Composition of goat and sheep milk products: An update

Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

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Composition of goat and sheep milk products: An update夽 K. Raynal-Ljutovac a,∗ , G. Lagriffoul b , P. Paccard b , I. Guillet a , Y. Chilliard c a b c

Institut Technique des Produits Laitiers Caprins, Avenue Franc¸ois Mitterrand, BP49, 17700 Surgères, France Institut de l’Elevage – Comité National Brebis Laitières, INRA Toulouse, BP52627, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France Institut National de Recherche Agronomique, INRA, Unite Recherches 1213 Herbivores, Site de Theix, F-63122 St Genes Champanelle, France

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords: Biochemical composition Sheep milk Goat milk Cheese Technology Nutrition

a b s t r a c t The aim of this study is to update the values concerning nutritional components for sheep and goat dairy products. The bibliography examines first the main biochemical constituents of sheep and goat milk products but also the more specific components with potential nutritional impact and lastly it gathers information on the relationship between cheese and milk compositions and the impact of technologies. Since the composition of French small ruminant cheeses is not well established, with composition tables being old and lacking information, recent studies have been conducted in France to investigate the nutritional characteristics of sheep and goat milks and cheeses on a large scale. Goat milk cheese sampling was representative of French production, taking into account the variability linked to geographic origin, dairy or on-farm transformation and type of cheeses. Fresh lactic cheeses made with raw (6 samples) or pasteurised (6) milk, ripened lactic cheeses made with raw (11) or pasteurised (6) milk, spreads (4), soft ripened cheeses (6 “Chèvre Boite or “Brique” type cheeses) and 4 bulk raw milks were sampled twice in a summer–autumn period. These 86 samples were analysed for their nutritional value. The impact of the technological process was assessed with, for example, its effect on mineral and vitamin B content. With respect to sheep, 5 representative samples of milk were collected, just before cheese making, in the 3 main French traditional areas of dairy sheep production. The sampling was carried out 4 times in the year. The objective was to explore the variability of the nutritional characteristics of the original milk. The cheeses made with these milks were analysed after ripening with a double objective: to specify their nutritional content and to assess the relationship between milk and cheese content. Some preliminary results are given concerning fatty acids. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Sheep and goat milk products can provide a profitable alternative to cow milk products owing to their specific taste, texture, typicity and their natural and healthy

夽 This paper is part of the special issue entitled 5th International Symposium on The Challenge to Sheep and Goats Milk Sectors Guest Edited by Antonio Pirisi, André Ayerbe, Giovanni Piredda, George Psathas and Yvette Soustre. ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 5 46276983; fax: +33 5 46376989. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Raynal-Ljutovac). 0921-4488/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.07.009

image. Nevertheless, consumers are requesting more and more information concerning the hygienic quality and nutritional composition of these products. All these characteristics can be influenced by several factors, such as breed, genetic, physiology, feed, environment and technology. Some major reviews exist concerning the biochemical composition of goat and sheep milk and their variation (Jenness, 1980; Remeuf et al., 1991; Chandan et al., 1992; Alichanidis and Polychroniadou, 1996) but data concerning specific molecules with nutritional properties, e.g. fatty acids and their variability, cholesterol, oligosaccharides, are scant. Moreover, milk yields have increased and milk

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Table 1 Composition of goat milk according to breed and country (adapted from Albenzio et al., 2006; Psathas, 2005; Pirisi et al., 2007) Country

Breed

Total solids (%)

Fat (%)

Proteins (%)

Caseins (%)

Lactose (%)

Ash (%)

United Kingdom United Kingdom Francea Italy Greece Cyprusb Spain

British Saanen Nubian Alpine/Saanen Sardinian Local Damascus Murciano-Granadina

11.6 –

3.48 4.94 3.6 5.1 5.63 4.33

2.61 3.60 3.2 3.9 3.77 3.75 4.09

2.30 –

4.30 4.51

0.80 –

3.05 2.97 3.21

4.76 –

0.71 0.73 0.83

a b

14.8 13.2

Pirisi et al. (2007). Psathas (2005).

composition has changed in Western Europe (Pirisi et al., 2007) owing to an intensification of breeding systems including feeding and genetic selection. Such bibliographic works do not exist for cheeses, for which the task is more complicated owing to the variability of the milk composition itself (intensive or extensive breeding systems, breeds. . .) but also, above all, the type of cheese making, one type of cheese generally corresponding to one study. Composition tables for goat and sheep milk products exist in many countries but most of the time are either incomplete or contain old data as is the case for French goat and sheep milk cheeses. Actually, despite regular reediting, values concerning goat milk cheeses are those established by Favier and Dorsainvil (1987). The aim of the present work is first to update the review of the composition of milks and dairy products from small ruminants in order to appreciate the impact of cheese making on the major compounds of nutritional value of these milks. Within this context, a new French national program is presented, aiming at characterising French goat and sheep dairy products.

2. Milk composition Milk composition varies according to several factors, such as animal, feed and environment. An example is given in Table 1 for goat milk, depending on the breed and breeding system encountered in each country and data has been compiled by Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b) for sheep milk (Table 2). Milk composition is in constant evolution with production becoming more intensified, but this is also in relation to the quality criteria of milk payment. For instance, an average annual increase of +0.86% for protein content and +0.68% for fat content between 1994 and 2004 has been observed for goat milk in France (Poitou Charentes area) (Pirisi et al., 2007).

2.1. Proteins Dairy products are a reliable source of high quality proteins, which are well balanced in amino acids. Variation of total protein content is now well known. For goat milk, it depends on genetic polymorphism of ␣s1 casein. For French Alpine and Saanen breeds, total casein content and total protein are about 22 and 27 g/l, respectively, for milks from animal with low alleles FF and 27 and 32 g/l for milk from animal with strong alleles AA (Grosclaude and Martin, 1997). Generally, goat milk contains less ␣s1 casein than other ruminants’ milk. Depending on the allele frequency existing for ␣s1 casein in each breed, total protein may depend indirectly on the breed (Grosclaude and Martin, 1997). Total protein content may vary from 2.6 g/l to 4.1 g/l for goat milk (Table 1) and from 4.7 g/100 g to 7.2 g/100 g for ewe milk (Table 2). The main non-individual factors of protein content variation are the stage of lactation, season, age and feeding. Small ruminant specificity also rests on casein micelle organization and mineralisation, and both goat and ewe milk micelles are highly mineralised and the size of caprine micelle is significantly higher than bovine or ovine milk (Remeuf et al., 1991; Pellegrini et al., 1994). This is in direct relation to their specific technological behaviour but the nutritional impact of these characteristics is not known. Total protein is one of the main quality criteria applied to goat and sheep milk payment in many countries (RaynalLjutovac et al., 2005; Pirisi et al., 2007). Nevertheless, the ratio of casein (main constituent of cheese network) in total protein may also vary among species and according to animal and lactation stage (Barrucand and Raynal-Ljutovac, 2007). Whey proteins may impair cheese making (cheese yield and whey draining, especially for heat treated milks) but their amino acid profiles are of interest with a high level in essential amino acids (e.g. tryptophane and lysine). Some isolated studies deal with more specific proteins. For instance, variability of goat milk lactoferrin was observed according to lactation stage (Rampilli and

Table 2 Average composition of sheep milk (data compilation of 86 references from 1973 to 2005, by Paccard and Lagriffoul) Number of data

Total solids (%) (n = 36)

Fat (%) (n = 68)

Proteins (%) (n = 67)

Caseins (%) (n = 18)

Lactose (%) (n = 30)

Mean Min Max

18.1 14.4 20.7

6.82 3.60 9.97

5.59 4.75 7.20

4.23 3.72 5.01

4.88 4.11 5.51

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Cortellino, 2005). Two studies showed bacteriostatic potential of caprine lactoferrin, one on a specific breed (Lee et al., 1997) and another one for which data are not reliable since a presence of lysozyme in the mixture may have induced erroneous results (Recio and Visser, 2000). Another study showed similar content in carnitine for cow milk and goat milk and a slightly higher concentration for sheep milk (Woollard et al., 1999). Lastly, Patton et al. (1997) demonstrated the presence of prosaposins (neurotrophic factor, necessary for membrane renewal) in human, cow and goat milks. Bioactive peptides may be produced from goat or sheep milk proteins since their primary structures are close to those observed for bovine proteins. For example, caprine ␣ lactorphin was obtained after pepsin hydrolysis of ␣ lactalbumin (Bordenave, 2000). Studies are in progress but focus mainly on peptides released from acid goat whey by yeast–lactobacilli associations isolated from cheeses (Didelot et al., 2006). Nucleosides and nucleotides, which are part of the non-protein nitrogen fraction, are greatly in evidence in colostrum, with their level being lower in mature milks. Nevertheless, small ruminant mature milks are rich in nucleotides (Table 3) and in ribonucleosides (Schlimme et al., 1991). Ruminant milks principally contain UMP, AMP and CMP but sheep and goat milk also contain UDP. Conversely, according to Jaubert (1997), orotic acid level is lower in goat milk and especially ewe milk than in cow milk with at least half the value observed for cow milk. However, the level varies in cow milk according to breed, feeding, climate (Akalin and Gonc, 1996) and lactation stage (Gil and Sanchez Medina, 1981). The different nucleotide patterns might be linked to specific secretory mechanisms in each species. As part as nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), they may also contribute to cell renewal or restoration, especially in intestinal mucosa (Schlimme et al., 1991). Potential applications, such as infant formula supplementation (allowed by the European Commission), also owing to the induced enhanced antibody response to viruses, were reviewed by Schlimme et al. (2000). CMP and AMP may decrease under pasteurisation but orotic acid content does not change (Gil and Sanchez Medina, 1981). Finally, concerning free amino acid in goat milk, taurine is the most abundant with 9 mg/100 ml (Grandpierre et al., 1988). This molecule comes from cysteine and methionine catabolism: 0.30, 0.02, 0.30 ␮mole/100 ml for goat, cow and human milks, respectively (Mehaia and Al-Kanhal, 1992). Considered a non-essential free amino acid in normal conditions (produced in the human body from cysteine), it might play a role in vision, cerebral and heart functions, detoxification and fatty acid assimilation.

59

2.2. Fat Fat content is the more quantitatively and qualitatively variable component of milk, depending on lactation stage, season, breed, genotype and feeding. This last important factor has been studied in depth and the main findings concerning the impact of feeding, basic roughage and lipid supplementation, on quantitative and qualitative variation (either fatty acids of nutritional interest such as rumenic acid C18:2 cis9 trans11, omega 3 or presumably negative fatty acids such as trans fatty acids) of both ewe and goat milk fat were reviewed by Sanz Sampelayo et al. (2007). Recent studies on sheep milk showed high CLA and omega 3 content in high altitude milks (Collomb et al., 2006) and others have focused on the ways of naturally increasing CLA and omega 3 contents with lipid supplementation in goat feeding. Chilliard et al. (2003, 2006a) showed that goat response to lipid supplementation is different from what is generally observed for cows with increased fat content and no decrease in protein content for goat milk. Cheeses made with such naturally enriched milks (cow, ewe or goat milk) are currently being studied for their potential effects on human health (BIOCLA European Program). Furthermore, the genetic polymorphism at the ␣s1 casein locus has important effects on goat milk fat and its FA composition, with lower medium-chain FA (8:0–12:0) and higher -9 desaturation ratios for the low ␣s1 casein genotypes (Chilliard et al., 2006b). Nevertheless, the main characteristic of small ruminant milk fat is the high content in short- and medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), especially in goat milk fat, which has at least twice as many C6–C10 fatty acids as cow milk fat: 8%, 12% and 16% total fatty acid for cow, ewe and goat milk fat, respectively (from Chilliard et al., 2006a; Paccard and Lagriffoul, 2006a,b). These fatty acids have a different metabolism from that of long chain fatty acids (Gurr, 1995; Bach et al., 1996). MCFA could indeed be released from triglycerides in the stomach by gastric lipase and duodenum pancreatic lipase to be absorbed directly by intestinal cells, without esterification, and transported mainly via portal vein (depending on their chain length and initial position on triglycerides) to the liver, where they are rapidly oxidised. Thus, they constitute a rapid energetic supply, especially for subjects suffering from malnutrition or fat malabsorption syndrome. For instance, MCFA have been used since 1960 for pre-term newborns in specific ratio with long chain fatty acids (Telliez et al., 2002). They could also be used in a geriatric diet. Owing to this favoured pathway, they may contribute to lower total circulating cholesterol and especially LDL (Seaton et al., 1986; Kasai et al., 2003). Fat deposits in adipose tissues would be avoided (Tsuji et al., 2001) despite

Table 3 Levels of nucleotides: 5 monophosphate nucleosides (AMP, GMP, CMP and UMP), 5 diphosphate glucose, 5 diphosphate galactose and orotic acid (␮mole 100 ml) determined by enzymatic method (Gil and Sanchez Medina, 1981) for 2 month milks

Goat Sheep Cow

AMP

GMP

CMP

UMP

UDPglucose

UDPgalactose

Orotic acid

6.73 7.5 2.03

– – –

5.4 8.7 1.9

14.5 19.2 –

19.6 30.4 –

17.2 25.1 –

10.2 3.3 26.8

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a possible elongation into long chain saturated fatty acids (Hill et al., 1990). The rapid metabolism induces a postprandial thermal expenditure (Hill et al., 1990; Bendixen et al., 2002) and might be applied to human weight regulation, especially in overweight men (St Onge and Jones, 2002). The other characteristic of small ruminant milk fat is their globule size. Few studies carried out that deal with this topics showed a higher proportion of small globules for small ruminant milks compared to cow milk (Mehaia, 1995; Attaie and Richter, 2000). This property supports the hypothesis that goat milk fat is more easily digested. Some studies have demonstrated a relationship between caprine ␣s1 casein genotype and fat globule size (Neveu et al., 2002) with smaller globules for null allele (OO) than for strong ones (AA). The genetic relationship to globule size also agrees with the recent findings for cow milk (Couvreur et al., 2006) and older findings concerning changes according to breed and season (Walstra, 1995). Moreover, a research team is studying the different forms of triglyceride in caprine milk and more generally the structural form of anhydrous goat milk fat (Ben Amara-Dali et al., 2005). Both fat globule size and the MCFA content of goat milk are thought to have a beneficial effect on fat assimilation and energy supply in rats (Alferez et al., 2001), pigs (Fevrier et al., 1993) and malnourished children (Razafindrakoto et al., 1993; Hachelaf et al., 1993). On the other hand, lower circulating triglycerides and cholesterol were found in rats (Lopez Aliaga et al., 2005) and a lower fat deposition under the skin or in adipose tissues was shown in pigs (Mourot et al., 1993; Camara et al., 1996; Murry et al., 1999). 2.3. Carbohydrates Lactose is the main carbohydrate in milks: about 44% in goat milk and 49% in sheep milk. Its concentration does not vary excessively (Grandpierre et al., 1988; Le Jaouen, 1990; Lopez et al., 1999). However, goat milk lactose content is often largely increased by dietary plant oil supplementation in contrast to cow milk (Chilliard et al., 2005). Oligosaccharides, 3–10 monosaccharide residues, which can be considered as soluble fibre, are either acid containing N acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid) or neutral. They represent the 3rd fraction (13 g/l) of human milk compounds, behind lactose (68 g/l) and fat (39 g/l) (Kunz et al., 2000). Oligosaccharides promote bifidobacteria growth in the neonate and play a role as intestinal mucosa cell protectors against pathogens. Finally, they may play a role in neonatal brain development (Gopal and Gill, 2000). Ruminant milks are far from being the richest milks in oligosaccharides but according to many authors (Viverge et al., 1997; Sarney et al., 2000; Chaturvedi and Sharma, 1988, 1990) the diversity found in caprine oligosaccharides is important. Puente et al. (1996) found 4 times as much sialic acid in goat milk (about 230 mg sialic acid/kg fresh milk) as in cow milk (60 mg sialic acid/kg fresh milk). It seems that this content does not change according to the season (Puente et al., 1996). More recently, Baro Rodriguez et al. (2005) isolated by membrane techniques and identified 25 oligosaccharides in Murciano-Granadina goat milk. Other compounds such as growth factors were also isolated during this investigation. Other Spanish researchers

Table 4 Mineral composition of goat, sheep, cow and human milk

Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Potassium (mg) Sodium (mg) Chloride (mg) Magnesium (mg) Ca/P (mg) Zinc (␮g) Iron (␮g) Copper (␮g) Manganese (␮g) Iodine (␮g) Selenium (␮g)

Goata

Sheepb

Cowa

Humana

1260 970 1900 380 1600 130 1.3 3400 550 300 80 80 20

1950–2000 1240–1580 1360–1400 440–580 1100–1120 180–210 1.3–1.6 5200–7470 720–1222 400–680 53–90 104 31

1200 920 1500 450 1100 110 1.3 3800 460 220 60 70 30

320 150 550 200 450 40 2.1 3000 600 360 30 80 20

Nd: not determined. a Data compilation from Guéguen (1997) (per l). b Data compilation from Guéguen (1997), Haenlein and Wendorff (2006) (per kg) and Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b) (per kg).

found the anti-intestinal inflammatory potential of goat milk oligosaccharides in a rat model (Lara-Villoslada et al., 2006; Daddaoua et al., 2006). Gangliosides, which are sialic acid containing glycosphingolipids located on the outer surface of mammalian cells as well as fat globules, may act against enterotoxins and infections in newborns. Puente et al. (1996) found six times less gangliosides (expressed as ␮g of lipid-bound sialic acid/kg milk) in goat and ewe milk (70–80 average) than in cow milk (200–300 average). Their content changed according to season (positively correlated with changes in fat content). According to Puente et al. (1996), pasteurisation has no effect on sialic acids and gangliosides. 2.4. Minerals Data concerning the main minerals are available for goat and sheep milks (Table 4). Sheep milk presents the highest dry matter. Goat milk is distinguished by its high chloride and potassium content. Repartition of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium between the soluble and colloidal phases of milk are similar for cow and goat milks; sheep milk, however, has far lower solubility (Holt and Jenness, 1984). As far as contaminant metals are concerned, concentrations are highly variable according to studies and sampling (feeding, geographic areas, pollution. . .) and it is therefore difficult to compare species and breeds. Direct information concerning the bioavailability of minerals is lacking. Most of the existing studies were conducted in vitro, except for calcium, for which bioavailability was shown on rats (Buchowski et al., 1989). The authors showed a bioavailability of goat milk calcium similar to that of calcium chloride and thus as high as in cow milk (Shen et al., 1995). Iron contents in cow and goat milk are similar, with ewe milk being the highest (Guéguen, 1997). It seems that iron bioavailability is higher in goat milk than in cow milk (Park et al., 1986) due to higher nucleotide content contributing to better absorption in gut (Schlimme et al., 2000; Mc Cullough, 2003). As for zinc bioavailability, Shen et al. (1995) found higher values for human milk, lower values for sheep milk and average values for goat and cow

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 Table 5 Vitamin content of goat, sheep and cow raw whole milks (per 100 g) Goata Fat soluble vitamins A Retinol (mg) Beta carotene (mg)

Sheepb

Cowa

0.08

0.04 0.02

0.06 0.02

0.06

0.18

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.11

0.11

0.23

0.05

0.08

0.04

0.02

B2 Riboflavin (mg)

0.14

0.35

0.17

0.03

B3 Niacin (PP) (mg)

0.20

0.42

0.09

0.16

B5 Pantothenic acid (mg)

0.31

0.41

0.34

0.18

B6 Pyridoxin (mg)

0.05

0.08

0.04

0.01

B8 Biotin (␮g)

2.00

nd

2.00

0.70

B9 Folic acid (␮g)

1.00

5.00

5.30

5.20

B12 Cobalamin (␮g) Ascorbic acid (mg)

0.06 1.30

0.71 5.00

0.35 1.00

0.04 4.00

E Tocopherol (mg) Water soluble vitamins B1 Thiamin (mg)

a b

3. Impact of cheese making on compounds of nutritional value: new French results

Humana

0.04 0.00

D (␮g)

61

Data compilation according to Jaubert (1997). Data compilation according to Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b).

milk. Data regarding selenium show similar bioavailabilities of this mineral in goat and human milk (selenium being essentially bound to proteins) but lower for sheep milk (Shen et al., 1996). Barrionuevo et al. (2003) showed on rats a higher bioavailability (apparent digestibility and retention) of copper and especially zinc and selenium for frozen dried goat milk diets compared to frozen dried cow milk diets. Authors argue it may be linked either to the highest medium-chain fatty acid content or to the highest soluble protein ratio in goat milk. Actually, minerals such as iron, zinc and copper of ruminant milks are mainly associated with casein in contrast to human milk (linked to soluble proteins), implying lower assimilation for ruminant compounds. Rutherfurd et al. (2006) found a very similar pattern of mineral retention in 3-week-old piglets fed with either adapted cow or goat milk infant formula: the minor differences between the two diets were due to the different mineral contents of both formulas.

2.5. Vitamins There are few references concerning vitamins. A review by Jaubert (1997) for goat milk and by Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b) for sheep milk demonstrated the high content in B vitamins especially niacin for both milks (Table 5). Nevertheless, goat milk is poor in folic acid and vitamin E. Both goat and sheep milk are lacking ␤ carotene, which is entirely converted into retinol.

As milk composition (breeding systems) has changed over the last 20 years, cheese composition may now also differ from the old data of composition tables, where some valuable components are missing. Moreover, analytical methods have also improved. Therefore, taking into account literature from 1990, it appears that most of the studies concerning small ruminant milk cheeses, principally Spanish, Italian and sometimes Greek hard or semi-hard cheeses, dealt mainly with gross composition (fat, protein, lactose). Gross composition depends mainly on the type of cheese (hard cheeses, soft cheeses, whey cheeses. . .) and can be classified according to the dry matter (Tables 6 and 7). As small ruminant milks are rarely standardised for cheese making, content in milk fat and proteins according to breed and feeding systems seems to be also important. Actually, Pizzillo et al. (2005) found a link between composition of Ricotta and the composition of milk from 4 goat breeds: Girgenta, Siriana, Maltese and Local. Nevertheless, the effect may have been lowered due to the high heat treatment of the whey (90 ◦ C), inducing higher entrapment of fat in whey cheese, no matter the breed. Other traditional cheeses such as Tulum (Guven and Konar, 1996) in Turkey have very fluctuant compositions, according to production areas and producers know how. Concerning composition in organic acids, Park and Drake (2005) analysed soft lactic cheeses. Besides lactic acid (10.2 mg/g cheese), they found (mg/g cheese) tartric acid (0.93), formic acid (2.22), malic acid (1.18), orotic acid (0.04), acetic acid (3.15) and citric acid (0.71). Other studies aimed at following ripening (proteolysis, lipolysis and sensorial scores) or at establishing cheese yields. More recently, research has focused on developing ways to improve milk fatty acids in small ruminant milks and cheeses but few data deal with vitamins, minerals, their bioavailability, oligosaccharides in cheeses, etc. Studies concerning impact of technology (cheese making) on behaviour of nutrients other than fat and proteins are scarce. It is particularly true for French cheeses for which the main studies are those of Bordet (1990) on Ste Maure de Touraine cheese and Lucas et al. (2006a,b) on Rocamadour. Data relative to the composition of the most studied cheeses (Spanish or Italian fresh or ripened pressed cheeses) are not representative of French production. The main characteristic of French goat and sheep milk cheeses rests on the process of their cheese making. Most ewe milk cheeses are either uncooked blue-veined hard cheeses (Roquefort cheese) or pressed cheeses (Ossau-Iraty cheese) and goat milk cheeses are soft ripened cheeses or soft lactic cheeses, either fresh or ripened. Few available data concern these types of cheese in the literature and the existing but old composition tables for goat milk cheeses (Favier and Dorsainvil, 1987) and sheep milk do not give any indication about breeding system or technological parameters enabling the study of the impact on cheese making. So the recent French program had two objectives. The first one was to deepen understanding of composition and its variation, with the aim to update the composition tables

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Table 6 Gross composition of some goat milk cheeses (%) Type of cheese/age for analysis

Study country

Total solids

Fat

Proteinsa

Manchego type

Fresh Semi-mature Long ripening

Spain Spain Spain

59 65 71

34 36 36

22 23 25

USA USA USA

58 62 54

27 28 21

30 22 18

USA USA Spain USA

34 40 38 38

16 23 18 15

13 19 14 12

Italy Italy

47 36

17 17

17 14

2.3 2.9

Cheddar type Cheddar type Colby type Soft latic Soft Servilletta Domiati Cacioricotta Apulian Cacioricotta Ricotta Brocciu

Babia Laciana Vadeteja Armada

Hard, 6 months Washed curd, 6 months Soft lactic Soft lactic Slightly pressed Egyptian soft cheese, fresh Fresh, 1 week Fresh soft rennet cheese Whey cheese, 1 day Sweet whey cheese Mixed whey cheese

Italy

31

21

7

France France

29 25

17 13

6 6

Spain Spain Spain

71 73 79

43 57

26 37

Spain Bosnia

59 53

31 29

23 20

S. Africa Greece Spain Spain India France France France France France Spain Spain Spain France Spain

41 69 67 33 53 43 49 66 40 41 44 55 61 60 51

17 38 37 16

15

23 27 36 20 23 22 30 32 33 31

France

51–58

28–32

Lactic

27 days Pressed rennet type cheese, 120 days Pressed, 60 days White brined cheese 30 days 21 days Pressed, 3 months Pressed, 45 days Fresh Fresh Soft lactic Soft lactic Soft lactic Soft lactic Soft lactic 15 days 60 days 90 days Soft ripened, 30 days, Mixed coagulation, 63 days Ripened

Lactic

Fresh

France

15

Soft

Ripened

France

35

Ibores Travnicki cheese Feta type Pressed Pressed Mato Paneer type Rocamadour Ste Maure 21 days Ste Maure 58 days Valencay Crottin de Chavignol Fresh cheese Washed curd Majorero Bastelicaccia Cendrat del Montsec

a

Proteins: total nitrogen × 6.38.

6.1 18

Lactose

Lactate

Ash

Salt

References

4 5 4

1.5 2.2 1.9

Cabezas et al. (2005) Cabezas et al. (2005) Cabezas et al. (2005)

1.4

Park (2000) Fekadu et al. (2005) Fekadu et al. (2005) Soryal et al. (2005) Park (2000) Sendra and Saldo (2004) Soryal et al. (2004)

0.02

1.7

3.0 0.3

0.9

Pizzillo et al. (2005) Guerrini et al. (1997) Guerrini et al. (1997)

– –

1.0 1.2

4.5 3.0

2.1 1.7

0.17

Mas et al. (2002) Saric et al. (2002)

4.1 1.9

Pitso and Bester (2000) Kondyli and Katsiari (2001) Trujilllo et al. (1999) Capellas et al. (2001) Agnihotri and Pal (1996) Lucas et al. (2006a) Pierre et al. (1999) Pierre et al. (1999) Hosono and Sawada (1995) Hosono and Shirota (1994) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a) Casalta et al. (2001) Carretero et al. (1992)

1.8 1.5 1.9 1.1

1.8 0.7

18

2.2

17–22

0.1

4.7

1.5

11

. 2.0 2.6 2.7 3.7 4.5

1.2

Fresno et al. (1995) Carballo et al. (1994) Fresno et al. (1996)

2.5 0.6

12 20 12 16 16 15 16 20 22

Albenzio et al. (2006) Pasqualone et al. (2003)

0.8 1.3 2.8 2.1

Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) and CIQUAL et al. (2002) Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) and CIQUAL et al. (2002) Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) and CIQUAL et al. (2002)

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Product

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for French goat and sheep milk cheeses (better product knowledge, product labelling. . .) taking into account the nutritional aspect. The second objective was to evaluate the impact of cheese making on nutritional value. As caprine and ovine productions are well organised in France (national organisation for goat and regional organisations for sheep milk), two programs were conducted simultaneously for sheep and goat milk products. 3.1. Protocol Sampling differed between the two studies according to the objectives but, finally, the results enabled quite a similar valorisation (composition tables and impact of technology). For sheep milk, the study focused first on the variability of milk composition according to the production area and lactation stage and subsequently on the nutritional characteristics of cheese made from these milks under real conditions (at dairies). The relationship between milk composition and cheese quality as well as the evaluation of the technological impact could be then directly established. The aim with regard to goat milk cheeses was mainly to take into account the diversity of French cheeses in order to update and complete composition tables. The link with milk composition was possible owing to raw bulk milk analyses and the role of cheese making on cheese nutrients could be estimated by query forms including technological steps and methods. 3.2. Samples 3.2.1. Goat milks and cheeses Samples were chosen in order to represent all French production (production areas, types of cheeses) either from dairies or farms. Due to the lactic tradition, sampling mainly consisted of lactic cheeses: fresh lactic cheeses made with

63

raw milk (6 products) or pasteurised milk (6 products), ripened lactic cheeses made with raw milk (11 products including cheeses with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) such as Sainte Maure de Touraine, Pouligny Saint Pierre, Rocamadour, Picodon, Chabichou du Poitou, Valencay) or pasteurised milk (6 products), soft goat cheeses (6 “camembert”-type products) or spreads (4 products). In order to have data concerning raw material, four raw bulk milk samples (a mix of at least 10 herd milks) were also analysed. This sampling was duplicated: 43 products were sampled in July/August 2005 and 43 in September/October 2005. All the cheeses from one category had the same age (from the day of rennet addition): 10 days for fresh cheeses and 26 days for all ripened cheeses and spreads. This corresponds to the mean consuming use. Products were collected from 20 producers (10 dairies and 10 farms). Five geographic areas were represented: Centre; Poitou-Charentes and Vendée, Rhône Alpes, Southeast and Southwest. Product dispatch was scheduled 2 months in advance so that transformers could keep samples (4 ◦ C) of their production to be able to send products for analysis 1 week before the day of analysis. All the products were gathered at the laboratory of the Institut Technique des Produits Laitiers Caprins (ITPLC) and stored at 4 ◦ C before analysis at the ITPLC (for total solids, ash, nitrogen fraction, fat and free fatty acids) or for dispatch to other laboratories (for minerals, vitamins, total amino acids, carbohydrates, total fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, lactoferrin and free amino acids). Cold conditions were ensured during transport and storage. Mixes of 3 entire cheeses were performed in each laboratory just prior to analysis. A query form with information relative to feeding, breed and all technological parameters (from acidification to ripening) was filled in by the producer for each sample in order to establish a relationship between cheese composition, breeding systems and technology.

Table 7 Gross composition of some ewe milk cheeses (%) Product/cheese

Breed

Ricotta Canestrato Pugliese Canestrato Pugliese Fiore Sardo Pecorino Romano Manchego Soft lactic Manchego Feta Serra da Estrela Manchego Serena Halloumi Terrincho Pecorino Manchego Los Pedroches Robiola delle Langhe Roquefort Ossau-Iraty

Sarda

a

Age of cheese 1–56 days 10–12 months

Manchega

Sarda Manchega Merinos

Proteins = total nitrogen × 6.38.

90 days 0–33 days 1–9 months 3–240 days 1, 7, 21, 35 days

Fresh 0–60 days 1 day/60 days 90 days 2–100 days 1, 11, 28 days

Total solids

Fat

Proteinsa

30 39 67 70 65 63 53 37 45

18 31 30 29 30

25 27 28 27

66 58 65 46 70 70 35 49 57 61

26 31 22

Ash

Contarini et al. (2002) Corbo et al. (2001) Di Cagno et al. (2003)

25 18 8 7 9

32 25 37/36 30/42/37 31/33 24 33 32

23 21 26 23 26 18 19 24

References

8

8 5 6 4

Fernandez Garcia et al. (1999) Hassouna et al. (1996) Jaeggi et al. (2003) Katsiari et al. (1997) Macedo and Malcata (1997) Marcos et al. (1979) Papademas and Robinson (2000) Pinho et al. (2004) Pirisi et al. (2001) Requena et al. (1999) Sanjuan (2002) Turi et al. (1997) CIQUAL et al. (2002) CIQUAL et al. (2002)

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The main technological steps of the two main classes of goat milk cheeses are: For lactic cheeses: raw or pasteurised milk with added starters (commercial or whey from previous cheese making), little rennet addition (2–8 ml/100 l milk), slow coagulation at 18–24 ◦ C for 24–48 h, draining in bag (with curd salting and shaping by extrusion) or in moulds for 24–48 h, drying, packaging for fresh cheese or ripening for about 8–15 days at 12–15 ◦ C with surface ripening strains, packaging and finally stored at 4 ◦ C (shelf life 45–50 days). For soft cheese (Camembert type): Raw or mainly pasteurised milk with added commercial starters, more rennet than for lactic cheeses (20–30 ml/100 l milk), renneting at 32–36 ◦ C for 60 min, curd cutting in cubes (about 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm), draining in moulds, drying and ripening for about 12 days at 12 ◦ C with surface ripening strains, packaging and finally stored at 4 ◦ C (shelf life 45–50 days). 3.2.2. Sheep milks and cheeses As far as the sheep are concerned, five representative milk samples were collected, just before cheese making, in the 3 main traditional areas of dairy sheep production in France: Roquefort (Roquefort cheese), western Pyrenees (Ossau-Iraty cheese) and Corsica island (typical farm-made cheese). The sampling was carried out 4 times throughout the year of 2005 in January, February/March, April/May and June. The cheeses made with these milks were analysed after ripening: 4 months for the Ossau-Iraty (uncooked pressed semi-hard cheese) and 5 months for the Roquefort (blue-veined cheese). All the milks and cheeses were gathered at LIAL MC laboratory (transport and storage temperatures: 4 ◦ C). The analysis of the gross components (dry matter, fat and protein content, nitrogen fraction. . .) was done on fresh milks and representative mixes of 3–5 cheeses by LIAL MC. Representative samples were dispatched to the other laboratories involved in the program for minerals (calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, potassium), vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, tocopherol and retinol), lutein, amino acid and fatty acid profiles. The objective was twofold: to specify the nutritional content and to assess the relationship between milk and cheese content. One of the key points of the study was to sample milks and cheeses within the cheese-making process of the milk factories. Indeed, it was important to have the representative results of those dairy sheep cheeses which are to be found on the market. 3.3. Analyses For each nutrient, similar methods were used for both species. An example of the impact of technology is given for fatty acid profiles of ovine fat and pyridoxine, folic acid, calcium and magnesium for caprine cheeses. Ovine cheese FA composition was determined as described by Chilliard et al. (2006b). Hexane was added to lyophilised milk or cheese followed by 0.5 M sodium methylate and HCl 12N at room temperature. FA methyl esters were separated on a 100 m × 0.25 mm i.d. fused silica capillary column (CP-Sil 88) using a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionisation detector. Satisfactory sep-

arations of cis- and trans-18:1, non-conjugated 18:2, and CLA isomers were obtained in a single chromatographic run. Correction factors for C4:0 to C10:0 were determined using a butter oil reference standard (CRM 164). Vitamins in goat milk cheeses were determined either by HPLC for pyridoxin (internal method Pr NCT) or the microbiological method for folic acid (AOAC 645.74). Calcium and magnesium were determined by atomic absorption (JORF Ar 08/09/77). Fat content was measured by the Gerber butyrometric method (NF 04 210) for milks and by the Heiss method for cheeses. Total solids content was determined after drying to constant weight at 102 ◦ C according to the NF 04 210 norm for milks and NF V04282 (ISO 5534) for cheeses. 3.4. Results Goat and ewe milk French cheeses were profiled in depth and composition tables (INRA/CIQUAL/AFSSA) will be made available with all the data obtained during these two studies. Moreover, information concerning the impact of technology can be analysed: directly for sheep products made with the corresponding milks analysed or indirectly for goat milk with all the technology queries filled in by producers. 3.4.1. Impact of cheese making on fatty acid profiles The results obtained with the two types of ewe milk cheeses (Fig. 1a and b) showed that cheese making does not change total fatty acid profiles. There is no significant difference between the percentage of the different types of fatty acid obtained from the milk or in the cheese made with this milk. Fig. 2 illustrates the strong relationship (R2 = 0.86) between the percentage of vaccenic acid (C18:1trans11) in the milk fat and the same percentage in the cheese (the 2 types of cheese are pooled) made with the corresponding milk. The results confirmed, on a manufacturing scale in milk factories, that the fatty acid profiles of these full cream cheeses are directly related to these of the milk. They corroborate findings of previous studies realised at pilot or laboratory scale such as those of Addis et al. (2005) for ewe milk, Martin Alonso et al. (2000) on hard goat milk cheeses, as it was also observed by Ferlay et al. (2005) and Chilliard et al. (2006a) for soft goat milk cheeses and different feeding (either supplemented or not with lipids). C16:0, C18:1trans and C18:3n − 3 ratios (% total fatty acids) were similar for the milk and the two types of cheese. If some differences appear to be significant (P < 0.05), they remain low enough to conclude a slight impact on cheese making (Fig. 3). These studies have focused on ways of increasing content in fatty acids of nutritional interest (C18:3, CLA. . .) through lipid supplementation in the goat’s diet. However, improvement of the FA profile may sometimes be accompanied by an alteration of cheese flavour (Chilliard and Ferlay, 2004; Chilliard et al., 2005, 2006a). The same findings were recently reported by Lucas et al. (2006a,b) for Rocamadour (PDO goat milk cheese), reaching also the conclusions made regarding the absence of impact of cheese making on CLA isomer content in hard

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

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Fig. 1. Relationship between the proportions of short-chain (C4–C8), medium-chain (C10–C16), C18 and long-chain (C19–C22) fatty acids in the milk and in the corresponding cheeses (a) Roquefort; (b) Ossau-Iraty.

goat milk cheeses (Chen et al., 2006) and hard cow milk cheeses (Gnädig et al., 2004). Taking into account this strong relationship between milk and cheese fatty acid profiles, small ruminant cheeses, contains high levels of short- and medium-chain fatty acids compared to cow milk cheeses, with all the potential value described previously. The recent study on four French hard cow milk cheeses and one soft lactic goat milk cheese “Rocamadour” (Lucas et al., 2006a,b) also showed that other fat soluble compounds such as ␤-carotene (for cow milk cheese), xanthophylls and vitamin E did not depend on technology but rather on milk composition (e.g. breeding systems: hay vs. pasture) for both species. For vitamin A, it was partially influenced by both the original milk composition and the cheese-making process (Lucas et al., 2005). Park (2000) studied cholesterol content of some goat milk cheeses sold in the U.S. and found about 670 mg/100 g fat for plain soft cheese. Pizzoferrato et al. (2000) found a cholesterol concentration of 5-month semi-cooked goat milk cheeses directly dependent on the breeding system, from 300 mg/100 g fat for grazing to 400 mg/100 g fat for non-grazing. Further analysis of the data obtained during our study will complete these observations.

Besides the composition in fat soluble compounds itself, the impact of technology on the fat properties (e.g. globule size, free fat or free fatty acids. . .) could play a role in nutritional value of the product. During ripening, lipolysis induces an increase in free fatty acid content. It contributes to cheese flavour development, either directly with 4 ethyl octanoic and 4 methyloctanoic acids, specific fatty acids of goat and sheep milks, respectively (Le Quéré et al., 1996), or indirectly with fatty acids metabolized by ripening strains into lactones, esters, alcohols and other aroma compounds. The threshold level for 4 octanoic acid being very low (Brennand et al., 1989; Ha and Lindsay, 1991) this acid contributes to the specificity of goat milk cheeses and seem to be specifically liberated according to the ripening strain (Gaborit et al., 2001). Bordet (1990) found for soft lactic ripened cheese “Sainte Maure de Touraine” that the ratio of free C4–C10, C18:1 and C18:2 (% total free fatty acids) was higher than the ratio of these acids in total fatty acids in milk. This can be linked to their specific position, principally on sn-3 in goat milk (Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001) and also to the specificity of the ripening strain. For instance, C18:1 is preferentially liberated by lipase of Geotrichum candidum (Boutrou and Gueguen, 2005). Lipolysis can also occur before ripening, being either spontaneous in some

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K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Fig. 2. Relationship between the proportion of vaccenic acid (C18:1trans11) in the milk and in the cheese made with the milk (Roquefort and Ossau-Iraty cheese).

animals or induced by thermal or physical treatments (during milking, long cold storage, homogenisation). Moreover, the supramolecular structure of fat may influence the functional, sensorial and nutritional properties of cheeses. Recently, Lopez (2005) illustrated the different form of fat in bovine cheeses such as Camembert or Emmental with confocal laser scanning microscopy: fat globules covered with original or reconstituted (with casein and/or whey protein owing to homogenisation/heat treatment steps) milk fat globule membrane and free fat. She observed different sizes of fat globule, either small (homogenisation) or coalescent globules (during cooking for hard cheeses) and for Camembert she found globule size quite similar to that of the original globules in milk.

3.4.2. Impact of cheese making on vitamins and minerals Water soluble vitamins are highly present in ripened goat milk cheeses (Fig. 4), which meets the dietary reference intakes. These vitamins are more heat sensitive than fat soluble ones and the loss induced by pasteurization (72 ◦ C/15 s) is about: 10–20% for ascorbic acid, around 10% for thiamin, 5–7% for pyridoxin, folates and cobalamin, <1% for riboflavin, 0% for niacin, pantothenic acid and biotin (Andersson and Öste, 1995). Moreover, water soluble vitamins should be lost in the whey. Nevertheless, the quantities found in cheeses suggest a production by microorganisms. For instance, folate content was high in ripened lactic cheeses, which corroborates the finding of Lucas et al. (2006b) who found a high folate content in Rocamadour

Fig. 3. Fatty acid profiles of ripened lactic cheeses (made with raw milk), camembert-type cheeses (made with pasteurized milk) and corresponding raw goat milk according to Ferlay et al. (2005) and Chilliard et al. (2006a).

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Fig. 4. Water soluble vitamins content (per 100 g moisture) of French goat cheeses according to the technology (a) B6 (mg/100 g moisture) and (b) B9 (␮g/100 g moisture). Means with different superscripts (a–f) in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) (numbers of samples in brackets).

67

dophilus produce folic acid whereas Lactobacillus bulgaricus consume it (Forssen et al., 2000). As the type of ripening strains and ripening parameters (e.g. temperature/time) may differ between each class of products, it may induce variations in B vitamin contents and especially high folate content for raw milk ripened lactic cheeses. Within one category of products, variation according to geographic areas of production may occur. Such is the case for most B vitamins in ripened lactic cheeses made with raw milk, for which the amount is the highest in cheeses from Southeast, all made on-farm. The main factor has more to do with the technology used by “on-farm” producers (no use of commercial starters, different time/temperature during ripening. . .) than geographic origin. Fig. 5 shows this significant difference for pyridoxin. Concerning minerals, all lactic cheeses have the same calcium value expressed per 100 g solid non-fat, showing an overall similar demineralisation (Fig. 6a). Conversely, Chèvre boite (Camembert-type cheese) is richer in calcium owing to a lower lactic and more rennet-type coagulation. Concentrations (expressed per 100 g moisture) in magnesium (Fig. 6b), essentially soluble, are similar for both milk and fresh lactic cheeses. Camembert-type cheese contains higher quantities of magnesium and ripened lactic cheeses have an average intermediate content. These

(1010 ␮g/kg) compared to pressed cow milk cheeses it also meets results of findings of Favier and Dorsainvil (1987), who found a high content especially in the rind of soft lactic goat milk cheeses. This is of nutritional importance owing the lack in this compound in raw goat milk. Vitamin data are scarce concerning ewe milk cheeses. B vitamins may either be produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or yeasts (mainly Saccharomyces). Concerning LAB, folate production depends on bacteria strains. For instance, in yogurts, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus aci-

Fig. 5. Impact of technology on vitamin B6 (mg/100 g moisture) of ripened soft lactic cheeses made with raw goat milk. Means with different superscripts (a–f) in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) (number of samples in brackets).

Fig. 6. Content in Calcium (a) and Magnesium (b), expressed per gram Solid Non-Fat and mg/100 g moisture, respectively, in French goat cheeses according to the technology. Means with different superscripts (a–f) in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) (number of samples in brackets).

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Table 8 Minerals of some goat milk cheeses Name Ste Maure 21 days Rocamadour Babia Laciana Bastelicaccia Vadeteja Armada Fresh cheese Washed curd Majorero a b

Caa

Pa

Naa

Mga

Ka

Znb

4.01 3.69 2.99

13.1 14.7

2.05

2.42

3.47

2.61 2.21 2.54 1.71 1.62

26.3 36.1 34.6 36.6 45.1

1.70 1.72 1.68 1.34 2.05

1.02 0.89 0.40 0.43 0.37

3.55 3.79 4.01 4.59 3.88

12.7 2.53 1.99 6.55 6.43 8.67 14.1 12.4 13.7

5.07 4.19

3.45

0.37 0.22

4.40 6.47 8.12 7.10 8.18

12.1 8.34 10.0 7.8 9.8

0.26 0.32 0.63 0.55 0.62

Cub

Mnb

Feb

References Pierre et al. (1999) Lucas et al. (2006a,b) Fresno et al. (1996) Casalta et al. (2001) Fresno et al. (1996) Fresno et al. (1996) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b) Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b)

g/kg total solids. mg/kg total solids.

results meets the data compilation (Table 8) showing that lactic type cheeses such as Rocamadour, Ste Maure and Babia Laciana present low contents of calcium, phosphorus and zinc, whereas minerals such as potassium and magnesium are highly represented. The strong and early decrease in pH occurring in these types of cheeses during coagulation make calcium, phosphorus and zinc (mainly bound to caseins) soluble and are therefore lost in the whey during draining. Concentrations in potassium and magnesium, which are essentially soluble, decrease as dry matter increases through pressing or aging. By normalising the value against the moisture content of cheese, Lucas et al. (2006b) found a lower proportion of a soluble form of potassium in Rocamadour cheese, which may be linked to its lower solubility in goat milk than in cow milk. It can also explain its lower losses in whey when comparing it with French cow milk cheeses (Abondance, Tomme de Savoie, Cantalet and Salers). When comparing cow milk and goat milk cheeses, either in French (Lucas et al., 2006a,b) or Spanish (Fresno et al., 1995) studies, it can be concluded that mineral content depends rather on technology (type of coagulation, draining intensity) than on animal milk species. Nevertheless, Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b) succeeded to differentiate, cow, ewe and goat milk cheeses according to their mineral contents but also concluded to a high impact of technology. Selenium concentration depends rather on its availability in soil for assimilation by grass and its further recovery in milk and cheeses; it is then concentrated by the drying (ripening) effect (Pizzoferrato, 2002). As for the other components, data concerning the mineral composition of sheep milk cheese are rare. The Table 9 presents the results found in 4 typical cheeses from Spain and Italy. The calcium content is about 14 g/kg DM with a

variation between 10 and 20 g/kg DM. The magnesium content is less variable with an average of 0.8 g/kg DM. These bibliographic data will be completed for ewe milk cheese by the results of our study. Besides the mineral composition of the products, the bioavailability must be taken into account for a nutritional approach. According to Andersson and Öste (1995), HTST pasteurisation has little impact on calcium and phosphorus bioavailability. Guéguen and Pointillart (2000) reported, for humans, few differences for absorption coefficient of calcium between milk and other dairy products such as hard cheese (Cheddar) or fresh cheeses. Buchowski et al. (1989) found lower bioavailability of calcium of fresh goat cheeses than this of calcium chloride. Other soluble compounds such as carbohydrates and soluble proteins may undergo modification during cheesemaking process. Lactose is partly lost in whey and partly transformed into L lactates by LAB but also into D lactate by non-starter LAB or by isomerisation (depending on pH and salt concentration (Trujilllo et al., 1999). Fresno et al. (1996) also reported the impact of secondary flora such as lactobacilli, which could convert L lactate (mainly produced by lactococci) into D lactate in Armada cheese. Lactose is also transformed into glucose and galactose. These residual carbohydrates found in fresh cheeses disappear with increasing ripening time. More data will be further published from the present study. No data is available concerning oligosaccharide content in sheep and goat milk cheeses. Concerning whey proteins, they may be entrapped in the curd and could contribute to increased essential amino acid supplies such as cysteine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine and tryptophane. As far as technology is concerned, Rampilli and Cortellino (2005) found less entrapped

Table 9 Minerals of some sheep milk cheeses Name

Caa

Serra da Estrella Pecorino Los Pedroches Canestrato Pugliese Roquefort Brebis Pyrenees (like Ossau-Iraty)

10 14 11 21 11 12

a b

g/kg total solids. mg/kg total solids.

Pa 8 9 7 10 7 8

Mga

Ka

Znb

Cub

Mnb

1 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.5

1.7

94.3

2.3

1.25

1.8

38

1.4

2.1 0.9

64 –

1.4 –

0.4 –

Feb

References

7 4.9

Macedo and Malcata (1997) Pollman (1984) Sanjuan et al. (1998) Santoro (1992) CIQUAL et al. (2002) CIQUAL et al. (2002)

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lactoferrin in acid curd than in rennet curd for Italian cheeses. During pasteurisation, whey proteins are denaturated and a ␤ lactoglobulin–␬ casein complex is formed (Henry et al., 2002), increasing entrapment of denatured whey proteins (and increased bound water), which may lead to some minor differences in amino acid profiles between lactic cheese and soft cheese. Moreover, proteolysis induced by fermentation and ripening process contributes primarily to cheese flavour but could also play a role in nutrition. Proteolysis (either from LAB or ripening strains) induces increased amounts of peptides and free amino acids. In goat cheese, free amino acids are essentially glutamic acid, leucine and lysine (Bordet, 1990; Casalta et al., 2001). Taurine, initially present in high quantities in goat milk, should be lost in whey but some authors found significant concentrations in soft rennet fresh goat milk Cacioricotta cheeses (Caponio et al., 2000), where milk is subjected to high heat treatment (95 ◦ C/5 min). Denatured whey proteins, entrapped in curd, could favour taurine recovery. Actually, Pasqualone et al. (2003) found less significant content for this cheese when the milk was untreated. Freitas et al. (1998) observed on Picante cheese a decrease in taurine ratio (% total free amino acids) along the ripening process due to that fact that taurine does not come from proteins. 4. Conclusions and perspectives The update of composition tables ensures a reliable basis for nutritional valorisation and labelling. This study strengthens the position of goat and sheep milk cheeses as good suppliers of proteins, energy, fat, minerals and vitamins. Many studies have enhanced the nutritional quality of milk and fermented milk, and some of these findings could be easy applied to cheeses. Actually, taking into account that cheese fat quality (including not only fatty acids but also vitamins A and E) greatly depends on milk fat quality, that soluble vitamins can be produced (B vitamins) during the process and that main minerals are present at levels depending on the technology, cow, goat and ewe milk cheeses thus contain a large proportion of nutritionally valuable milk constituents and should be promoted more vigorously. Moreover, apart from their sensorial impact on small ruminant milk cheeses, short- and medium-chain fatty acids may also be of nutritional significance. The review also made clear that there is a lack of information concerning the impact of cheese making not only on vitamins and minerals but also on some particular molecules such as oligosaccharides. As for cow milk cheeses, the bioavailability of elements is not known for small ruminant cheeses. The results of these French programmes are to be promoted via French composition tables and other publications and the technological impact on milk nutrients will be further deepened for both species with all the data collected during the French study. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the French Office de l’Elevage and ANICAP (Association Nationale Interprofessionnelle

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Caprine) for their financial support. They would also like to thank ovine organisations (Confédération Générale de Roquefort; GIS ID64; Interprofession Lait de Brebis des Pyrénées; Interprofession Laitière Ovine Caprine de Corse) and all the institutes and companies for their contribution (milk and cheese supplies) to this study. Finally, they wish to thank all members of their steering committee for their advice and technical support (sampling, choice of analytical methods, etc.). References Addis, M., Cabiddu, A., Pinna, G., Decandia, M., Piredda, G., Pirisi, A., Molle, G., 2005. Milk and cheese fatty acid composition in sheep fed Mediterranean forages with reference to conjugated linoleic acid cis-9, trans-11. J. Dairy Sci. 88, 3443–3454. Agnihotri, M.K., Pal, U.K., 1996. Quality and shelf-life of goat milk Paneer in refrigerated storage. Small Rumin. Res. 20, 75–81. Akalin, A.S., Gonc, S., 1996. The determination of orotic acid in ruminant milks using HPLC. Milchwissenschaft 51 (10), 554–556. Albenzio, M., Caroprese, M., Marino, R., Muscio, A., Santillo, A., Sevi, A., 2006. Characteristics of Garganica goat milk and Cacioricotta cheese. Small Rumin. Res. 64 (1), 35–44. Alferez, M.J.M., Barrionuevo, M., Lopez Aliaga, I., Sanz Sampelayo, M.R., Lisbona, F., Robles, J.C., Campos, M.S., 2001. Digestive utilization of goat and cow milk fat in malabsorption syndrome. J. Dairy Res. 68, 451–461. Alichanidis, E., Polychroniadou, A., 1996. Special features of dairy products from ewe and goat milk from the physicochemical and organoleptic point of view. In: Production and Utilization of Ewe and Goat Milk, vol. 9603. IDF, pp. 21–43. Andersson, I., Öste, R., 1995. Nutritional quality of heat processed liquid milk. In: Heat Induced Changes in Milk. IDF, Brussels, Belgium, pp. 279–307. Attaie, R., Richter, R.L., 2000. Size distribution of fat globules in goat milk. J. Dairy Sci. 83 (5), 940–944. Bach, A.C., Ingenbleek, Y., Frey, A., 1996. The usefulness of dietary mediumchain trigycerides in body weight control: fact or fancy? J. Lipid Res. 37, 708–726. Baro Rodriguez, L., Boza Puerta, J., Fonolla Joya, J., Guadix Escobar, E., Jimenez Lopez, J., Lopez Huerta Leon, E., Martinez-Ferez, A., 2005. Composition comprising growth factors. Patent WO 2005/067962 A2. Barrionuevo, M., Lopez Aliaga, I., Alferez, M.J.M., Mesa, E., Nestares, T., Campos, M.S., 2003. Beneficial effect of goat milk on bioavailability of copper, zinc and selenium in rats. J. Physiol. Biochem. 59 (2), 111– 118. Barrucand, P., Raynal-Ljutovac, K., 2007. Variation of whey protein content in goat milk and impact on cheese yield. In: 5th International Symposium on The Challenge to Sheep and Goats Milk Sectors, Alghero, Italy, 18–20 April, p. 147 (Book of Abstracts). Ben Amara-Dali, W., Karray, N., Lesieur, P., Ollivon, M., 2005. Anhydrous goat’s milk fat: thermal and structural behavior. 1. Crystalline forms obtained by slow cooling. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (26), 10018–10025. Bendixen, H., Flint, A., Raben, A., Hoy, C.-E., Mu, H., Xu, X., Bartels, E.M., Astrup, A., 2002. Effect of 3 modified fats and a conventional fat on appetite, energy intake, energy expenditure, and substrate oxidation in healthy men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75, 47–56. BIOCLA QLK1- CT-2002-02362, 2008. Production of CLA-enriched dairy products by natural means. Bordenave, S., 2000. Hydrolyse de l’alpha-lactalbumine caprine en réacteur à ultrafiltration: génération et caractérisation de peptides issus de l’hydrolyse pepsique. Thèse. Université de la Rochelle, 155 pp. Bordet, F., 1990. Evolution biochimique du fromage de chèvre de “Sainte Maure” au cours de l’affinage. Industries Agro Alimentaires, April, pp. 241–249. Boutrou, R., Gueguen, M., 2005. Interests in Geotrichum candidum for cheese technology. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 102, 1–20. Brennand, C.P., Ha, J.K., Lindsay, R.C., 1989. Aroma properties and thresholds of some branched-chain and other minor volatile fatty acids occurring in milkfat and milk lipids. J. Sensor. Stud. 4, 105–120. Buchowski, M.S., Sowizral, K.C., Lengemann, F.W., Van Campen, D., Miller, D.D., 1989. A comparison of intrinsic and extrinsic tracer methods for estimating calcium bioavailability to rats from dairy foods. J. Nutr. 119, 228–234. Cabezas, L., Poveda, J.M., Sanchez, I., Palop, M.L.L., 2005. Physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of Spanish goat cheeses. Milchwissenschaft 60 (1), 48–51.

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