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Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh
Environmental Development ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
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Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh Asif Ishtiaque a,n, Netra Chhetri b a b
School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, COOR Hall 5643-D, 975 S Myrtle Ave., Tempe, AZ 85287, USA School for the Future of Innovation in Society, Arizona State University, Interdisciplinary B 366, 1120 S. Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history: Received 4 February 2016 Received in revised form 15 June 2016 Accepted 15 June 2016
Commercial shrimp aquaculture began in coastal Bangladesh in the late 1970s and now represents the second-largest export sector after garments in the nation. Hailed as harbinger of a blue revolution that could lift the people out of poverty and food insecurity, shrimp aquaculture has exploded across the Sundarban of southwest Bangladesh. This rapid expansion threatens the natural mangrove ecosystem, particularly across the vulnerable coastal region. To ensure protection of the Sundarban, the government of Bangladesh devised two landmark policies: the Forest Act (1927) and the Forest Policy (1994). Envisioning shrimp as an important foundation of the country's economic growth, the government of Bangladesh also formulated the National Shrimp Policy in 2014. While, in the strictest sense, these policy instruments are designed to protect the Sundarban, multiple loopholes and sweeping approaches make it virtually impossible to attain the intended outcomes. This is further compounded by the country's focus on commercial shrimp farming. Our paper reveals the disconnect between the Forest Policy and Forest Act by showcasing the Chakaria case, where thousands of hectares of mangrove forests have been destroyed due to commercial shrimp farming despite the policy tools in place. We further discuss the existing sweeping approaches and loopholes in the Forest Policy (1994) and Shrimp Policy (2014). & 2016 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
Keywords: Forest Policy Forest Act Shrimp Policy Sundarban Chakaria Bangladesh
1. Introduction Mangrove forests represent one of the most diverse and dynamic ecosystems of the world (Hogarth 2007). Approximately 15.2 million hectares mangrove forest, found in the tropics and subtropics (FAO 2007), provide important ecosystem services including the protection of coastal land from tidal waves, coastal erosion, and storms. Unfortunately mangrove forests around the world are under severe stress - at least 23% of mangrove forests were lost in the past two decades (Giri et al., 2011). The remaining forests are under constant threat from various human activities at or near the forest, such as agriculture, aquaculture, and logging (Mayaux et al., 2005, Blasco et al., 2001). The world's largest contiguous mangrove forest, the Sundarban, is no exception. The Sundarban forest - in the delta of the rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna - is shared between Bangladesh ( 60%) and India ( 40%) (Iftekhar and Islam, 2004) (Fig. 1). This tidal forest plays an exceptional role in the economy and
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Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Ishtiaque), [email protected] (N. Chhetri).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006 2211-4645/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 1. Sundarban mangrove forest is located at the southwest corner of Bangladesh. Three districts- Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat encompass this 6000 square kilometer mangrove forest.
ecology of the southwest region of Bangladesh (Fig. 2). Home to the rare Royal Bengal Tiger, it is rich in floral and faunal biodiversity. Approximately 300þ species of flora (IUCN-BANGLADESH, 2001; Hussain and Acharya, 1994); 165 types of algae (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006); 13 types of orchids (Dey, 2001); 964 species of invertebrates, 400 fish species, 58 reptile species, and 8 amphibian species (Akonda, 2002; Naskar and Mandal 1999); 290 species of birds and 40 species of mammals (Choudhury and Choudhury, 1994) and 15–20 species of migratory birds are found here. Beyond extraordinary biodiversity, the Sundarban provides vital ecosystem services to the region. Acting as a buffer against powerful cyclones and tsunamis, the forest protects the shoreline and inland settlements. With an annual average sequestration of 4.8 Mt CO2, Bangladesh part of Sundarban alone impounds about 10% of Bangladesh's carbon emissions (MEF-FD, 2011). It is also a direct source of livelihoods for approximately 300,000 people (Deb, 2001). For example, specialized groups such as bawali (wood collectors), mawali (honey collectors), chunari (snail, crab collectors), kathkurani (drywood collectors), jele (fishermen), and sutar (boat makers) have developed survival skills that are reliant on the forest. Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 2. The economic roles of the Sundarban mangrove forest.
Additionally, three mills and factories, as well as boat industries, rely on the Sundarban for their raw materials (Dey, 2001; Vannucci 2002). As mandated by the Bangladeshi government, these factories are required to follow extraction-regeneration techniques, i.e. planting of new trees after the removal of old trees. Recognizing the importance of the biological richness and ecosystem services to society, UNESCO declared 1397 square km (13%) of the Sundarban a World Heritage Site in (WCMC, 2001) in 1997. At the onset of British colonization in 1757 about 20 thousands sq. km. of the Sundarban mangrove forest was reported. The urgency of expanding arable land to produce food for a growing population prompted widespread clearance that reduced the mangrove forest by half within a century (Blasco 1977). To stop further deforestation, the Sundarban was declared as a reserve forest by the colonial government under the ‘Forest Policy 1894’ and ‘Forest Act 1927’. Since the introduction of these two landmark policies, the Sundarban has been hypothetically protected (Giri et al., 2007, Datta & Deb 2012). While the Forest Act has not been amended since its introduction in 1927, the Forest Policy has undergone several changes resulting in a widening gap between policy and act. The apparent disconnect between the Forest Policy and Act has allowed the government to clear forests for agriculture or aquaculture. The Chakaria mangrove forest, the second largest patch of mangroves located in the southeast corner of Bangladesh, illustrates the worst of it. This 8510 ha of manmade forest was declared as a reserve forest in 1903. However, in 1977 the government of Bangladesh opened the forest for commercial shrimp farming. With a guaranteed loan from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank (WB), the government of Bangladesh had converted the entire forestland into shrimp ponds by 1995 (Hossain et al., 2001; Gain, 2002). With the worthwhile goal of eradicating widespread hunger and generating export revenue, the Sundarban mangrove forest of southwest Bangladesh became a haven for commercial shrimp farms (Alam et al., 2005; Pokrant 2006; Paul and Vogl, 2011). The consequences of extended shrimp farms on the forest include: (a) loss of forest biodiversity due to excessive capture of wild shrimp fry (BOBP 1990, Hoq, 1999); (b) poor growth of mangrove forests due to the discharge of polluted water from commercial shrimp farms (Alam et al., 2007; Paul and Vogl, 2011; Chakraborty and Mukherjee 2013); (c) overall deterioration of the mangrove ecosystems due to the construction of upstream barrages and the resultant reduced flow of freshwater; and (d) increased salinity and water pollution due to the use of chemicals for intensive shrimp culture. The destruction of Chakaria mangrove forest took place despite the fact that both the Forest Policy (1979) and Forest Act (1927) were in place along with the new Forest Policy (1994). Yet, in 2014 the government of Bangladesh devised another policy the ‘National Shrimp Policy’ with the stated goal of maintaining balance between shrimp production and environmental consequences. Given that none of the policy tools designed to protect the mangrove forests have had any meaningful result, skepticism abounds with regard to the actual value of policy and governance in Bangladesh. An analysis of the literature on Bangladesh's forest policy leads to a number of insights. For example, Roy et al. (2012) argue that the depletion of the Sundarban mangrove forest is driven by lack of clarity of property rights in the 1994 Forest Policy. In their policy paper, Sadath and Krott (2012), distinguish between substantive and symbolic forest policies and highlight that most of the recent polices are symbolic. Chowdhury et al. (2009a, (2009b) also reveal weak links between conservation and commercial exploitation whereby the emphasis was tilted on the later. They accentuate the importance of collaborative management with inputs from local people. Muhammed et al. (2008) suggest that another reason for the destruction of mangrove forest in Bangladesh is the extremely long time lag between the formulation of policy and its implementation and argue that the government has inadequate institutional support to adopt internationally derived forest policies. Regarding forest management policies in Bangladesh, why do well-designed policies fail to realize their intended goals? What weaknesses are inherent in those policies? In this paper we explore and discuss some of the loopholes and sweeping approaches of existing policy tools. Most importantly we discuss how the commercial shrimp farming took precedence over the conservation of mangrove forests despite the rhetoric on sustainability and environmental conservation embedded in Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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the policies. Loopholes in policies are often ambiguous and may carry multiple meanings that stakeholders can manipulate for their own benefit. For example, “sustainable use” and “commercial exploitation” of forests are rarely compatible. Stakeholders interested in commercial shrimp farming can have less interest in the sustainability of the forest. The sweeping approaches are those that only provide broad guidelines and lack specificity. Existence of a sweeping approach makes the policy difficult to execute while the existence of a loophole grants the misuse of policy. While reviewing the underlying discrepancies between the Forest Policy (1979) and Forest Act (1927), the following sections identify some of the loopholes and sweeping approaches in these policy tools.
2. Chakaria mangroves: an illustration of discrepancies between policy and action Historically, far-reaching political changes have always been at the heart of forest policy in Bangladesh. With the sole objective of managing the public forests as sources of revenues for the state, British India issued two landmark forest policies: The ‘Forest Policy 1894′ and the ‘Forest Act 1927′.1 Both documents emphasized agriculture over forestry and allowed forest clearance for agricultural purposes (Mustafa, 2002). After the partition in 1947, Bangladesh was recognized as East Pakistan; the Pakistan government negated the 1894 act and formulated new forest policy twice- in 1955 and 1962. With its emphasis on habitat protection and wildlife conservation, the Forest Policy (1955) was considered to be conservation friendly, although the responsibility for forest management was placed solely with the government. This changed with the revised Forest Policy (1962), which stressed intensive management of forest for commercial purposes. The first National Forest Policy of independent Bangladesh was devised in 1979 (Gazette Notification No. 1/For-1/77/345, 8 July 1979). Aimed at preserving forests, this policy restructured the forest department, designated national forests, optimized resource extraction, and established new, forest-based industries. The positive aspects of this policy were inclusion of forest research and training, large-scale plantation (with the participation of local communities), and conservation education. Despite these positive aspects, the policy was largely contradictory. On the one hand, it promoted new forestbased industries, but on the other, it aimed to optimize resource extraction and use without consideration of social and ecological outcomes. It is our contention that the directives designed to protect the forest may have provided the impetus for the loss of mangrove forest in Bangladesh, including the destruction of Chakaria mangrove forest. Not only is there a difference between the Forest Policy (1979) and the Forest Act (1927), they are in contention with each other. The Forest Act gives the government the utmost control over the forest, allowing it to maintain a strong and centralized system. According to the Forest Policy, forests are not to be commercially exploited for industries, but they are to conserve soil and the environment, and meet the subsistence requirements of the local people. The Forest Policy gives higher priority to environmental stability than to earning revenue. The Forest Act contained several loopholes such that government could claim forestland for economic development; those loopholes allowed indiscriminate destruction of the Chakaria forest (Table 1). Permission for commercial shrimp development to proceed in critical mangrove habitats has undermined the safeguarding of mangrove forests. Chakaria forest destruction began when the multilateral development banks (MDBs) started to push governments to promote commercial shrimp farming for the global market due to a crisis in the country's balance of payment following the oil price hike in the 1980s. The WB and ADB focused on black tiger shrimp, as it had high demand in US and European markets. In 1977, 2251 ha of Chakaria mangrove forest were converted into a shrimp pond; another 694 ha were converted in 1982 with a loan from the ADB (Hossain et al., 2001). During this period, ADB helped establish 100 shrimp farms, each 11 acres in size, and built a 16-km embankment (Gain, 2002). Further destruction of the Chakaria forest began when the WB initiated a brackish water shrimp culture project in 1985 (Project ID: P009446). The WB and UNDP provided $26.5 million to Bangladesh for this project. About 3600 ha of Chakaria forest was leased primarily to outside investors based on the highest bidding price. The remaining portion of the forest was leased out in 1995–1996 for areal extension of shrimp farming (see Figs. 3 and 4).
3. Loopholes and lack of specificity in policies The Forest Policy of 19942 is different from the 1979 policy because it facilitated a proposed Master Plan for Forestry Development, formulated in 1993, with the assistance from ADB and UNDP. With emphasis on social forestry, reforestation, women and tribal participation, and agro-forestry, this revised policy advocated for public and private participation in 20% of country's land. This was in a sharp contrast to earlier forest policy (1979), which simply mimicked colonial administration and excluded people from forest governance. While the 1955 and 1979 forest policies are credited with a few good outcomes (e.g. forest co-management, wildlife conservation, habitat protection, training of officials), both policies disregarded the value of engaging with local communities for forest conservation. By decoupling the forest from surrounding communities these policies perpetuated the command and control approach. For this reason the 1994 Forest Policy is seen as a welcome 1 2
Forest Act 1927 is available here: http://www.bforest.gov.bd/site/page/34672edf-43c6-41d1-9451-bc904408b118/Forest-Act-1927. The Forest Policy 1994 is available here: http://www.bforest.gov.bd/.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Table 1 Loopholes in Forest Act 1927. The Forest Act 1927 No right shall be acquired in or over reserve forest except by succession or under a grant or contract…. …and no fresh clearings for cultivation or for any other purpose shall be made in reserve forest except in accordance with government rules. Section 23 No right of any description shall be acquired in or over a reserved forest except by succession or under a grant or contract. Section 32(a) Government may make rules to regulate the cutting, sawing, conversion and removal of trees and timber, and the collection, manufacture and removal, of forest-produce, from protected forests. Section 32(g) Government may make rules to regulate the clearing and breaking up of land for cultivation or other purposes in such forests. Section 5
Fig. 3. Land Use Change in Chakaria in hectares (1974–2012). More than 6000 ha of mangrove forests are cleared; agricultural lands were diminished to place the shrimp farms and later the salt pans (Adapted from: Rahman and Hossain 2015).
Fig. 4. Evolution of the Forest Policy of Bangladesh.
addition to the management and conservation of forests. Some of the ambitious aspects of this revised policy include the reforestation of denuded hills and open spaces in urban areas, eco-tourism, optimum forest resource extraction, and other positive changes. While the newer forest policies of Bangladesh (e.g. 1979 and 1994) featured strong language, the resulting actions and outcomes on the ground were not as expected. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1998) analyzed the implementation of the 1979 and 1994 forest policies and found that: a) natural forests were not managed in an environmentally sound manner; b) little improvement was seen in harvesting and processing technology; c) forest-based industrial development stagnated; and d) wildlife conservation and forest recreation potential were neglected, and there was no active participation of people in the governance of the forest as planned. The ‘Forest Act 1927′ and ‘The Forest Policy 1979′ did not protect the mangrove forests from annihilation. Along with the ‘Forest Act 1927′ and the ‘Forest Policy 1994′, Bangladesh now has the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′.3 If divergences in the forest policy and act remain, it is likely that Sundarban would experience the same fate as the Chakaria forest. Fearing the unrestrained development of the shrimp industry, we have identified the sweeping approaches and potential loopholes of the ‘Forest Policy 1994′ (Table 2) and the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′ (Table 3). Despite having some novel effective guidelines, the 1994 Forest Policy consists of several sweeping approaches. As shown in Table 2, it includes a wide scale urban afforestation program generalizing the specific target areas, pollution level, or population density. The policy also contains ambiguous guidelines which need strong institutional capacity to implement. Something that is not present at the moment. We also have identified some potential loopholes in the policy, which 3
National Shrimp Policy 2014 (in Bangla): http://www.mofl.gov.bd/site/view/policies/Policies.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Table 2 Sweeping approaches and potential loopholes of the ‘Forest Policy 1994′. The Forest Policy 1994 Sweeping approaches I. Special afforestation programs will be taken in every city of the country under the auspices of the government in order to prevent pollution of environment in the densely populated area. II. State owned forests of natural origin and the Hill and Sal forest plantations will be used for producing forest resources setting aside the areas earmarked for conserving soil and water resources, and maintaining the bio-diversity. III. Agricultural sector will be strengthened by extending assistance to forest development related sectors. Potential loopholes I. Basic needs fulfillment will be ensured by providing timber for the construction of houses and boats, firewood for cooking, fodder for animal, medicinal herbs for healthcare and services for conservation of the environment and biodiversity. II. Multiple uses of forest, water and fish of the Sundarban through sustained management to keep the bio-environment intact. III. Considering ecological consequences the management of forest lands will be brought under profit-oriented business. IV. Emphasize modernizing forest-based industries to ensure effective use of forest raw materials.
Table 3 Sweeping approaches and potential loopholes in the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′. National Shrimp Policy 2014 Sweeping approaches Section 2 (A.1). Increase shrimp production through planned shrimp culture, considering economic, social, and environmental development, geographical location, climate-change feasibility along with inventing environment and eco-friendly technology. Section 2 (D.1). Maintain environmental balance, biodiversity conservation, & public health in shrimp-culture areas. Section 4.1. Shrimp production and sustainable management. Section 5.3.3. Establish shrimp-culture infrastructures ensuring environmental balance. Potential loopholes Section 2 (A.2). Apply necessary vertical/horizontal or both methods for expanding and managing shrimp culture. Section 5.1.1. Increase shrimp production by gradually developing extensive and improved extensive system of shrimp culture and management to semi-intensive system. Section 5.3.1. Gradually intensify the black tiger shrimp culture system in accordance with environment & ecology and introducing region- based culture system. Section 5.7.1. Marine biodiversity and natural wetland of mangrove forest area conservation introducing eco-friendly shrimp culture management. Section 5.8.2. Bring government/private lands suitable for shrimp cultivation and socioeconomically acceptable, under shrimp-culture activities. Section 5.9.1. Increase awareness on sustainable shrimp culture, production management, extraction, conservation, & marketing.
stakeholders can take advantage of. For example, if the term ‘conservation’ is not properly defined, it can open an avenue for indiscriminate forest resource extraction. Likewise a broad term such as ‘ecological consequence’ can easily be manipulated by profit seeking individuals. Section 5.3.5 of the 2014 National Shrimp Policy prohibits the expansion of the shrimp industry by clearing mangrove forests and prevents any shrimp-related activities that make the forest vulnerable. Although this policy is aimed at promoting sustainability, it takes a number of sweeping approaches and has several loopholes. For example, Section 2 (A.1) gives a sense of a utopian situation without providing any further guidelines. Section 2 (D.1), section 4.1 and Section 5.3.3 coin some eye-catching terms (i.e. ‘environmental balance’, ‘biodiversity conservation’, ‘sustainable management’) but disregard the institutional limitations and social-environmental complexities. The loopholes mentioned in Table 3 can be conveniently manipulated by wealthy farmers or ill-minded politically powerful people. Some of the loopholes even contradict with sweeping approaches. Section 2 (A.2) and 5.8.2, for instance, aim to bring government/private lands under shrimp culture and apply ‘necessary’ vertical/horizontal methods of expansion, whereas, section 5.3.3 clearly instructs to establish shrimp-culture infrastructures ensuring environmental balance. Considering the evident impact of shrimp farming in the southwest region, expanding CSF without rigorous impact assessment is a sure way to disrupt the social-environmental balance of the region. This policy (2014) further emphasizes the building of a sustainable and eco-friendly shrimp culture but encourages a large number of people to engage in a semi-intensive shrimp culture, emboldening private investment. Currently, in the Sundarban region, 70% of shrimp-pond areas are under semi-intensive farming. Semi-intensive farming does not require extensive ponds, but needs a reliable supply of shrimp fry from hatcheries or from wild sources. Yearly yields range from 500 to 5000 kg per hectare under this technique and production cost is $2–$6 per kg. Unlike traditional or extensive techniques, semi-intensive or intensive farming have higher environmental impacts (Fig. 5). It is unclear that how the government can address the challenge of eco-friendly shrimp culture.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 5. Comparison among shrimp-farming systems. Traditional farming system comes with least environmental impact but low profitability whereas, intensive method is highly profitable but has greater environmental footprint.
4. Discussion Social traps arise when short-term, local reinforcements guiding human behavior conflict with the long-term best interests of the individual (Costanza, 1987). Relying upon natural resources to improve the national economy without accounting for the dynamics of ecosystems and the services they generate is a common social trap (Huitric et al., 2002). Successful sectors will attract investors who increase capitalization and efforts to increase yields (Holling and Meffe, 1996). This increase in capitalization can mask local environmental feedbacks, which can lead to an unexpected crash in the resource due to overexploitation or misuse (Ludwig et al., 1993). Without recognizing these impacts, the sector becomes internally more connected and more vulnerable to disturbance in the natural system (Gunderson et al., 1995). The government of Bangladesh started commercial shrimp farming with an aim to develop the local and national economy, and certainly this goal was accomplished. In 1988, Bangladesh exported 33 million lbs. of frozen fish and shrimp, which nearly quadrupled to 130 million lbs. by the year 2010 (BFFEA, 2010; DoF 2009). The contribution of frozen fish and shrimp to GDP amounted to 3.3% in 2013–14 (BBS, 2014. In Bangladesh, the average annual growth rate of shrimp production from 2005 to 2013 was 2.2% (FAO, 2011; GOAL 2011). The country's revenue from shrimp export grew from $4 million in 1975–2000, to $437 million in 2009/10 (BBS, 1975; BBS 2002; BFFEA 2008). However, the intensification of shrimp farming poses deleterious threats to the environment (for details, see Wahab et al., 2003; Ali, 2006; Alam et al., 2007; Paul and Vogl 2011); the case of the Chakaria mangrove forest is an example. While, in its strict sense, all policy instruments are designed to protect the Sundarban, multiple loopholes make it virtually impossible to attain the intended outcomes. This is further compounded by government's focus on high output shrimp farming. While the government was explicit about protection of the Sundarban in the recent ‘Forest Policy 1994′ and their vision about eco-friendliness in shrimp farming (National Shrimp Policy 2014), it lags behind the ‘Forest Act 1927′ when it comes to making use of the Sundarban forest. The ‘Forest Policy 1994′ takes the participatory, regenerative, inclusive approach, whereas, the ‘Forest Act 1927′ strictly follows a top-down, social exclusion approach ensuring total control of government on forests. The conflicting issues between the Forest Act and Forest Policy and the loopholes we identified in the Shrimp Policy are major reasons for over-exploitation of natural resources. The short-term high output from shrimp farming might have benefitted the national economy, but the long-term local environmental consequences are making the overall social-ecological system vulnerable. Shrimp is the second-largest export from Bangladesh, and global demand is escalating. Yet, responding to that global call for more shrimp should not come at the cost of society and environment. Like many other shrimp-producing countries, Bangladesh has experienced a significant amount of mangrove loss due to this industry and cannot withstand additional loss. To prevent this damage and maintain the sustainable growth of the shrimp industry, effective policies and acts are obligatory. In this paper, we analyzed the forest act and policy, as well as the national shrimp policy. We find that the Forest Act is inconsistent with the Forest Policy and requires either substantial revision or complete abolition followed by new forest act formulation. The National Shrimp Policy also requires considerable revision to get rid of the sweeping approaches and loopholes.
5. Conclusion Since the late 1970s Bangladesh has experienced unplanned growth of the shrimp industry with resulting severe impacts on the environment. One example was the loss of the entire Chakaria mangrove forest. The government remains focused on increasing capitalization and economic proliferation while deemphasizing harmony between the economy and the environment. The outcomes of the National Shrimp Policy illustrate such a claim. With shrimp farming concentrated near the Sundarban, no coordination has been found between policies created to protect forests and simultaneously develop ecofriendly shrimp farms. The loopholes and sweeping approaches of both the Forest Policy and Act will not save the Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Sundarban. Furthermore, the Forest Act contradicts the Forest Policy by prioritizing economic development over ecosystem health. This paper reveals that when the Chakaria mangrove forest was destroyed, Bangladesh had both the Forest Policy and Forest Act in place. Neither were able to protect this forest. In fact, the Forest Act in its current form gives enormous powers to the government, allowing the country to use forests as it sees fit. Indeed, multinational financial institutions such as the ADB and WB have in the past appeared to take advantage of the forest act while ignoring the thrust of the forest policy. The discrepancies in policies and/or acts are not unique to Bangladesh. In many shrimp farming countries these conflicting issues have allowed the rapid development of the commercial shrimp industry and the quick loss of mangroves and other natural resources. In Thailand, for instance, weak legislation and contradictory policies have permitted the indiscriminate exploitation of mangroves by the shrimp farmers (Huitric et al., 2002). Poor policies and lack of implementation of policies have induced environmental degradation in Honduras (Dewalt et al., 1996) and in Mexico (Hernández-Cornejo and Ruiz-Luna, 2000). Sometimes legislation development and implementation couldn’t maintain pace with the growth of the shrimp industry, which lead to widespread mangrove clearance, such as in southern Vietnam (De Graaf and Xuan, 1998) and Sri Lanka (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2002). These examples suggest that the identification of conflicting issues in policies and acts are needed to assist policy makers in formulating more robust policies and acts to create better concordance between the economy and the environment. Shrimp farming has gained momentum in Bangladesh as a viable economic activity, so calling for an end to shrimp farming is not an option. However, unsustainable and environmentally insensitive economic development plans associated with the current management of shrimp farms in the Sundarban may not be able to continue indefinitely. While no policies are perfect, current forest and shrimp policies in Bangladesh contain many weaknesses and loopholes. Formulating more issue-oriented policy and, most importantly, assuring that implementation will bring economic development and environmental protection into greater alignment. For this reason, it is prudent to revise the ‘Forest Policy 1994′ and the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′ to rid them of the loopholes that tend to legalize ill activities. We also strongly suggest bringing the ‘Forest Act 1927′ into alignment with existing forest policy. Both Forest Policy and National Shrimp Policy should be amended as they contain sweeping approaches and loopholes that must be rectified to create a sustainable economy, society and environment in Bangladesh.
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Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh Asif Ishtiaque a,n, Netra Chhetri b a b
School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, COOR Hall 5643-D, 975 S Myrtle Ave., Tempe, AZ 85287, USA School for the Future of Innovation in Society, Arizona State University, Interdisciplinary B 366, 1120 S. Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history: Received 4 February 2016 Received in revised form 15 June 2016 Accepted 15 June 2016
Commercial shrimp aquaculture began in coastal Bangladesh in the late 1970s and now represents the second-largest export sector after garments in the nation. Hailed as harbinger of a blue revolution that could lift the people out of poverty and food insecurity, shrimp aquaculture has exploded across the Sundarban of southwest Bangladesh. This rapid expansion threatens the natural mangrove ecosystem, particularly across the vulnerable coastal region. To ensure protection of the Sundarban, the government of Bangladesh devised two landmark policies: the Forest Act (1927) and the Forest Policy (1994). Envisioning shrimp as an important foundation of the country's economic growth, the government of Bangladesh also formulated the National Shrimp Policy in 2014. While, in the strictest sense, these policy instruments are designed to protect the Sundarban, multiple loopholes and sweeping approaches make it virtually impossible to attain the intended outcomes. This is further compounded by the country's focus on commercial shrimp farming. Our paper reveals the disconnect between the Forest Policy and Forest Act by showcasing the Chakaria case, where thousands of hectares of mangrove forests have been destroyed due to commercial shrimp farming despite the policy tools in place. We further discuss the existing sweeping approaches and loopholes in the Forest Policy (1994) and Shrimp Policy (2014). & 2016 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
Keywords: Forest Policy Forest Act Shrimp Policy Sundarban Chakaria Bangladesh
1. Introduction Mangrove forests represent one of the most diverse and dynamic ecosystems of the world (Hogarth 2007). Approximately 15.2 million hectares mangrove forest, found in the tropics and subtropics (FAO 2007), provide important ecosystem services including the protection of coastal land from tidal waves, coastal erosion, and storms. Unfortunately mangrove forests around the world are under severe stress - at least 23% of mangrove forests were lost in the past two decades (Giri et al., 2011). The remaining forests are under constant threat from various human activities at or near the forest, such as agriculture, aquaculture, and logging (Mayaux et al., 2005, Blasco et al., 2001). The world's largest contiguous mangrove forest, the Sundarban, is no exception. The Sundarban forest - in the delta of the rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna - is shared between Bangladesh ( 60%) and India ( 40%) (Iftekhar and Islam, 2004) (Fig. 1). This tidal forest plays an exceptional role in the economy and
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Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Ishtiaque), [email protected] (N. Chhetri).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006 2211-4645/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 1. Sundarban mangrove forest is located at the southwest corner of Bangladesh. Three districts- Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat encompass this 6000 square kilometer mangrove forest.
ecology of the southwest region of Bangladesh (Fig. 2). Home to the rare Royal Bengal Tiger, it is rich in floral and faunal biodiversity. Approximately 300þ species of flora (IUCN-BANGLADESH, 2001; Hussain and Acharya, 1994); 165 types of algae (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006); 13 types of orchids (Dey, 2001); 964 species of invertebrates, 400 fish species, 58 reptile species, and 8 amphibian species (Akonda, 2002; Naskar and Mandal 1999); 290 species of birds and 40 species of mammals (Choudhury and Choudhury, 1994) and 15–20 species of migratory birds are found here. Beyond extraordinary biodiversity, the Sundarban provides vital ecosystem services to the region. Acting as a buffer against powerful cyclones and tsunamis, the forest protects the shoreline and inland settlements. With an annual average sequestration of 4.8 Mt CO2, Bangladesh part of Sundarban alone impounds about 10% of Bangladesh's carbon emissions (MEF-FD, 2011). It is also a direct source of livelihoods for approximately 300,000 people (Deb, 2001). For example, specialized groups such as bawali (wood collectors), mawali (honey collectors), chunari (snail, crab collectors), kathkurani (drywood collectors), jele (fishermen), and sutar (boat makers) have developed survival skills that are reliant on the forest. Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 2. The economic roles of the Sundarban mangrove forest.
Additionally, three mills and factories, as well as boat industries, rely on the Sundarban for their raw materials (Dey, 2001; Vannucci 2002). As mandated by the Bangladeshi government, these factories are required to follow extraction-regeneration techniques, i.e. planting of new trees after the removal of old trees. Recognizing the importance of the biological richness and ecosystem services to society, UNESCO declared 1397 square km (13%) of the Sundarban a World Heritage Site in (WCMC, 2001) in 1997. At the onset of British colonization in 1757 about 20 thousands sq. km. of the Sundarban mangrove forest was reported. The urgency of expanding arable land to produce food for a growing population prompted widespread clearance that reduced the mangrove forest by half within a century (Blasco 1977). To stop further deforestation, the Sundarban was declared as a reserve forest by the colonial government under the ‘Forest Policy 1894’ and ‘Forest Act 1927’. Since the introduction of these two landmark policies, the Sundarban has been hypothetically protected (Giri et al., 2007, Datta & Deb 2012). While the Forest Act has not been amended since its introduction in 1927, the Forest Policy has undergone several changes resulting in a widening gap between policy and act. The apparent disconnect between the Forest Policy and Act has allowed the government to clear forests for agriculture or aquaculture. The Chakaria mangrove forest, the second largest patch of mangroves located in the southeast corner of Bangladesh, illustrates the worst of it. This 8510 ha of manmade forest was declared as a reserve forest in 1903. However, in 1977 the government of Bangladesh opened the forest for commercial shrimp farming. With a guaranteed loan from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank (WB), the government of Bangladesh had converted the entire forestland into shrimp ponds by 1995 (Hossain et al., 2001; Gain, 2002). With the worthwhile goal of eradicating widespread hunger and generating export revenue, the Sundarban mangrove forest of southwest Bangladesh became a haven for commercial shrimp farms (Alam et al., 2005; Pokrant 2006; Paul and Vogl, 2011). The consequences of extended shrimp farms on the forest include: (a) loss of forest biodiversity due to excessive capture of wild shrimp fry (BOBP 1990, Hoq, 1999); (b) poor growth of mangrove forests due to the discharge of polluted water from commercial shrimp farms (Alam et al., 2007; Paul and Vogl, 2011; Chakraborty and Mukherjee 2013); (c) overall deterioration of the mangrove ecosystems due to the construction of upstream barrages and the resultant reduced flow of freshwater; and (d) increased salinity and water pollution due to the use of chemicals for intensive shrimp culture. The destruction of Chakaria mangrove forest took place despite the fact that both the Forest Policy (1979) and Forest Act (1927) were in place along with the new Forest Policy (1994). Yet, in 2014 the government of Bangladesh devised another policy the ‘National Shrimp Policy’ with the stated goal of maintaining balance between shrimp production and environmental consequences. Given that none of the policy tools designed to protect the mangrove forests have had any meaningful result, skepticism abounds with regard to the actual value of policy and governance in Bangladesh. An analysis of the literature on Bangladesh's forest policy leads to a number of insights. For example, Roy et al. (2012) argue that the depletion of the Sundarban mangrove forest is driven by lack of clarity of property rights in the 1994 Forest Policy. In their policy paper, Sadath and Krott (2012), distinguish between substantive and symbolic forest policies and highlight that most of the recent polices are symbolic. Chowdhury et al. (2009a, (2009b) also reveal weak links between conservation and commercial exploitation whereby the emphasis was tilted on the later. They accentuate the importance of collaborative management with inputs from local people. Muhammed et al. (2008) suggest that another reason for the destruction of mangrove forest in Bangladesh is the extremely long time lag between the formulation of policy and its implementation and argue that the government has inadequate institutional support to adopt internationally derived forest policies. Regarding forest management policies in Bangladesh, why do well-designed policies fail to realize their intended goals? What weaknesses are inherent in those policies? In this paper we explore and discuss some of the loopholes and sweeping approaches of existing policy tools. Most importantly we discuss how the commercial shrimp farming took precedence over the conservation of mangrove forests despite the rhetoric on sustainability and environmental conservation embedded in Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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the policies. Loopholes in policies are often ambiguous and may carry multiple meanings that stakeholders can manipulate for their own benefit. For example, “sustainable use” and “commercial exploitation” of forests are rarely compatible. Stakeholders interested in commercial shrimp farming can have less interest in the sustainability of the forest. The sweeping approaches are those that only provide broad guidelines and lack specificity. Existence of a sweeping approach makes the policy difficult to execute while the existence of a loophole grants the misuse of policy. While reviewing the underlying discrepancies between the Forest Policy (1979) and Forest Act (1927), the following sections identify some of the loopholes and sweeping approaches in these policy tools.
2. Chakaria mangroves: an illustration of discrepancies between policy and action Historically, far-reaching political changes have always been at the heart of forest policy in Bangladesh. With the sole objective of managing the public forests as sources of revenues for the state, British India issued two landmark forest policies: The ‘Forest Policy 1894′ and the ‘Forest Act 1927′.1 Both documents emphasized agriculture over forestry and allowed forest clearance for agricultural purposes (Mustafa, 2002). After the partition in 1947, Bangladesh was recognized as East Pakistan; the Pakistan government negated the 1894 act and formulated new forest policy twice- in 1955 and 1962. With its emphasis on habitat protection and wildlife conservation, the Forest Policy (1955) was considered to be conservation friendly, although the responsibility for forest management was placed solely with the government. This changed with the revised Forest Policy (1962), which stressed intensive management of forest for commercial purposes. The first National Forest Policy of independent Bangladesh was devised in 1979 (Gazette Notification No. 1/For-1/77/345, 8 July 1979). Aimed at preserving forests, this policy restructured the forest department, designated national forests, optimized resource extraction, and established new, forest-based industries. The positive aspects of this policy were inclusion of forest research and training, large-scale plantation (with the participation of local communities), and conservation education. Despite these positive aspects, the policy was largely contradictory. On the one hand, it promoted new forestbased industries, but on the other, it aimed to optimize resource extraction and use without consideration of social and ecological outcomes. It is our contention that the directives designed to protect the forest may have provided the impetus for the loss of mangrove forest in Bangladesh, including the destruction of Chakaria mangrove forest. Not only is there a difference between the Forest Policy (1979) and the Forest Act (1927), they are in contention with each other. The Forest Act gives the government the utmost control over the forest, allowing it to maintain a strong and centralized system. According to the Forest Policy, forests are not to be commercially exploited for industries, but they are to conserve soil and the environment, and meet the subsistence requirements of the local people. The Forest Policy gives higher priority to environmental stability than to earning revenue. The Forest Act contained several loopholes such that government could claim forestland for economic development; those loopholes allowed indiscriminate destruction of the Chakaria forest (Table 1). Permission for commercial shrimp development to proceed in critical mangrove habitats has undermined the safeguarding of mangrove forests. Chakaria forest destruction began when the multilateral development banks (MDBs) started to push governments to promote commercial shrimp farming for the global market due to a crisis in the country's balance of payment following the oil price hike in the 1980s. The WB and ADB focused on black tiger shrimp, as it had high demand in US and European markets. In 1977, 2251 ha of Chakaria mangrove forest were converted into a shrimp pond; another 694 ha were converted in 1982 with a loan from the ADB (Hossain et al., 2001). During this period, ADB helped establish 100 shrimp farms, each 11 acres in size, and built a 16-km embankment (Gain, 2002). Further destruction of the Chakaria forest began when the WB initiated a brackish water shrimp culture project in 1985 (Project ID: P009446). The WB and UNDP provided $26.5 million to Bangladesh for this project. About 3600 ha of Chakaria forest was leased primarily to outside investors based on the highest bidding price. The remaining portion of the forest was leased out in 1995–1996 for areal extension of shrimp farming (see Figs. 3 and 4).
3. Loopholes and lack of specificity in policies The Forest Policy of 19942 is different from the 1979 policy because it facilitated a proposed Master Plan for Forestry Development, formulated in 1993, with the assistance from ADB and UNDP. With emphasis on social forestry, reforestation, women and tribal participation, and agro-forestry, this revised policy advocated for public and private participation in 20% of country's land. This was in a sharp contrast to earlier forest policy (1979), which simply mimicked colonial administration and excluded people from forest governance. While the 1955 and 1979 forest policies are credited with a few good outcomes (e.g. forest co-management, wildlife conservation, habitat protection, training of officials), both policies disregarded the value of engaging with local communities for forest conservation. By decoupling the forest from surrounding communities these policies perpetuated the command and control approach. For this reason the 1994 Forest Policy is seen as a welcome 1 2
Forest Act 1927 is available here: http://www.bforest.gov.bd/site/page/34672edf-43c6-41d1-9451-bc904408b118/Forest-Act-1927. The Forest Policy 1994 is available here: http://www.bforest.gov.bd/.
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Table 1 Loopholes in Forest Act 1927. The Forest Act 1927 No right shall be acquired in or over reserve forest except by succession or under a grant or contract…. …and no fresh clearings for cultivation or for any other purpose shall be made in reserve forest except in accordance with government rules. Section 23 No right of any description shall be acquired in or over a reserved forest except by succession or under a grant or contract. Section 32(a) Government may make rules to regulate the cutting, sawing, conversion and removal of trees and timber, and the collection, manufacture and removal, of forest-produce, from protected forests. Section 32(g) Government may make rules to regulate the clearing and breaking up of land for cultivation or other purposes in such forests. Section 5
Fig. 3. Land Use Change in Chakaria in hectares (1974–2012). More than 6000 ha of mangrove forests are cleared; agricultural lands were diminished to place the shrimp farms and later the salt pans (Adapted from: Rahman and Hossain 2015).
Fig. 4. Evolution of the Forest Policy of Bangladesh.
addition to the management and conservation of forests. Some of the ambitious aspects of this revised policy include the reforestation of denuded hills and open spaces in urban areas, eco-tourism, optimum forest resource extraction, and other positive changes. While the newer forest policies of Bangladesh (e.g. 1979 and 1994) featured strong language, the resulting actions and outcomes on the ground were not as expected. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1998) analyzed the implementation of the 1979 and 1994 forest policies and found that: a) natural forests were not managed in an environmentally sound manner; b) little improvement was seen in harvesting and processing technology; c) forest-based industrial development stagnated; and d) wildlife conservation and forest recreation potential were neglected, and there was no active participation of people in the governance of the forest as planned. The ‘Forest Act 1927′ and ‘The Forest Policy 1979′ did not protect the mangrove forests from annihilation. Along with the ‘Forest Act 1927′ and the ‘Forest Policy 1994′, Bangladesh now has the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′.3 If divergences in the forest policy and act remain, it is likely that Sundarban would experience the same fate as the Chakaria forest. Fearing the unrestrained development of the shrimp industry, we have identified the sweeping approaches and potential loopholes of the ‘Forest Policy 1994′ (Table 2) and the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′ (Table 3). Despite having some novel effective guidelines, the 1994 Forest Policy consists of several sweeping approaches. As shown in Table 2, it includes a wide scale urban afforestation program generalizing the specific target areas, pollution level, or population density. The policy also contains ambiguous guidelines which need strong institutional capacity to implement. Something that is not present at the moment. We also have identified some potential loopholes in the policy, which 3
National Shrimp Policy 2014 (in Bangla): http://www.mofl.gov.bd/site/view/policies/Policies.
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Table 2 Sweeping approaches and potential loopholes of the ‘Forest Policy 1994′. The Forest Policy 1994 Sweeping approaches I. Special afforestation programs will be taken in every city of the country under the auspices of the government in order to prevent pollution of environment in the densely populated area. II. State owned forests of natural origin and the Hill and Sal forest plantations will be used for producing forest resources setting aside the areas earmarked for conserving soil and water resources, and maintaining the bio-diversity. III. Agricultural sector will be strengthened by extending assistance to forest development related sectors. Potential loopholes I. Basic needs fulfillment will be ensured by providing timber for the construction of houses and boats, firewood for cooking, fodder for animal, medicinal herbs for healthcare and services for conservation of the environment and biodiversity. II. Multiple uses of forest, water and fish of the Sundarban through sustained management to keep the bio-environment intact. III. Considering ecological consequences the management of forest lands will be brought under profit-oriented business. IV. Emphasize modernizing forest-based industries to ensure effective use of forest raw materials.
Table 3 Sweeping approaches and potential loopholes in the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′. National Shrimp Policy 2014 Sweeping approaches Section 2 (A.1). Increase shrimp production through planned shrimp culture, considering economic, social, and environmental development, geographical location, climate-change feasibility along with inventing environment and eco-friendly technology. Section 2 (D.1). Maintain environmental balance, biodiversity conservation, & public health in shrimp-culture areas. Section 4.1. Shrimp production and sustainable management. Section 5.3.3. Establish shrimp-culture infrastructures ensuring environmental balance. Potential loopholes Section 2 (A.2). Apply necessary vertical/horizontal or both methods for expanding and managing shrimp culture. Section 5.1.1. Increase shrimp production by gradually developing extensive and improved extensive system of shrimp culture and management to semi-intensive system. Section 5.3.1. Gradually intensify the black tiger shrimp culture system in accordance with environment & ecology and introducing region- based culture system. Section 5.7.1. Marine biodiversity and natural wetland of mangrove forest area conservation introducing eco-friendly shrimp culture management. Section 5.8.2. Bring government/private lands suitable for shrimp cultivation and socioeconomically acceptable, under shrimp-culture activities. Section 5.9.1. Increase awareness on sustainable shrimp culture, production management, extraction, conservation, & marketing.
stakeholders can take advantage of. For example, if the term ‘conservation’ is not properly defined, it can open an avenue for indiscriminate forest resource extraction. Likewise a broad term such as ‘ecological consequence’ can easily be manipulated by profit seeking individuals. Section 5.3.5 of the 2014 National Shrimp Policy prohibits the expansion of the shrimp industry by clearing mangrove forests and prevents any shrimp-related activities that make the forest vulnerable. Although this policy is aimed at promoting sustainability, it takes a number of sweeping approaches and has several loopholes. For example, Section 2 (A.1) gives a sense of a utopian situation without providing any further guidelines. Section 2 (D.1), section 4.1 and Section 5.3.3 coin some eye-catching terms (i.e. ‘environmental balance’, ‘biodiversity conservation’, ‘sustainable management’) but disregard the institutional limitations and social-environmental complexities. The loopholes mentioned in Table 3 can be conveniently manipulated by wealthy farmers or ill-minded politically powerful people. Some of the loopholes even contradict with sweeping approaches. Section 2 (A.2) and 5.8.2, for instance, aim to bring government/private lands under shrimp culture and apply ‘necessary’ vertical/horizontal methods of expansion, whereas, section 5.3.3 clearly instructs to establish shrimp-culture infrastructures ensuring environmental balance. Considering the evident impact of shrimp farming in the southwest region, expanding CSF without rigorous impact assessment is a sure way to disrupt the social-environmental balance of the region. This policy (2014) further emphasizes the building of a sustainable and eco-friendly shrimp culture but encourages a large number of people to engage in a semi-intensive shrimp culture, emboldening private investment. Currently, in the Sundarban region, 70% of shrimp-pond areas are under semi-intensive farming. Semi-intensive farming does not require extensive ponds, but needs a reliable supply of shrimp fry from hatcheries or from wild sources. Yearly yields range from 500 to 5000 kg per hectare under this technique and production cost is $2–$6 per kg. Unlike traditional or extensive techniques, semi-intensive or intensive farming have higher environmental impacts (Fig. 5). It is unclear that how the government can address the challenge of eco-friendly shrimp culture.
Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Fig. 5. Comparison among shrimp-farming systems. Traditional farming system comes with least environmental impact but low profitability whereas, intensive method is highly profitable but has greater environmental footprint.
4. Discussion Social traps arise when short-term, local reinforcements guiding human behavior conflict with the long-term best interests of the individual (Costanza, 1987). Relying upon natural resources to improve the national economy without accounting for the dynamics of ecosystems and the services they generate is a common social trap (Huitric et al., 2002). Successful sectors will attract investors who increase capitalization and efforts to increase yields (Holling and Meffe, 1996). This increase in capitalization can mask local environmental feedbacks, which can lead to an unexpected crash in the resource due to overexploitation or misuse (Ludwig et al., 1993). Without recognizing these impacts, the sector becomes internally more connected and more vulnerable to disturbance in the natural system (Gunderson et al., 1995). The government of Bangladesh started commercial shrimp farming with an aim to develop the local and national economy, and certainly this goal was accomplished. In 1988, Bangladesh exported 33 million lbs. of frozen fish and shrimp, which nearly quadrupled to 130 million lbs. by the year 2010 (BFFEA, 2010; DoF 2009). The contribution of frozen fish and shrimp to GDP amounted to 3.3% in 2013–14 (BBS, 2014. In Bangladesh, the average annual growth rate of shrimp production from 2005 to 2013 was 2.2% (FAO, 2011; GOAL 2011). The country's revenue from shrimp export grew from $4 million in 1975–2000, to $437 million in 2009/10 (BBS, 1975; BBS 2002; BFFEA 2008). However, the intensification of shrimp farming poses deleterious threats to the environment (for details, see Wahab et al., 2003; Ali, 2006; Alam et al., 2007; Paul and Vogl 2011); the case of the Chakaria mangrove forest is an example. While, in its strict sense, all policy instruments are designed to protect the Sundarban, multiple loopholes make it virtually impossible to attain the intended outcomes. This is further compounded by government's focus on high output shrimp farming. While the government was explicit about protection of the Sundarban in the recent ‘Forest Policy 1994′ and their vision about eco-friendliness in shrimp farming (National Shrimp Policy 2014), it lags behind the ‘Forest Act 1927′ when it comes to making use of the Sundarban forest. The ‘Forest Policy 1994′ takes the participatory, regenerative, inclusive approach, whereas, the ‘Forest Act 1927′ strictly follows a top-down, social exclusion approach ensuring total control of government on forests. The conflicting issues between the Forest Act and Forest Policy and the loopholes we identified in the Shrimp Policy are major reasons for over-exploitation of natural resources. The short-term high output from shrimp farming might have benefitted the national economy, but the long-term local environmental consequences are making the overall social-ecological system vulnerable. Shrimp is the second-largest export from Bangladesh, and global demand is escalating. Yet, responding to that global call for more shrimp should not come at the cost of society and environment. Like many other shrimp-producing countries, Bangladesh has experienced a significant amount of mangrove loss due to this industry and cannot withstand additional loss. To prevent this damage and maintain the sustainable growth of the shrimp industry, effective policies and acts are obligatory. In this paper, we analyzed the forest act and policy, as well as the national shrimp policy. We find that the Forest Act is inconsistent with the Forest Policy and requires either substantial revision or complete abolition followed by new forest act formulation. The National Shrimp Policy also requires considerable revision to get rid of the sweeping approaches and loopholes.
5. Conclusion Since the late 1970s Bangladesh has experienced unplanned growth of the shrimp industry with resulting severe impacts on the environment. One example was the loss of the entire Chakaria mangrove forest. The government remains focused on increasing capitalization and economic proliferation while deemphasizing harmony between the economy and the environment. The outcomes of the National Shrimp Policy illustrate such a claim. With shrimp farming concentrated near the Sundarban, no coordination has been found between policies created to protect forests and simultaneously develop ecofriendly shrimp farms. The loopholes and sweeping approaches of both the Forest Policy and Act will not save the Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i
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Sundarban. Furthermore, the Forest Act contradicts the Forest Policy by prioritizing economic development over ecosystem health. This paper reveals that when the Chakaria mangrove forest was destroyed, Bangladesh had both the Forest Policy and Forest Act in place. Neither were able to protect this forest. In fact, the Forest Act in its current form gives enormous powers to the government, allowing the country to use forests as it sees fit. Indeed, multinational financial institutions such as the ADB and WB have in the past appeared to take advantage of the forest act while ignoring the thrust of the forest policy. The discrepancies in policies and/or acts are not unique to Bangladesh. In many shrimp farming countries these conflicting issues have allowed the rapid development of the commercial shrimp industry and the quick loss of mangroves and other natural resources. In Thailand, for instance, weak legislation and contradictory policies have permitted the indiscriminate exploitation of mangroves by the shrimp farmers (Huitric et al., 2002). Poor policies and lack of implementation of policies have induced environmental degradation in Honduras (Dewalt et al., 1996) and in Mexico (Hernández-Cornejo and Ruiz-Luna, 2000). Sometimes legislation development and implementation couldn’t maintain pace with the growth of the shrimp industry, which lead to widespread mangrove clearance, such as in southern Vietnam (De Graaf and Xuan, 1998) and Sri Lanka (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2002). These examples suggest that the identification of conflicting issues in policies and acts are needed to assist policy makers in formulating more robust policies and acts to create better concordance between the economy and the environment. Shrimp farming has gained momentum in Bangladesh as a viable economic activity, so calling for an end to shrimp farming is not an option. However, unsustainable and environmentally insensitive economic development plans associated with the current management of shrimp farms in the Sundarban may not be able to continue indefinitely. While no policies are perfect, current forest and shrimp policies in Bangladesh contain many weaknesses and loopholes. Formulating more issue-oriented policy and, most importantly, assuring that implementation will bring economic development and environmental protection into greater alignment. For this reason, it is prudent to revise the ‘Forest Policy 1994′ and the ‘National Shrimp Policy 2014′ to rid them of the loopholes that tend to legalize ill activities. We also strongly suggest bringing the ‘Forest Act 1927′ into alignment with existing forest policy. Both Forest Policy and National Shrimp Policy should be amended as they contain sweeping approaches and loopholes that must be rectified to create a sustainable economy, society and environment in Bangladesh.
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Please cite this article as: Ishtiaque, A., Chhetri, N., Competing policies to protect mangrove forest: A case from Bangladesh. Environmental Development (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.06.006i