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Comparisons on 10 non-meat protein fat substitutes for low-fat Kung-wans
Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53 www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng
Comparisons on 10 non-meat protein fat substitutes for low-fat Kung-wans S.Y. Hsu *, Lung-Yueh Sun Graduate Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, P.O. Box 23-14, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC Received 19 October 2004; accepted 5 February 2005 Available online 29 March 2005
Abstract Non-meat proteins were used to replace pork fat in developing low-fat Kung-wans; an emulsified meatball. A one-way randomized complete block design was adopted for comparing two controls and 10 non-meat treatments. Results indicated that products made of whey protein concentrate had a higher cooking loss and moisture content and was less intense in yellowness than the other products. Products made of soybean products were adhesive, viscous and/or brittle, but were low in sensory acceptance on odor and taste. Products made of sodium caseinate or egg white powder were brittle but were not attractive in color/appearance. Products made of gelatin were hard, chewy and gummy, but were low in sensory acceptance on texture and color/appearance. Products made of skimmed milk powder were not hard, chewy, adhesive, gummy or viscous, but were superior in sensory acceptance on color/ appearance, odor, taste and texture to the other products and were the best in overall acceptance. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Low-fat emulsified meatball; Kung-wan; Non-meat proteins; Fat substitutes
1. Introduction Many research works have been done on applications of various non-meat proteins as protein supplements, ingredients, binders, extenders or fat/protein substitutes in emulsified meat products. Lemaire (1978) reported a textured soy protein concentrate incorporated in hamburgers to help the meat to hold its juices, retain its texture and to not develop mushiness during cooking. Ensor, Mandigo, Calkins, and Quint (1987) indicated that whey protein concentrate could provide a similar stability, textural, and sensory scores to soy protein isolate and calcium-reduced non-fat dry milk when used as binders in an emulsified sausage. Alvarez, Smith, Morgan, and Booren (1990) used a twin-screw extruder to restructure mechanically deboned chicken in combina*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 2 33664125; fax: +886 2 23620849. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.Y. Hsu). 0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.02.022
tion with three non-meat binders and reported that, at concentrations of 10–30%, soy protein isolate and wheat gluten were less effective than starch for increasing the apparent tensile stress and Warner Bratzler shear stress of the extruded products. Slavin (1991) indicated that soy flour, soy protein concentrate, and isolated soy protein were commonly used as ingredients and protein supplements in meat products. Ma, Yiu, and Khanzada (1991) reported that the substituted part of wiener batters with vital wheat gluten caused no significant decrease in cooking yield or texture and batters containing acidsolubilized gluten having a structure similar to all-meat batters. Atughonu, Zayas, Herald, and Harbers (1998) reported that sodium caseinate, soy protein isolate, whey protein concentrate, and wheat germ flour could be used as protein additives in comminuted meat products without adversely affecting their physical characteristics. Chin, Keeton, Miller, Longnecker, and Lamkey (2000) used soy protein isolate and konjac blends as fat replacements in low-fat bologna.
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S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
Nomenclature Hard
Cohe
Elas
Adhe
hardness (g); breaking force of the product at the first loading cycle in texture profile analyses cohesiveness; the ratio of storage work to total work in the second loading cycle in texture profile analyses elasticity; the ratio of storage deformation to total deformation in the second loading cycle in texture profile analyses adhesion (erg); the work needed to pull out the plunger from the sample specimen in the first unloading cycle in texture profile analyses
Brit
brittleness (g); the force decrease after the fracture point of the sample specimen in the first loading cycle in texture profile analyses Chew chewiness (g); breaking force · cohesiveness · elasticity Gumm gumminess (g); breaking force · cohesiveness Visc viscosity (g); the sticky force of the sample specimen on the plunger in the first unloading cycle in texture profile analyses Hunter-Lab Hunter-L, a and b values. The HunterL, a and b values of a standard white plate were 90.49, 0.38 and 3.53 respectively
Emulsified meatball, called ÔKung-wanÕ in Taiwanese, is a popular meat product in Taiwan and related Chinese communities. It is different from western style meatballs in its processing method and product properties. As shown in a previous report (Hsu & Chung, 1998), Kung-wansÕ quality characteristics were different from those of the other emulsified meat products. Consumers prefer tender and juicier frankfurters or sausages while they prefer harder and more elastic Kung-wans products. Although Kung-wans are popular, they are becoming a health concern of consumers because of high animal fat content. As part of a series of studies in developing low-fat Kung-wans, gum-hydrates (Hsu & Chung, 1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2001) or plant oils (Hsu & Yu, 2002, 2003a, 2003b) were used to replace pork fat in previous studies. Effects of non-meat proteins on quality characteristics and consumer acceptance of low-fat Kung-wans deserved further investigation. Therefore, various nonmeat proteins were adopted to replace pork fat in making low-fat Kung-wans. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of two controls and 10 different non-meat protein formulae on cooking yield, diameter, proximate compositions, texture, color and sensory qualities of the low-fat Kung-wans.
The processing conditions in Fig. 1 were chosen based on preliminary experiments and were not necessary optimal conditions for all formulae. A one-way completely randomized design (Anderson & McLean, 1974, Chap. 4) was adopted for this study. As shown in Table 1, the experimental design consisted of two controls and 10 non-meat protein formulae. The two controls were a high-fat control obtained by adding 25% pork back fat (CONF) and a low-fat control obtained by adding 10% pork back fat along with 15% water (CONT). CONF was adopted to simulate the regular commercial Kung-wan formula. CONT was adopted as low-fat Kung-wan for comparison purposes. Ten non-meat proteins included sodium caseinate (AlanateTM 180, NZMP (ING) Limited, Taiwan Branch, Tao
2. Materials and methods
Blended with pork back fat for 3 min.
Leg muscle tissues and back fat of market-size hogs were purchased from a local meat packer. The hogs were slaughtered and cooled in a 10 C cold room for one day before being cut and shipped to a pilot plant. The tissues were ground with a meat chopper fitted with a plate with 15-mm diameter holes. The ground meat was packaged in double plastic (Nylon/PE laminated film) bags, 1.0 kg each, and stored at 20 C until used within two months. The emulsified meatballs or Kung-wans were manufactured according to the processing scheme in Fig. 1.
1kg swine leg muscle tissue. Ground with a meat chopper with 0.5-cm holes. Ground with salt, sugar and phosphates, water and non-meat proteins in an ice-cooled grinder for 13 min.
Shaped into meatballs of 3.0 cm diameter or stuffed into sausage casing (Cellulose, 2.5 cm I.D.). Heated in 80 oC hot water for 20 min.
Water-cooled to room temperature.
Final product vacuum-packed in laminated film (Nylon/PE) bags. Fig. 1. Processing scheme of low-fat emulsified meatballs.
S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
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Table 1 Formulae of two controls and 10 different non-meat proteins for making low-fat Kung-wans Notation
Ingredients
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT EGGW GELA
High-fat control 1; added 25% pork back fat Low-fat control; added 10% pork back fat and 15% water Added 4% sodium caseinate, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% whey protein concentrate, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% skimmed milk powder, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean flour, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean protein isolate Supro 620, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean protein isolate Supro Ex32, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% texturized soybean protein, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% Viten/Vital wheat gluten, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% egg white powder, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% gelatin, 10% pork back fat and 12% water
The other ingredients were lean pork (100%), 2.5% NaCl, 4% sugar, and 0.3%, polyphosphates.
Yuan Hsian, Taiwan, ROC.) (CASS), whey protein concentrates (WPC High Gel, Sodiaal Industrie, Paris, France.) (WHEY), skimmed milk powder (NZMP (ING) Limited, Taiwan Branch, Tao Yuan Hsian, Taiwan, ROC.) (NFDM), soybean flour (Sunlight Foods Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (SOYF), an isolated soy protein known for good nutritional properties (Supro 620, Protein Technologies International, St. Louis, MO, USA.) (SOYC), another isolated soy protein known for good emulsifying properties (Supro EX 32, Protein Technologies International, St. Louis, MO, USA.) (SOYI), texturized soybean protein (Textured Soyproduct CM040, Cargill Foods Inc., Amsterdam, Netherlands.) (SOYT), wheat gluten (Viten/Vital Wheat Gluten, Roquette Fre`res, Lestrem, France.) (GLUT), gelatin (Gemfont Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (GELA), and egg white powder (Gemfont Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (EGGW). Whey protein concentrate, isolated soybean proteins, texturized soybean protein, and wheat gluten were purchased from the Gemfont Co. (Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.). Compositions of the other ingredients were fixed at 2.5% NaCl, 4% sugar, and 0.3% polyphosphates (which consisted of sodium polyphosphate and sodium pyrophosphate at 50/50 w/w ratio, Kamino Chem. Co. Inc., Osaka, Japan.). All percentages specified in these formulations used the hog muscle tissues as a basis. Three replications of each treatment combination were
randomly assigned to different meat samples. The total number of specimens was 36. SAS (SAS Institute Inc., 1988, Chap. 29) and SPSS (SPSS Inc., 1984) statistical packages were used for statistical analyses. Proximate compositions of the 10 non-meat proteins were adopted from their providers and are listed in Table 2. Cooking yields, moisture contents, crude lipid contents, crude protein contents, texture profile analyses indices and Hunter-Lab values of the Kung-wan products were measured according to the previous reports (Hsu & Chung, 1998; Hsu & Yu, 2002). Eight sensory panels based on a five-point hedonic scale also judged the color/appearance, odor, taste, textures and overall acceptance of each sample. A higher score signifies better preference. Product diameters were measured with a calipers while the product was kept in 80 C hot water (Fig. 1). The mean of two measurements was taken for each datum of cooking yield, diameter and proximate compositions, respectively. The mean of five measurements was taken for each texture profile analyses index and Hunter-Lab datum, respectively.
3. Results and discussion As shown in Tables 3–6, Kung-wans made of different control ingredients; namely 25% pork back fat
Table 2 Proximate compositions of non-meat proteins Non-meat proteins
Moisture (%)
Crude protein (%)
Crude lipid (%)
Ash (%)
Carbohydrates (%)a
Sodium caseinate Skimmed milk powder Whey protein concentrate Soybean flour Soybean protein isolate Supro 620 Soybean protein isolate Supro Ex32 Texturized soybean protein Viten/Vital Wheat gluten Egg white powder Gelatin
3.9 4.0 5.0 9.4 6.0 5.0 10.0 8.0 8.8 12.0
91.7 32.4 77.0 37.4 84.6 85.5 46.8 83.0 80.2 85.0
0.7 0.8 8.0 16.7 1.0 0.5 1.2 1.5 0.2 0.1
3.6 7.9 5.0 4.3 4.5 4.0 4.2 1 5.1 0.7
0.1 54.9 5.0 32.2 3.9 5.0 42.0 6.5 5.7 2.2
a
Calculated by difference.
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Table 3 Comparisons on cooking yield, diameter and proximate compositions of Kung-wans Treatment
Cooking yield (%)
Diameter (cm)
Moisture (%)
Crude lipid (%)
Crude protein (%)
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
99.79d 98.04e 101.81ab 98.63e 99.79d 99.50d 101.08c 101.25bc 99.83d 99.68d 99.92d 102.19a
3.02ab 3.02ab 3.04ab 2.93ab 3.10a 2.92b 3.06ab 3.00ab 2.98ab 2.98ab 3.02ab 3.05ab
61.34d 71.01a 68.93bc 69.42b 68.68bc 68.45bc 68.49bc 68.65bc 68.03c 68.11c 68.20c 69.06bc
17.51a 7.90bc 6.69d 8.10bc 8.39bc 7.64c 7.98bc 7.70c 8.63b 7.96bc 8.28bc 7.83c
16.02a 15.34a 17.84a 18.00a 18.05a 16.67a 16.68a 16.75a 16.40a 17.76a 17.16a 17.24a
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
not affect their color (Table 4), it could have made the CONT not as hard, chewy and gummy as the CONF (Table 5). This also resulted in lower cooking yields (Table 3) and inferior texture and overall acceptance of the CONT in sensory tests (Table 6). Similar results had been obtained in previous studies (Hsu & Chung, 1999; Hsu & Yu, 2002), where 20% and 10%, respectively, of water were added. Low-fat Kung-wans made of non-meat proteins had slightly more proteins and were similar in sizes as the controls (Table 3). Products made of skimmed milk (NFDM) were larger than those made of soybean flour (SOYF) (Table 3). High lipid and low protein concentrations of soybean flour (Table 2) could have resulted in smaller SOYF. Although skimmed milk powder also contained a low amount of proteins, its carbohydrate concentration was the highest among the non-meat proteins (Table 2). This could have resulted in a large diameter of the NFDM. It was noted that although crude protein concentrations in soybean protein isolates were higher than those in skimmed milk powder, soybean flour or texturized soybean protein (Table 2), crude
Table 4 Comparisons of Hunter-Lab color indicies of Kung-wans Treatment
Hunter-L
Hunter-a
Hunter-b
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
69a 68a 70a 66a 69a 70a 70a 69a 68a 69a 67a 70a
3.38a 3.09a 3.88a 3.08a 2.98a 3.49a 2.93a 2.89a 3.18a 2.98a 3.41a 3.32a
10.16abc 9.62bc 10.55abc 9.40c 10.20abc 11.06a 11.01a 10.44abc 11.03a 10.71ab 11.08a 10.70ab
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
(CONF) or 10% pork back fat along with 15% water (CONT), differed significantly in many quality attributes. The low-fat control (CONT) had a higher moisture but lower lipid concentrations than the high-fat control (CONF) (Table 3). Although the difference did
Table 5 Comparisons of texture profile analyses indices of Kung-wans Treatment
Hard
Adhe
Brit
Visc
Cohe
Elas
Chew
Gumm
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
594bc 470d 676ab 627abc 612bc 545cd 662ab 671ab 619abc 666ab 716a 586bc
183cde 151e 247abcd 248abc 176de 221abcde 195bcde 280a 264ab 211abcde 174e 218abcde
310e 368de 724a 501abcde 510abcde 395cde 639abc 451bcde 680ab 567abcd 554abcde 638abc
121cd 100d 140abc 155ab 115cd 111cd 130bc 162a 155ab 132bc 99d 135abc
0.8239ab 0.7884b 0.8131ab 0.8387ab 0.8314ab 0.7959ab 0.8318ab 0.8398ab 0.8313ab 0.8362ab 0.8149ab 0.8574a
0.9525a 0.9091a 0.9544a 0.9686a 0.9553a 0.9521a 0.9284a 0.9468a 0.9558a 0.9440a 0.9589a 0.9572a
323ab 210c 332ab 336ab 286b 296ab 292ab 323ab 314ab 337ab 364a 298ab
339ab 223c 349ab 347ab 299b 310ab 315ab 340ab 329ab 357ab 380a 311ab
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
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Table 6 Comparisons of sensory quality indices of Kung-wans Treatment
Color
Odor
Taste
Texture
Acceptance
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
3.49abc 3.53ab 2.90d 3.46abc 3.47abc 3.41abc 3.86a 3.11bcd 3.17bcd 3.43abc 2.17e 2.99cd
3.43abcd 3.38abcd 3.48abcd 3.14bcd 3.67a 3.29abcd 3.19abcd 3.01cd 2.99d 3.18abcd 3.50abc 3.58ab
3.31ab 3.06b 3.53ab 3.59ab 3.69a 3.33ab 3.00b 3.10ab 3.06b 3.25ab 3.20ab 3.49ab
3.81ab 2.55d 3.23abcd 3.17abcd 3.97a 3.03bcd 3.40abcd 3.38abcd 3.47abc 3.54abc 3.73ab 2.83cd
3.70ab 2.81d 3.66ab 3.38abcd 3.97a 3.22bcd 3.19bcd 3.12bcd 3.38abcd 3.48abc 3.39abcd 2.96cd
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
protein contents of their products did not have any significant difference (Table 3). This could be due to a low level (4%) of the non-meat proteins being added and binding properties of the proteins could be different. As shown in Table 3, lipid contents of all products containing non-meat proteins were less than 9%. CASS had a lower lipid content than the other products probably due to high protein, low lipid and low carbohydrate concentrations of sodium caseinate (Table 2). Moisture contents of all non-meat products were in between those of CONF and CONT. WHEY had a higher moisture content than SOYT, GLUT and GELA (Table 3). EGGW, CASS, SOYI and SOYC had a higher cooking yields than the other products. WHEY had the highest cooking loss and the highest moisture content among the non-meat products (Table 3). This indicated that more solid components in WHEY had been dissolved and depleted in the cooking solution during the cooking process. High lipid and low carbohydrate concentrations of the whey protein concentrate (Table 2) could have caused these results. As shown in Table 4, the brightness and the red hue (Hunter-a value) of the Kung-wans did not significantly differ from one another. WHEY did not appear to be as intense in yellowness as SOYF, SOYC, SOYT, GLUT, GELA and EGGW. This could be due to a higher moisture concentration and cooking loss of the WHEY than the others (Table 3). Chin, Keeton, Longnecker, and Lamkey (1999) showed that replacing 4% of meat protein in a low-fat bologna formulation with pre-hydrated soy protein isolate resulted in increasing yellowness, but decreasing redness of the product. As shown in Table 5, cohesiveness and elasticity of the Kung-wans were low and there was no significant difference between different non-meat protein containing products. GELA was significantly harder than NFDM, SOYF and EGGW, and was significantly chewier and gummier than NFDM. SOYI and SOYT were signifi-
cantly more adhesive than NFDM and GELA. CASS and SOYT were significantly more brittle than SOYF. SOYI, SOYT and WHEY were significantly more viscous than NFDM, SOYF and GELA. GELA appeared to be the most hardy, chewy, gummy, but the least adhesive and viscous product. CASS, SOYT, SOYC, and EGGW were relatively brittle. SOYI and SOYT were relatively adhesive and viscous. WHEY was relatively viscous. NFDM was relatively not hardy, chewy, gummy, adhesive and viscous. Many factors could affect textural properties of the Kung-wan products. For examples, types, quantities and qualities of the proteins in the non-meat proteins, interactions of the proteins with the other components in the raw materials, such as lipid, carbohydrate, moisture, salt, sugar and polyphosphates. Processing conditions, such as grinding and heating, could also affect formation and stability of the emulsified products. Further studies are needed to investigate the effects of these factors and their interactions on textural properties of the Kung-wan products. As shown in Table 6, sensory panels gave the highest preference scores on product color and appearance to SOYC and below-average scores (i.e. < 3.00) to EGGW, CASS and GELA. NFDM and EGGW smelled better than SOYI and SOYT probably due to sensory panelsÕ preferences for milk and egg odors over soybean flavor. NFDM also tasted better than SOYC and SOYT probably due to a similar reason. EGGW had a below-average acceptance score (< 3.00) probably due to its inferior texture and color. Sensory scores in texture of NFDM were superior to that of SOYF and EGGW. Sensory panelsÕ overall acceptance on NFDM was significantly better than SOYF, SOYC, SOYI and EGGW. The overall acceptance score of NFDM was higher than the highlipid control (CONF) although not to a statistically significant level (p < 0.05). Soy products were known to modify color and develop off-flavor in meat products. Miller, Davis, Seideman,
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S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
Wheeler, and Ramsey (1986) extended beef bullock restructured steaks with soy protein or wheat gluten and reported that the blends had a high incidence of off-flavor and had less desirable visual properties than control blends. Wang and Zayas (1992) incorporated soy flour, soy concentrate and corn germ protein flour in the formulations of frankfurters. They reported that the products had lower cooking losses than the control and had no differences in their texture and color. However, atypical aroma and flavor profiles increased in frankfurters with soy flour extension. Homco-Ryan et al. (2004) studied the effects of modified corn gluten meals on quality characteristics of a model emulsified meat product. They reported that all corn gluten meal (CGM)-based substances contributed the same degree of CGM off-odor intensity, but significantly lowered pork odor intensity when compared to soy protein isolate (SPI)-containing products and controls. SPI and all CGM-based substances increased grain-like odor. They also indicated that Visual off-color was apparent in all meat products containing CGMbased substances. Instrumental color evaluation indicated that products containing CGM-based substances were lighter, more yellow colored than control and SPI-containing products. However, sensory denseness, springiness and cohesiveness, and texture profile analyses of the meat products were not affected. It has been reported that texture appeared to be the most important characteristic of Kung-wans and consumers prefer a harder texture (Hsu & Chung, 1998). It has also been shown that too hard a texture could have negative effect on sensory qualities of Kung-wans (Hsu & Yu, 2002). The current results indicated that NFDM had better sensory qualities (Table 6) even though it was not as hardy, chewy, gummy, adhesive and/or viscous as the other products (Table 5). The results not only coincided with previous observations on texture but also indicated that odor and taste of raw materials, such as milk, egg white and soybeans, could also significantly affect Kung-wansÕ sensory qualities and their overall acceptance. In summary, low-fat Kung-wans made of whey protein concentrate were high in cooking loss and moisture content and were less intense in yellowness. Products made of soybean materials were more adhesive, viscous and/or brittle, but less favorable in odor and taste than the other products. Products made of sodium caseinate or egg white were brittle but were not attractive in color and appearance. Products made of gelatin were hard, chewy and gummy, but were not attractive in sensory texture and color/appearance. Products made of skimmed milk powder were not hard, chewy, adhesive, gummy or viscous, but were superior in sensory color/ appearance, odor, taste and texture to the other products and obtained the best overall acceptance from the sensory panels.
Acknowledgment The National Science Council of the ROC Government had funded this study (Project no. NSC-89-2214E-002-075).
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Comparisons on 10 non-meat protein fat substitutes for low-fat Kung-wans S.Y. Hsu *, Lung-Yueh Sun Graduate Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, P.O. Box 23-14, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC Received 19 October 2004; accepted 5 February 2005 Available online 29 March 2005
Abstract Non-meat proteins were used to replace pork fat in developing low-fat Kung-wans; an emulsified meatball. A one-way randomized complete block design was adopted for comparing two controls and 10 non-meat treatments. Results indicated that products made of whey protein concentrate had a higher cooking loss and moisture content and was less intense in yellowness than the other products. Products made of soybean products were adhesive, viscous and/or brittle, but were low in sensory acceptance on odor and taste. Products made of sodium caseinate or egg white powder were brittle but were not attractive in color/appearance. Products made of gelatin were hard, chewy and gummy, but were low in sensory acceptance on texture and color/appearance. Products made of skimmed milk powder were not hard, chewy, adhesive, gummy or viscous, but were superior in sensory acceptance on color/ appearance, odor, taste and texture to the other products and were the best in overall acceptance. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Low-fat emulsified meatball; Kung-wan; Non-meat proteins; Fat substitutes
1. Introduction Many research works have been done on applications of various non-meat proteins as protein supplements, ingredients, binders, extenders or fat/protein substitutes in emulsified meat products. Lemaire (1978) reported a textured soy protein concentrate incorporated in hamburgers to help the meat to hold its juices, retain its texture and to not develop mushiness during cooking. Ensor, Mandigo, Calkins, and Quint (1987) indicated that whey protein concentrate could provide a similar stability, textural, and sensory scores to soy protein isolate and calcium-reduced non-fat dry milk when used as binders in an emulsified sausage. Alvarez, Smith, Morgan, and Booren (1990) used a twin-screw extruder to restructure mechanically deboned chicken in combina*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 2 33664125; fax: +886 2 23620849. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.Y. Hsu). 0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.02.022
tion with three non-meat binders and reported that, at concentrations of 10–30%, soy protein isolate and wheat gluten were less effective than starch for increasing the apparent tensile stress and Warner Bratzler shear stress of the extruded products. Slavin (1991) indicated that soy flour, soy protein concentrate, and isolated soy protein were commonly used as ingredients and protein supplements in meat products. Ma, Yiu, and Khanzada (1991) reported that the substituted part of wiener batters with vital wheat gluten caused no significant decrease in cooking yield or texture and batters containing acidsolubilized gluten having a structure similar to all-meat batters. Atughonu, Zayas, Herald, and Harbers (1998) reported that sodium caseinate, soy protein isolate, whey protein concentrate, and wheat germ flour could be used as protein additives in comminuted meat products without adversely affecting their physical characteristics. Chin, Keeton, Miller, Longnecker, and Lamkey (2000) used soy protein isolate and konjac blends as fat replacements in low-fat bologna.
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Nomenclature Hard
Cohe
Elas
Adhe
hardness (g); breaking force of the product at the first loading cycle in texture profile analyses cohesiveness; the ratio of storage work to total work in the second loading cycle in texture profile analyses elasticity; the ratio of storage deformation to total deformation in the second loading cycle in texture profile analyses adhesion (erg); the work needed to pull out the plunger from the sample specimen in the first unloading cycle in texture profile analyses
Brit
brittleness (g); the force decrease after the fracture point of the sample specimen in the first loading cycle in texture profile analyses Chew chewiness (g); breaking force · cohesiveness · elasticity Gumm gumminess (g); breaking force · cohesiveness Visc viscosity (g); the sticky force of the sample specimen on the plunger in the first unloading cycle in texture profile analyses Hunter-Lab Hunter-L, a and b values. The HunterL, a and b values of a standard white plate were 90.49, 0.38 and 3.53 respectively
Emulsified meatball, called ÔKung-wanÕ in Taiwanese, is a popular meat product in Taiwan and related Chinese communities. It is different from western style meatballs in its processing method and product properties. As shown in a previous report (Hsu & Chung, 1998), Kung-wansÕ quality characteristics were different from those of the other emulsified meat products. Consumers prefer tender and juicier frankfurters or sausages while they prefer harder and more elastic Kung-wans products. Although Kung-wans are popular, they are becoming a health concern of consumers because of high animal fat content. As part of a series of studies in developing low-fat Kung-wans, gum-hydrates (Hsu & Chung, 1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2001) or plant oils (Hsu & Yu, 2002, 2003a, 2003b) were used to replace pork fat in previous studies. Effects of non-meat proteins on quality characteristics and consumer acceptance of low-fat Kung-wans deserved further investigation. Therefore, various nonmeat proteins were adopted to replace pork fat in making low-fat Kung-wans. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of two controls and 10 different non-meat protein formulae on cooking yield, diameter, proximate compositions, texture, color and sensory qualities of the low-fat Kung-wans.
The processing conditions in Fig. 1 were chosen based on preliminary experiments and were not necessary optimal conditions for all formulae. A one-way completely randomized design (Anderson & McLean, 1974, Chap. 4) was adopted for this study. As shown in Table 1, the experimental design consisted of two controls and 10 non-meat protein formulae. The two controls were a high-fat control obtained by adding 25% pork back fat (CONF) and a low-fat control obtained by adding 10% pork back fat along with 15% water (CONT). CONF was adopted to simulate the regular commercial Kung-wan formula. CONT was adopted as low-fat Kung-wan for comparison purposes. Ten non-meat proteins included sodium caseinate (AlanateTM 180, NZMP (ING) Limited, Taiwan Branch, Tao
2. Materials and methods
Blended with pork back fat for 3 min.
Leg muscle tissues and back fat of market-size hogs were purchased from a local meat packer. The hogs were slaughtered and cooled in a 10 C cold room for one day before being cut and shipped to a pilot plant. The tissues were ground with a meat chopper fitted with a plate with 15-mm diameter holes. The ground meat was packaged in double plastic (Nylon/PE laminated film) bags, 1.0 kg each, and stored at 20 C until used within two months. The emulsified meatballs or Kung-wans were manufactured according to the processing scheme in Fig. 1.
1kg swine leg muscle tissue. Ground with a meat chopper with 0.5-cm holes. Ground with salt, sugar and phosphates, water and non-meat proteins in an ice-cooled grinder for 13 min.
Shaped into meatballs of 3.0 cm diameter or stuffed into sausage casing (Cellulose, 2.5 cm I.D.). Heated in 80 oC hot water for 20 min.
Water-cooled to room temperature.
Final product vacuum-packed in laminated film (Nylon/PE) bags. Fig. 1. Processing scheme of low-fat emulsified meatballs.
S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
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Table 1 Formulae of two controls and 10 different non-meat proteins for making low-fat Kung-wans Notation
Ingredients
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT EGGW GELA
High-fat control 1; added 25% pork back fat Low-fat control; added 10% pork back fat and 15% water Added 4% sodium caseinate, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% whey protein concentrate, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% skimmed milk powder, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean flour, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean protein isolate Supro 620, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% soybean protein isolate Supro Ex32, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% texturized soybean protein, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% Viten/Vital wheat gluten, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% egg white powder, 10% pork back fat and 12% water Added 4% gelatin, 10% pork back fat and 12% water
The other ingredients were lean pork (100%), 2.5% NaCl, 4% sugar, and 0.3%, polyphosphates.
Yuan Hsian, Taiwan, ROC.) (CASS), whey protein concentrates (WPC High Gel, Sodiaal Industrie, Paris, France.) (WHEY), skimmed milk powder (NZMP (ING) Limited, Taiwan Branch, Tao Yuan Hsian, Taiwan, ROC.) (NFDM), soybean flour (Sunlight Foods Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (SOYF), an isolated soy protein known for good nutritional properties (Supro 620, Protein Technologies International, St. Louis, MO, USA.) (SOYC), another isolated soy protein known for good emulsifying properties (Supro EX 32, Protein Technologies International, St. Louis, MO, USA.) (SOYI), texturized soybean protein (Textured Soyproduct CM040, Cargill Foods Inc., Amsterdam, Netherlands.) (SOYT), wheat gluten (Viten/Vital Wheat Gluten, Roquette Fre`res, Lestrem, France.) (GLUT), gelatin (Gemfont Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (GELA), and egg white powder (Gemfont Co., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.) (EGGW). Whey protein concentrate, isolated soybean proteins, texturized soybean protein, and wheat gluten were purchased from the Gemfont Co. (Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.). Compositions of the other ingredients were fixed at 2.5% NaCl, 4% sugar, and 0.3% polyphosphates (which consisted of sodium polyphosphate and sodium pyrophosphate at 50/50 w/w ratio, Kamino Chem. Co. Inc., Osaka, Japan.). All percentages specified in these formulations used the hog muscle tissues as a basis. Three replications of each treatment combination were
randomly assigned to different meat samples. The total number of specimens was 36. SAS (SAS Institute Inc., 1988, Chap. 29) and SPSS (SPSS Inc., 1984) statistical packages were used for statistical analyses. Proximate compositions of the 10 non-meat proteins were adopted from their providers and are listed in Table 2. Cooking yields, moisture contents, crude lipid contents, crude protein contents, texture profile analyses indices and Hunter-Lab values of the Kung-wan products were measured according to the previous reports (Hsu & Chung, 1998; Hsu & Yu, 2002). Eight sensory panels based on a five-point hedonic scale also judged the color/appearance, odor, taste, textures and overall acceptance of each sample. A higher score signifies better preference. Product diameters were measured with a calipers while the product was kept in 80 C hot water (Fig. 1). The mean of two measurements was taken for each datum of cooking yield, diameter and proximate compositions, respectively. The mean of five measurements was taken for each texture profile analyses index and Hunter-Lab datum, respectively.
3. Results and discussion As shown in Tables 3–6, Kung-wans made of different control ingredients; namely 25% pork back fat
Table 2 Proximate compositions of non-meat proteins Non-meat proteins
Moisture (%)
Crude protein (%)
Crude lipid (%)
Ash (%)
Carbohydrates (%)a
Sodium caseinate Skimmed milk powder Whey protein concentrate Soybean flour Soybean protein isolate Supro 620 Soybean protein isolate Supro Ex32 Texturized soybean protein Viten/Vital Wheat gluten Egg white powder Gelatin
3.9 4.0 5.0 9.4 6.0 5.0 10.0 8.0 8.8 12.0
91.7 32.4 77.0 37.4 84.6 85.5 46.8 83.0 80.2 85.0
0.7 0.8 8.0 16.7 1.0 0.5 1.2 1.5 0.2 0.1
3.6 7.9 5.0 4.3 4.5 4.0 4.2 1 5.1 0.7
0.1 54.9 5.0 32.2 3.9 5.0 42.0 6.5 5.7 2.2
a
Calculated by difference.
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Table 3 Comparisons on cooking yield, diameter and proximate compositions of Kung-wans Treatment
Cooking yield (%)
Diameter (cm)
Moisture (%)
Crude lipid (%)
Crude protein (%)
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
99.79d 98.04e 101.81ab 98.63e 99.79d 99.50d 101.08c 101.25bc 99.83d 99.68d 99.92d 102.19a
3.02ab 3.02ab 3.04ab 2.93ab 3.10a 2.92b 3.06ab 3.00ab 2.98ab 2.98ab 3.02ab 3.05ab
61.34d 71.01a 68.93bc 69.42b 68.68bc 68.45bc 68.49bc 68.65bc 68.03c 68.11c 68.20c 69.06bc
17.51a 7.90bc 6.69d 8.10bc 8.39bc 7.64c 7.98bc 7.70c 8.63b 7.96bc 8.28bc 7.83c
16.02a 15.34a 17.84a 18.00a 18.05a 16.67a 16.68a 16.75a 16.40a 17.76a 17.16a 17.24a
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
not affect their color (Table 4), it could have made the CONT not as hard, chewy and gummy as the CONF (Table 5). This also resulted in lower cooking yields (Table 3) and inferior texture and overall acceptance of the CONT in sensory tests (Table 6). Similar results had been obtained in previous studies (Hsu & Chung, 1999; Hsu & Yu, 2002), where 20% and 10%, respectively, of water were added. Low-fat Kung-wans made of non-meat proteins had slightly more proteins and were similar in sizes as the controls (Table 3). Products made of skimmed milk (NFDM) were larger than those made of soybean flour (SOYF) (Table 3). High lipid and low protein concentrations of soybean flour (Table 2) could have resulted in smaller SOYF. Although skimmed milk powder also contained a low amount of proteins, its carbohydrate concentration was the highest among the non-meat proteins (Table 2). This could have resulted in a large diameter of the NFDM. It was noted that although crude protein concentrations in soybean protein isolates were higher than those in skimmed milk powder, soybean flour or texturized soybean protein (Table 2), crude
Table 4 Comparisons of Hunter-Lab color indicies of Kung-wans Treatment
Hunter-L
Hunter-a
Hunter-b
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
69a 68a 70a 66a 69a 70a 70a 69a 68a 69a 67a 70a
3.38a 3.09a 3.88a 3.08a 2.98a 3.49a 2.93a 2.89a 3.18a 2.98a 3.41a 3.32a
10.16abc 9.62bc 10.55abc 9.40c 10.20abc 11.06a 11.01a 10.44abc 11.03a 10.71ab 11.08a 10.70ab
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
(CONF) or 10% pork back fat along with 15% water (CONT), differed significantly in many quality attributes. The low-fat control (CONT) had a higher moisture but lower lipid concentrations than the high-fat control (CONF) (Table 3). Although the difference did
Table 5 Comparisons of texture profile analyses indices of Kung-wans Treatment
Hard
Adhe
Brit
Visc
Cohe
Elas
Chew
Gumm
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
594bc 470d 676ab 627abc 612bc 545cd 662ab 671ab 619abc 666ab 716a 586bc
183cde 151e 247abcd 248abc 176de 221abcde 195bcde 280a 264ab 211abcde 174e 218abcde
310e 368de 724a 501abcde 510abcde 395cde 639abc 451bcde 680ab 567abcd 554abcde 638abc
121cd 100d 140abc 155ab 115cd 111cd 130bc 162a 155ab 132bc 99d 135abc
0.8239ab 0.7884b 0.8131ab 0.8387ab 0.8314ab 0.7959ab 0.8318ab 0.8398ab 0.8313ab 0.8362ab 0.8149ab 0.8574a
0.9525a 0.9091a 0.9544a 0.9686a 0.9553a 0.9521a 0.9284a 0.9468a 0.9558a 0.9440a 0.9589a 0.9572a
323ab 210c 332ab 336ab 286b 296ab 292ab 323ab 314ab 337ab 364a 298ab
339ab 223c 349ab 347ab 299b 310ab 315ab 340ab 329ab 357ab 380a 311ab
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
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Table 6 Comparisons of sensory quality indices of Kung-wans Treatment
Color
Odor
Taste
Texture
Acceptance
CONF CONT CASS WHEY NFDM SOYF SOYC SOYI SOYT GLUT GELA EGGW
3.49abc 3.53ab 2.90d 3.46abc 3.47abc 3.41abc 3.86a 3.11bcd 3.17bcd 3.43abc 2.17e 2.99cd
3.43abcd 3.38abcd 3.48abcd 3.14bcd 3.67a 3.29abcd 3.19abcd 3.01cd 2.99d 3.18abcd 3.50abc 3.58ab
3.31ab 3.06b 3.53ab 3.59ab 3.69a 3.33ab 3.00b 3.10ab 3.06b 3.25ab 3.20ab 3.49ab
3.81ab 2.55d 3.23abcd 3.17abcd 3.97a 3.03bcd 3.40abcd 3.38abcd 3.47abc 3.54abc 3.73ab 2.83cd
3.70ab 2.81d 3.66ab 3.38abcd 3.97a 3.22bcd 3.19bcd 3.12bcd 3.38abcd 3.48abc 3.39abcd 2.96cd
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different, p < 0.05, n = 3.
protein contents of their products did not have any significant difference (Table 3). This could be due to a low level (4%) of the non-meat proteins being added and binding properties of the proteins could be different. As shown in Table 3, lipid contents of all products containing non-meat proteins were less than 9%. CASS had a lower lipid content than the other products probably due to high protein, low lipid and low carbohydrate concentrations of sodium caseinate (Table 2). Moisture contents of all non-meat products were in between those of CONF and CONT. WHEY had a higher moisture content than SOYT, GLUT and GELA (Table 3). EGGW, CASS, SOYI and SOYC had a higher cooking yields than the other products. WHEY had the highest cooking loss and the highest moisture content among the non-meat products (Table 3). This indicated that more solid components in WHEY had been dissolved and depleted in the cooking solution during the cooking process. High lipid and low carbohydrate concentrations of the whey protein concentrate (Table 2) could have caused these results. As shown in Table 4, the brightness and the red hue (Hunter-a value) of the Kung-wans did not significantly differ from one another. WHEY did not appear to be as intense in yellowness as SOYF, SOYC, SOYT, GLUT, GELA and EGGW. This could be due to a higher moisture concentration and cooking loss of the WHEY than the others (Table 3). Chin, Keeton, Longnecker, and Lamkey (1999) showed that replacing 4% of meat protein in a low-fat bologna formulation with pre-hydrated soy protein isolate resulted in increasing yellowness, but decreasing redness of the product. As shown in Table 5, cohesiveness and elasticity of the Kung-wans were low and there was no significant difference between different non-meat protein containing products. GELA was significantly harder than NFDM, SOYF and EGGW, and was significantly chewier and gummier than NFDM. SOYI and SOYT were signifi-
cantly more adhesive than NFDM and GELA. CASS and SOYT were significantly more brittle than SOYF. SOYI, SOYT and WHEY were significantly more viscous than NFDM, SOYF and GELA. GELA appeared to be the most hardy, chewy, gummy, but the least adhesive and viscous product. CASS, SOYT, SOYC, and EGGW were relatively brittle. SOYI and SOYT were relatively adhesive and viscous. WHEY was relatively viscous. NFDM was relatively not hardy, chewy, gummy, adhesive and viscous. Many factors could affect textural properties of the Kung-wan products. For examples, types, quantities and qualities of the proteins in the non-meat proteins, interactions of the proteins with the other components in the raw materials, such as lipid, carbohydrate, moisture, salt, sugar and polyphosphates. Processing conditions, such as grinding and heating, could also affect formation and stability of the emulsified products. Further studies are needed to investigate the effects of these factors and their interactions on textural properties of the Kung-wan products. As shown in Table 6, sensory panels gave the highest preference scores on product color and appearance to SOYC and below-average scores (i.e. < 3.00) to EGGW, CASS and GELA. NFDM and EGGW smelled better than SOYI and SOYT probably due to sensory panelsÕ preferences for milk and egg odors over soybean flavor. NFDM also tasted better than SOYC and SOYT probably due to a similar reason. EGGW had a below-average acceptance score (< 3.00) probably due to its inferior texture and color. Sensory scores in texture of NFDM were superior to that of SOYF and EGGW. Sensory panelsÕ overall acceptance on NFDM was significantly better than SOYF, SOYC, SOYI and EGGW. The overall acceptance score of NFDM was higher than the highlipid control (CONF) although not to a statistically significant level (p < 0.05). Soy products were known to modify color and develop off-flavor in meat products. Miller, Davis, Seideman,
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S.Y. Hsu, L.-Y. Sun / Journal of Food Engineering 74 (2006) 47–53
Wheeler, and Ramsey (1986) extended beef bullock restructured steaks with soy protein or wheat gluten and reported that the blends had a high incidence of off-flavor and had less desirable visual properties than control blends. Wang and Zayas (1992) incorporated soy flour, soy concentrate and corn germ protein flour in the formulations of frankfurters. They reported that the products had lower cooking losses than the control and had no differences in their texture and color. However, atypical aroma and flavor profiles increased in frankfurters with soy flour extension. Homco-Ryan et al. (2004) studied the effects of modified corn gluten meals on quality characteristics of a model emulsified meat product. They reported that all corn gluten meal (CGM)-based substances contributed the same degree of CGM off-odor intensity, but significantly lowered pork odor intensity when compared to soy protein isolate (SPI)-containing products and controls. SPI and all CGM-based substances increased grain-like odor. They also indicated that Visual off-color was apparent in all meat products containing CGMbased substances. Instrumental color evaluation indicated that products containing CGM-based substances were lighter, more yellow colored than control and SPI-containing products. However, sensory denseness, springiness and cohesiveness, and texture profile analyses of the meat products were not affected. It has been reported that texture appeared to be the most important characteristic of Kung-wans and consumers prefer a harder texture (Hsu & Chung, 1998). It has also been shown that too hard a texture could have negative effect on sensory qualities of Kung-wans (Hsu & Yu, 2002). The current results indicated that NFDM had better sensory qualities (Table 6) even though it was not as hardy, chewy, gummy, adhesive and/or viscous as the other products (Table 5). The results not only coincided with previous observations on texture but also indicated that odor and taste of raw materials, such as milk, egg white and soybeans, could also significantly affect Kung-wansÕ sensory qualities and their overall acceptance. In summary, low-fat Kung-wans made of whey protein concentrate were high in cooking loss and moisture content and were less intense in yellowness. Products made of soybean materials were more adhesive, viscous and/or brittle, but less favorable in odor and taste than the other products. Products made of sodium caseinate or egg white were brittle but were not attractive in color and appearance. Products made of gelatin were hard, chewy and gummy, but were not attractive in sensory texture and color/appearance. Products made of skimmed milk powder were not hard, chewy, adhesive, gummy or viscous, but were superior in sensory color/ appearance, odor, taste and texture to the other products and obtained the best overall acceptance from the sensory panels.
Acknowledgment The National Science Council of the ROC Government had funded this study (Project no. NSC-89-2214E-002-075).
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