electricity price management, financial supplement, tax preferences, credit support, etc. However, most of incentives aimed at other renewable energy like wind power, solar power. There is few incentive specific to ocean energy industry. Currently, it seems that the finance and resource devoted on technology push is relatively more than that on market pull in the past. More market incentives will be issued with the maturity level increased. China has been collaborating with the international organization recent years. In 2006, representatives of China participated in meetings of the Executive Committee for the first time. In 2008, the IEA-OES Executive Committee officially invited China to become members. In 2011, National Ocean Technology Center signing entity shows that China became a member of OES. Nowadays, China is one of the most active North Pacific members.

UK set up a high target of installed capacity, and determined to reduce levelised cost [99]. Accompany with these target, a series of strategies on market pull and technology push are undertaken. UK takes Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) as market policy with the Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROC) program and marketable price as tools. Under the RPS mechanism, market implementation promotes the integration and configuration of resources, which results a more completive and efficient environment. In order to attract more students and young researchers to focus on ocean energy, a lot of fundings and exchange training opportunities were provided in many universities and institutes through initiatives like the EPSRC SuperGen Consortium. According to INORE, UK awarded 134 PhD scholarships by EU institutions since 2008, nearly 10 times of the second country. These significant initiatives on education have resulted in the rapid growth of ocean energy talents. Dates back to 2006, Portugal has approved the National Ocean Strategy for 2006–2016, taking ocean energy as one of the major factors in the development. After a few years’ implement, the National Ocean Strategy for 2013–2020 has been released to make an update and supplement. It identifies the areas of intervention and presents an action plan, “Mar-Portugal Plan”. In the market incentives aspect, Portugal has implemented a very high Feed-in Tariffs for a certain time, but it was suspended then. In 2015, the new support mechanism for wave energy is approved, setting a basic Feed-in Tariff of €80/MWh for projects applicable to the first 20 years. In research and development aspect, the Foundation for Science & Technology (FCT) is the main funding source for research and development of all scientific fields, including ocean energy. Besides, there is some support from a government enterprise within the Ministry of Economy and Innovation for technological innovation projects. In the aspect of international collaboration, UK, Portugal with Denmark are the first to join in the IEA-OES activity, and they make contribution on the development of the international organization [100]. In US, a few targets are issued in the roadmap by DOE, including lowering the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), combining cost and performance [101,102]. Aiming to the goal, US also makes a plan from the way of market acceleration and technology development. In the market policy, the government takes Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in renewable energy industry. Some incentives are listed in Table 6. However, the support of ocean energy development is limited currently. Though some federal incentives are leveraged to further ocean energy, a very few of ocean energy project get served due to the high requirement on capacity. Currently, only tidal stream energy technology has Investment Tax Credit. In the technology development aspect, research-related projects are supported through two main sources of funding: Congressional Appropriations and Congressionally Directed Projects (CDPs) with different grant mechanism. A few Marine Renewable Energy centers are founded, and multi-functioned facilities are built. Collaborated with the international organization closely, US establishes a database to assess environmental effects of ocean energy technology (OES ANNEX IV). By the sharing of project data and experience from participating member countries in OES ANNEX V [103], US is undertaking a consistent method to evaluate the performance and cost of converting systems. In the Energy Development Strategic Action Plan (2014–2020) set out by State Council of China, the aim is to add the percentage of nonfossil fuels to around 15% by 2020. China government issues a series of incentives to support ocean energy development. The most distinguished support is Ocean Energy Special Fund. Since 2010, State Oceanic Administration (SOA) and Ministry of Finance (MOF) appropriate special fund of ¥200 m every round to ocean energy development: independent and grid-connected

5. Discussion Nowadays, China is speeding up to reform energy consumption structure and accelerating the development of tidal stream and wave energy. Some improvement has been shown up, however, there is still a long way to commercialization. It is necessary to enhance the collaboration with the international and learn their experiences. With a comparison of technology development between China and some western countries, mainly UK, Portugal and US, these major elements have great effect on the development of tidal stream and wave energy industry. (1) Priority position and clear, specific targets. (2) Efficient and stable regulation. (3) Capital grant and facilities establishment. Within these three aspects, they broaden each to form the whole system, complementing more specific measures to develop research innovation, optimization of manufacture and deployment. 5.1. Priority position and clear, specific targets National focus is a precondition to develop a new industry. Only to take tidal stream and wave energy at a priority position in energy industry can there be a rapid growth. That's one of reasons why Europe is the pioneer of tidal stream and wave energy development compared with other countries. And the releasement of clear and specific targets shows the strong national ambition, accompany with a complete and systemic roadmap which the central and the local governments form a collaborative work mechanism. 5.2. Efficient and stable regulation Tidal stream and wave energy industry is still in the infant period when it needs an efficient and stable regulation to support. The efficiency needs a multi-direction and multi-level complex regulation system. The multi-direction means the different aspects: research innovation, manufacture and deployment. The multi-level means the different methods. For example, in the strategy of price stimulus, there are a few forms: fixed price, floating price, market price, green energy price, etc. And there are different forms of preferential tax, credit and export. In general, Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) and Feed-in Tariff (FiT) are two macro representative systems. On the other hand, the method on micro level have more obvious effect on specific management. For example, originated by NASA in the 1980s [104], Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) is a very effective method to reduce risk and evaluate technology maturity. Technical Services Team (TST) is a useful way to manage funded projects. The streamline regulation and information sharing will promote the efficiency of research innovation, manufacture and deployment definitely. 714

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5.3. Capital grant and facilities establishment Capital grant and facilities establishment is the hardware to develop tidal stream and wave energy. Capital grant is the most common measurement in renewable energy projects with a variety of forms where investment grant, production grant and consumer grant are the three used widely. Facilities includes different functional laboratories, sea test centers and grid connection which have a strong influence on manufacture and deployment of tidal stream and wave energy directly. All of these elements are unavoidable on the path of tidal stream and wave energy industrialization. With the development of internationalization process, many methods and measures could be learned from other countries’ experiences. However, there is always no shortcuts of simple copy-way. All development should be rooted in national condition. Currently, China should have a clear recognition for resources and conditions. For example, apart from the abundant area, some focus may be shifted to the development of smaller-scale but efficient devices. And China should fully improve the role function of government, industry, research institutes and universities. The government should set out clear targets of renewable energy and ocean energy and related legal assurance, and formulate a streamlined regulatory and planning process, and take effective incentives. The industry should establish industry standard with the involvement of authorities. According to the current circumstance of research institutes and universities, a few special ocean energy research centers should be formed to help overcome the hurdles in ocean energy technology. The development of tidal stream and wave energy is a long-term and complicated process, and it is delightful that China is taking some effective measures. Apart from the support of ocean energy special fund and the construction of test centers, China is planning to establish the support framework for the development of ocean energy. With more and more resources focused on this field, it is expected that tidal stream and wave energy will get a great leap forward in the future and make an important contribution to national energy. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Thousand Talents Program, National Natural Science Foundation of China (51479114), The platform construction of ocean energy comprehensive supporting service (2014) (GHME2014ZC01), High-tech Ship Research Projects Sponsored by MIIT– Floating Support platform project (201622). References [1] Edenhofer O, Madruga RP, Sokona Y, Seyboth K, Matschoss P, Kadner S, et al. Renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press; 2012. [2] Adcock TAA, Borthwick AGL, Houlsby GT. The Open Boundary Problem in Tidal Basin Modelling with Energy Extraction, In: Proceedings of the 9th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference. Southampton, UK; 2011. [3] Luo XY, Xia DW. Ocean renewable energy development and strategic research report. Beijing: Ocean Press; 2014, [in Chinese]. [4] Salter SH. Wave power. Nature 1974;249:720–4. [5] Magagna D, Uihlein A. Ocean energy development in Europe: current status and future perspectives. Int J Mar Energy 2015;11:84–104. [6] Henley S. Ocean Energy in Europe’s Atlantic Arc. March; 2013. [7] Pelc R, Fujita RM. Renewable energy from the ocean. Mar Policy 2002;26:471–9. [8] Portman ME. Marine renewable energy policy some US and international perspectives compared. Oceanography 2010;23(2):98–105. [9] Hassan GL. Market analysis report for the Pacific marine energy center South energy test site. Or Wave Energy Trust 2013. [10] Mofor L, Goldsmith J, Jones F. Ocean Energy: Technology Readiness, Patents, Deployment Status and Outlook. Abu Dhabi; 2014. [11] Li Y, Calışal SM. Modeling of twin-turbine systems with vertical axis tidal current turbines: part I—Power output. Ocean Eng 2010;37:627–37. [12] Yu Y-H, Li Y. Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulation of the heave performance of a two-body floating-point absorber wave energy system. Comput Fluids 2013;73:104–14. [13] Scottish Renewable: Marine Milestones Report. Scottish Renewables, Glasgow;

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