Compulsive buying in university students: its prevalence and relationships with materialism, psychological distress symptoms, and subjective well-being

    Compulsive Buying in University Students: its Prevalence and Relationships with Materialism, Psychological Distress Symptoms, and Subjective Wellbeing Est´ıbaliz Villardefrancos, Jos´e Manuel Otero-L´opez PII: DOI: Reference:

S0010-440X(15)30149-8 doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.11.007 YCOMP 51600

To appear in:

Comprehensive Psychiatry

Please cite this article as: Villardefrancos Est´ıbaliz, Otero-L´opez Jos´e Manuel, Compulsive Buying in University Students: its Prevalence and Relationships with Materialism, Psychological Distress Symptoms, and Subjective Well-being, Comprehensive Psychiatry (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.11.007

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

RI P

T

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

SC

Title:

MA NU

Compulsive Buying in University Students: its Prevalence and Relationships

ED

with Materialism, Psychological Distress Symptoms, and Subjective Well-being

Authors:

PT

Estíbaliz Villardefrancosa

CE

José Manuel Otero-Lópeza

AC

(a)Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Corresponding author: Estíbaliz Villardefrancos Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Campus Vida, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain. Tel.: +34 981 563100, Ext. 13882, Fax: +34 981 528071. E-mail address: [email protected] José Manuel Otero-López Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Campus Vida, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain. Tel.: +34 981 563100, Ext. 13882, Fax: +34 981 528071. E-mail address: [email protected]

1

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT ABSTRACT:

RI P

T

Background: Compulsive buying has become a severe problem among young people. The prominent role that psychological variables play in this phenomenon support their consideration in establishing a risk profile for compulsive buying that serves as a guide for the development of prevention and treatment programs with guarantees of effectiveness. However, there are only a small number of studies in existence which have explored the compulsive buying prevalence among students, and none of them have been conducted in a Mediterranean country.

MA NU

SC

Objectives: This study aims to estimate the compulsive buying prevalence in a sample of university students from the region of Galicia (Spain). We also intend to determine if statistically significant differences exist between compulsive buyers and noncompulsive buyers in relation with gender, materialistic values, psychological distress symptoms and subjective well-being. Lastly, the clarification of which of the determinants examined represent risk or protection factors for compulsive buying constitutes another important objective of this paper.

ED

Methods: A total sample of 1448 university students participated in this study. They answered a battery of self-reports assessing gender, compulsive buying propensity, materialism, distress symptomatology, and well-being. Participants were initially classified as either compulsive buyers or non-compulsive buyers. Both groups were compared for the aforementioned variables through chi-square testing or variance analyses. Then, a multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine which of these determinants make up a risk profile for compulsive buying.

AC

CE

PT

Results: The estimated prevalence of compulsive buying in the sample of university students considered was 7.4%. Statistically significant differences between compulsive buyers and non-compulsive buyers were detected for gender, and each and every one of the psychological variables explored. Specifically, it was confirmed that compulsive buyers obtained significantly higher scores in materialism‟s dimensions of importance, success, and happiness, and in the psychological distress symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, hostility, and somatization. On the contrary, they presented significantly lower levels in self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism. Results of the logistic regression analysis confirmed that high scores in the importance dimension of materialism, in combination with the experiencing of symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, hostility, and somatization, would constitute risk factors in relation with this phenomenon, and high levels of life satisfaction would act as a protection factor as for compulsive buying in the sample of students considered. Conclusions: Current findings revealed that 7.4% of the large sample of Spanish university students considered were classified as compulsive buyers. Additionally, it was confirmed that while materialism and psychological distress symptoms would represent vulnerability determinants increasing the propensity for compulsive buying, the high scores in life satisfaction would act to decrease the likelihood of becoming a compulsive buyer. Accordingly, our results suggested that prevention and intervention efforts in relation with compulsive buying among young people should include specific components aimed at the reduction of the importance assigned to money and possessions, and also at the relief of psychological distress symptoms.

Keywords: compulsive subjective well-being

buying,

materialism,

psychological

distress

symptoms, 2

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1. Introduction Previous research indicates that adolescents and young people present a high risk

T

for becoming compulsive buyers [1,2]. Specifically, the group between eighteen and

RI P

twenty-four years of age has been singled out in relation with the initiation of compulsive buying [3]. Some studies developed in the United States employing

SC

samples of students have obtained percentages of prevalence of this problem ranging from 3.5% to 9% [1,2,4,5]. These worrying figures, in combination with the variety of

MA NU

negative consequences stemming from this phenomenon at psychological, academic, financial, and familiar levels, make the study of the prevalence of compulsive buying in young people and its associated risk factors an urgent assignment for the researcher‟s agenda. Hence, the examination of compulsive buying and its potential risk and

ED

protection factors in a large sample of university students is the main focus of interest

PT

in this study.

Compulsive buying has been defined as a chronic and excessive form of shopping

CE

and spending characterized by intrusive thoughts and uncontrollable urges to buy that lead to repetitive purchasing episodes [6,7]. It turns into a primary response to negative

AC

feelings that provides immediate short-term gratification, but which ultimately causes harmful consequences to the individual and others [7-9]. Many efforts have been made in order to identify the variables that are involved both at the onset and with the continuance of this problem. As a result, there is currently a general consensus regarding these two aspects of the phenomenon, one of which is the multiethiological character of compulsive buying, with a diversity of determinants (socio-demographic, psychological, for instance) taking part in the configuration of the problem. At the sociodemographic level, the relevance of gender and age should be duly noted, with some studies showing that women [7,10] and young people present a higher vulnerability to compulsive buying [11-13]. Another relevant finding on the subject makes reference to 3

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the fundamental role that psychological variables of distinct nature (personality traits, values, goals, self-concept, for instance) play in compulsive buying. More specifically, the endorsement of materialistic values has been confirmed in a few studies conducted

RI P

T

on general population based samples [14,15], and students [16,17], as one of the main risk factors in relation with this phenomenon. Psychological distress symptoms, including anxiety and depression, in keeping with a vast amount of literature in the field

SC

[18-21], constitute important triggers for compulsive buying episodes. Moreover,

MA NU

echoing the emphasis given it in seminal studies on the obsessive-compulsive characteristics of the problem [7,22], some researchers have paid special attention to the examination of these symptoms in relation with compulsive buying [23]. However, there are only a small number of studies examining the role of other symptoms such as somatization, and hostility [13,24]. In this regard, the combining of some determinants

ED

that have been thoroughly examined in this field (i.e., materialism, anxiety, depression,

PT

obsession-compulsion) with others which have received scant attention –somatization and hostility- represents an innovative aspect of this study.

CE

As well as the aforementioned significance of materialism and symptomatology, low

AC

levels in different indicators of subjective well-being like self-esteem [3,25] and life satisfaction [14,26,27] have been confirmed as vulnerability factors in relation with compulsive buying. Notwithstanding, in spite of the growing research interest in the examination of other kinds of personality determinants like optimism in relation with different problems including chemical addictions [28] and eating disorders [29], little is still known with respect to the potential role of optimism in compulsive buying [30]. Accordingly, taking into account previous evidence and given the scarcity of studies which have examined the potential role of cognitive indicators of subjective well-being in compulsive buying, they are prominent features of this research.

4

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Lastly, in an attempt to contribute not only to a better understanding of the phenomenon but to also do the same with prevention and intervention, we pretended to determine which of the different variables included in this study act as risk or protective

RI P

T

factors for this problem. In summary, this research intends to fill some of the potential gaps in the field such as the analysis of compulsive buying among young people from a Mediterranean country, namely Spain, the integration of sets of psychological variables

SC

of distinct nature, including materialism (i.e., the importance, success, and happiness

MA NU

dimensions), distress symptoms (i.e., anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization, and hostility), and cognitive indicators of subjective well-being (i.e., selfesteem, life satisfaction, optimism) and the clarification of the role of these determinants in a risk profile for compulsive buying in a large sample of university students. Specifically, our main objectives are: (a) to estimate compulsive buying

ED

prevalence; (b) to elucidate if statistically significant differences exist between

PT

compulsive buyers and non-compulsive buyers as for gender, materialism dimensions, psychological distress symptoms, and subjective well-being; (c) and to establish a risk

CE

profile for compulsive buying based on these sets of variables.

AC

2. Methods 2.1.

Procedures and participants

This study has been developed in the framework of a wider research project aimed at the analysis of the compulsive buying phenomenon and its associated variables in the region of Galicia (Spain). Sample data was collected during the second four-month period in the academic year between February and May 2014. In recruiting a large sample of university students from distinct knowledge areas, members of the research group, along with hired personnel who collaborated in the field work after a training period, went to different faculties of the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Specifically, data was collected in the Schools of Economics, Education, Nursing, Journalism, Medicine, Philology, History, Philosophy, Psychology, Pedagogy, 5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Mathematics, Biology, Pharmacy, Law, Labor Relations, Physics, and Chemistry. Prior to the handing out of questionnaires, we contacted some professors from different schools who gave us the opportunity of presenting our research to their students, with

RI P

T

those who voluntarily accepted to do so filling out the battery of self-reports during the class. Participants received paper-versions of questionnaires, and precise information on how to complete them. Inclusion criteria for this research were: being a student over

SC

18 years of age, a fluent Spanish speaker, not currently under psychopharmacological

MA NU

treatment or psychotherapy, and having no other current impulse control disorder other than compulsive buying. In addition, a written consent form was obtained, and the confidentiality of the data was guaranteed. The study met, and was conducted in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration, and it was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the University of Santiago de Compostela. The return rate was 96.1%.

ED

A total of 1448 students were included in the study sample. As for gender, there

PT

were 730 females (50.4%) and 718 males (49.6%). The age ranged from 18 to 23 years (Mean= 19.51, SD=1.46). As for knowledge areas, 26.4% of participants were

CE

studying Sciences, 27.5% Health Care, 34.2% Social Sciences, and Law, and 11.9% Liberal Arts. No statistically significant differences were found in compulsive buying in

AC

relation with knowledge area. 2.2.

Measures

The battery of self-reports was comprised by instruments assessing compulsive buying, materialistic values, psychological distress symptomatology, and subjective well-being. Additionally, participants were asked to provide sociodemographic data as for gender and age. They were also asked to review a list of impulse control disorders and indicate whether they had ever been diagnosed as for any of the detailed disorders. Finally, specific items in relation with current psychopharmacological or psychotherapy treatment were also included.

6

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2.2.1. Compulsive buying The German Compulsive Buying Scale [GCBS; 22] assesses conduct and feelings associated with compulsive buying. It consists of 16 items (e.g., “Sometimes I

RI P

T

buy something that I cannot afford”) that are answered on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The total score is considered an indicator of compulsive buying tendency. This instrument has previously demonstrated adequate

SC

psychometric properties in other research showing, for instance, a Cronbach‟s alpha

MA NU

value of .91 [12]. In this study, the Spanish version of the GCBS [31] was employed, and its internal consistency measured using Cronbach‟s alpha was .89. In considering the goals of the current study, and in agreement with some previous works [12, 32], we adopted a cut-off score that was two standard deviations above the mean value of the group in GCBS. Accordingly, given that the mean GCBS score in the students‟ sample

ED

was 31.08, and the standard deviation was 7.02, a score equal to or greater than 45

PT

was taken as the cut-off point for classifying subjects as compulsive buyers. This cutoff score matches with the adopted in some previous studies on the subject using

CE

general population samples [12,13].

AC

2.2.2. Materialistic values The Spanish version [33] of the Materialism Values Scale [MVS; 34] was employed to assess materialistic values. This measure is comprised of 18 items that evaluate the three dimensions of importance (seven items; e.g., “I like a lot of luxury in my life”), success (six items; e.g., “The things I own say a lot about how well I‟m doing in life”) and happiness (five items; e.g., “I would be happier if I could afford to buy more things”). All items are scored on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree), with higher scores reflecting higher materialistic values endorsement. In a review of studies employing this measure [35], mean values of Cronbach‟s alphas for the three dimensions ranged from .72 for importance to .78 for happiness. In this

7

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT study, Cronbach‟s alphas were .82, .84, and .81, respectively, for the importance, success, and happiness dimensions. 2.2.3. Psychological distress symptomatology

RI P

T

Psychological distress symptoms were assessed using the anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization, and hostility subscales pertaining to the Spanish version [36] of the Symptom Checklist-90-R [SCL-90-R; 37] which provides a measure

SC

of psychological symptoms experienced over the month prior to data collection. It

MA NU

includes ten items related to anxiety (e.g., “Feeling tense or keyed up”), thirteen items regarding depression (e.g., “Crying easily”), ten statements evaluating obsessioncompulsion (e.g., “Trouble concentrating”), twelve items assessing somatization (e.g., “Pains in lower back”), and six statements measuring hostility (e.g., “Easily annoyed or irritated”). Items are responded to on a scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (very often).

ED

Item scores are summed to generate a total score on the aforementioned symptoms.

PT

This instrument has shown adequate psychometric properties in previous studies starting from university students, with Cronbach‟s alpha values for the subscales

CE

considered in this paper ranging from .76 for hostility to .88 for depression [38]. In this sample, internal consistency indices based on Cronbach‟s alpha ranged from .80 for

AC

hostility to .91 for anxiety.

2.2.4. Subjective well-being

We considered different cognitive indicators of subjective well-being: selfesteem, life satisfaction, and optimism. Self-esteem was assessed by means of the Spanish version [39] of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [RSES; 40]. It contains 10 items measuring global self-esteem (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”) and that have to be answered using a four-point scale that ranges from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Previous studies have obtained alpha reliabilities for the RSES ranging from .72 to .88 [41]. In the present sample, Cronbach‟s alpha was .85.

8

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The Spanish version [42] of the Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 43] was employed to assess perceived global life satisfaction levels. This measure includes five statements (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”) and respondents indicate

RI P

T

their agreement on a scale of 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Diener et al. [43] found appropriate levels of internal consistency, with a Cronbach‟s alpha

SC

coefficient of .87. In the current study, it was .85.

The revised version of the Life Orientation Test –LOT-R- [44] was the

MA NU

instrument selected to assess dispositional optimism. It includes 10 items (e.g., “In uncertain times, I always expect the best”) whose answers are given on a scale ranging between 0 (totally disagree) to 3 (totally agree). Some authors have confirmed adequate psychometric properties of this scale [45]. In this study, the Spanish version

Statistical Analyses

PT

2.3.

ED

of this measure [46] was employed, and Cronbach‟s alpha was .88.

Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM-PASW Statistics software, version

CE

20.0. In accordance with our main objectives, the prevalence of compulsive buying among students was initially estimated, and participants were classified into two

AC

groups: compulsive buyers and non-compulsive buyers. Comparisons between these groups in relation to gender, materialism dimensions, psychological distress symptoms, and cognitive indicators of subjective well-being were established using chi-square test for the categorical variable gender, and Anova for continuous variables. In determining which of these determinants constituted significant predictors of compulsive buying, the variables that were significantly related to this phenomenon at level p<0.05 in the univariate analyses were then included in a multivariate logistic regression analysis (Enter method). The odds ratio (OR) and the 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the ORs were calculated. In addition, the Wald statistic was used to determine significance of

9

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT predictors and the Nagelkerke‟s R2 to give account of the percentage of explained variance in compulsive buying.

T

3. Results

RI P

As for the first objective of the current study, our results revealed an estimated prevalence of compulsive buying of 7.4% in the sample of university students

SC

considered. The classifying of participants into groups of compulsive buyers and noncompulsive buyers allowed for the establishment of comparisons between both groups

MA NU

in relation with gender, materialism dimensions, psychological distress symptomatology and the indicators of cognitive subjective well-being (the second aim of this research). In this sense, current findings (see Table 1) confirmed the existence of statistically significant differences with regards to the prevalence of compulsive buying in relation

ED

with gender. More specifically, females showed a higher prevalence of this problem than males (9% and 5.8%, respectively, X2= 5.34, p=.021). Another important finding in

PT

the current study was that each and every one of the psychological variables examined

CE

established statistically significant differences between the aforementioned groups. To be more precise, we found that the compulsive buyers group presented significantly

AC

higher scores than the comparison group in the three materialism dimensions of importance, success, and happiness. Similarly, current findings showed that, in comparison with participants not meeting criteria for compulsive buying, compulsive buyers obtained significantly higher scores in all the psychological distress symptoms explored, with the largest differences being detected in obsession-compulsion, depression and anxiety (F values ranging from 213.78 to 172.38, p=.001). Comparisons between the compulsive and non-compulsive buyer groups allowed us to confirm that there were statistically significant differences in relation with the indicators of subjective well-being included. In this sense, the empirical evidence in this study

10

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT clearly pointed to the existence of statistically significant lower levels of self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism among the compulsive buyers.

RI P

T

(PLEASE, INSERT TABLE 1 APPROXIMATELY HERE)

Finally, in order to establish a risk profile for compulsive buying in university

SC

students (the third objective of this research), a multivariate logistic regression analysis

MA NU

was conducted considering the compulsive buying status (0= Non-CB, 1= CB) as the criterion variable, and the determinants which established statistically significant differences between compulsive buyers and non-compulsive buyers in the univariate analyses (namely, gender, materialism dimensions, psychological distress symptoms, and the subjective well-being indicators) as predictors. These results (Table 2)

ED

revealed that the importance dimension of materialism, the psychological distress

PT

symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization, and hostility acted as risk factors for compulsive buying. On the other hand, life satisfaction

CE

constituted a protective factor in relation with this problem. Additionally, it should be noted that Nagelkerke R2 was .441, suggesting that a large amount of compulsive

AC

buying variance was explained for by the variables in the model.

(PLEASE, INSERT TABLE 2 APPROXIMATELY HERE)

4. Discussion Our results revealed that the estimated prevalence of compulsive buying among the large sample of university students considered was 7.4%. In a more detailed analysis of our findings, it should be noted that although the rate of prevalence obtained in this paper is slightly higher than that confirmed in some of the more recent studies in the area [1,2], it fits with the estimated range from 6% to 9% mentioned by 11

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Norum [47], who took into account some previous researches conducted with students [4,5]. The estimated prevalence of compulsive buying in this study is also similar to that confirmed in some broad based population samples [12,13,24,48]. Indeed, in a recent

RI P

T

research starting from a large and representative sample from the general population in the same region considered in the current paper it was obtained an estimated prevalence of compulsive buying of 7.1% [13]. As for gender, we found that the

SC

compulsive buying prevalence was significantly higher among females. In this sense,

MA NU

our findings are in line with some previous studies in this field revealing that women are generally more prone than men to the compulsive buying phenomenon [12,13,49,50]. Interestingly, materialism emerged in the current study as a relevant determinant in relation with compulsive buying. More specifically, it was first confirmed that all the dimensions of materialism established statistically significant differences

ED

between compulsive buyers and non-compulsive buyers. These results add new

PT

support to the vast amount of literature demonstrating that the materialistic values endorsement constitutes a crucial element that increases the predisposition for

CE

compulsive buying [15,51]. In particular, our findings are consistent with studies that, using samples of adolescents and young people, have found that materialism plays a

AC

prominent role in this phenomenon [4,11,52]. The dimensional approach of materialism adopted in this research allowed for a more exhaustive understanding of the links between the specific facets of this construct and compulsive buying. Namely, it was confirmed that the three dimensions of importance, success and happiness, in that order, established statistically significant differences between the aforementioned groups. Moreover, the importance dimension was, within the wide range of determinants explored, the main predictor of the problem, emerging in this manner as a major risk factor for compulsive buying. In analyzing the meaning of importance, it should be noted that high scores lead to the assumption of a life-style in which possessions and their acquisition are placed at the center of life [34]. In this sense, our 12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT results might be understood in the framework of the suggestions by Kasser et al. [53] who pointed out that most contemporary adolescents believe that having money, and the acquisition of possessions, represent a priority goal in life. This, as a result, might

RI P

T

increase the propensity for compulsive buying.

Psychological distress symptomatology represents, in view of our findings, another important focus of vulnerability in relation with compulsive buying. We

SC

confirmed that students classified in the compulsive buyers group presented

MA NU

statistically significant higher scores in anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization and hostility symptoms than the comparison group. Also, each and every one of the symptoms examined were related with the compulsive buying phenomenon at statistically significant levels. These results are in agreement with previous literature in the field which has, in general, pointed to physical and psychological malaise as risk

ED

factors in relation with compulsive buying [24]. More specifically, our findings confirmed

PT

that among the symptoms considered, anxiety, obsession-compulsion, and depression were relevant correlates of this problem. Thus, the comprehensive analysis of

CE

symptomatology taken in this research substantiates previous findings on the subject providing evidence about the role of anxiety [18,54], depression [20,24,51], and

AC

obsession-compulsion [23,24] as potential triggers for compulsive buying. Moreover, this paper aimed to advance our shared knowledge in this field by analyzing the role of somatization and hostility symptoms; and, in this regard, we have attained preliminary evidence about their capability to differentiate between students pertaining to the compulsive buyer and the comparative groups, and to predict this phenomenon as well. Accordingly, our results suggest the opportunism of going beyond the aforementioned triad of symptoms (i.e., anxiety, depression, and obsession-compulsion), and also paying attention to assessment and intervention for physical malaise and potential conflicts in personal relationships in students which, in light of our findings, also act to increase the likelihood of becoming a compulsive buyer. 13

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Exploration of distinct cognitive indicators of subjective well-being constitutes one of the main innovations in this study. Results revealed that subjects in the compulsive buyer group presented, in comparison with the remaining participants,

RI P

T

lower levels of subjective well-being based on significantly lower scores in self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism. In this regard, our findings were in agreement with previous literature whose conclusions suggest that the lower the level of self-esteem,

SC

the higher the risk of presenting compulsive buying patterns [3,22,25,32]. Similarly,

MA NU

results for life satisfaction lend support to the evidence obtained in a small number of studies which confirmed, in general, a negative relationship between this determinant and compulsive buying [26,27,55]. Given that optimism has only been included in some of the most recent papers on compulsive buying [30], it is difficult to reach a definitive conclusion as for its role in this phenomenon; notwithstanding, findings in this research

ED

provided preliminary empirical evidence that suggests the existence of low levels in this

PT

determinant, or a “pessimistic” tendency among compulsive buyers. It is notable that, when in meeting with the last objective of our work self-esteem, life satisfaction,

CE

optimism, and the remaining variables which established significant differences between the compulsive buyers and the comparison group were explored, life

AC

satisfaction emerged as a protective factor in relation with compulsive buying. In the search for a possible explanation for this finding, it might be reasoned that given the comprehensive character of the life satisfaction construct, including the level of satisfaction with a variety of issues like contemporary life, past and future, and others‟ perception of our own lives [56], it might represent a powerful “antidote” against compulsive buying. The intention of this study was to add to our knowledge about compulsive buying by means of the identification of a risk profile among young people with the ultimate goal of establishing some clinical guidelines which contribute to the intervention of this phenomenon in an age range that has been pointed out as having 14

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT one of the highest likelihoods for the initiation of the problem. In light of our findings showing that psychological distress symptoms and the importance dimension of materialism act to increase the propensity for compulsive buying, and that life

RI P

T

satisfaction plays a protective role against this problem among the sample of university students considered, it seems necessary to advance in the design and implementation of prevention and intervention programs with a threefold objective: a) reducing the

SC

importance assigned to money and possessions; b) mitigating the symptomatology of

MA NU

anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization, and hostility; and, c) potentiating the sense of life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Hence, it might be useful for the global assessment of symptoms, subjective well-being, materialistic values, and compulsive buying conducted in this study to be included as part of universities‟ health programs in order to better detect and consequently offer

ED

intervention options to individuals showing a high propensity for this problem. In this

PT

regard, it could be an interesting idea to consider the possibility of providing university students access to some of the available therapies for compulsive buying, including

CE

specific components dealing with obsessive thoughts, negative emotions, and inadequate money management [57], and that could be offered and implemented as a

AC

workshop by the university health services. In addition to these clinical implications, this research presents some strengths that should be considered. The inclusion of a large sample of university students from a Mediterranean country (Spain), representing a cultural context which has not been previously examined, would be an example in this regard. In the same vein, the comprehensive character of our research should be noted as it includes not only some of the determinants which previous literature on the subject has pointed out as being linked with compulsive buying (e.g., materialism, anxiety, depression, self-esteem, obsession-compulsion) but also other variables that have been scarcely explored (e.g., somatization, hostility, optimism). The exhaustive analysis of some determinants like 15

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT materialism and psychological distress symptoms by means of the adoption of a dimensional approach should be considered as well. Notwithstanding, the current study also presents a number of limitations that should be taken into account in both the

RI P

T

interpretation of findings and the development of future research. Firstly, the crosssectional nature of the data does not allow for the establishment of inferences about the causal priority of the determinants examined in compulsive buying; although in the

SC

current study psychological distress symptoms, materialistic values, and subjective

MA NU

well-being indicators are significantly related with compulsive buying, the development of longitudinal studies is required to address this issue. Secondly, given that all the independent variables were assessed exclusively by means of self-report measures, the inclusion of another type of data input (e.g., clinical interviews, external informants) would allow for the consideration of common method variance and the detection of

ED

socially desirable responses. Thirdly, potential concerns related to generalizability

PT

could be resolved by means of the development of new research with students from other universities, countries, and cultures. Finally, shedding light on the role of other

CE

determinants such as risk or protective factors in relation with compulsive buying among young people (personality traits, coping strategies, for instance) could represent

AC

an interesting challenge for future research. 5. Conclusion This study intended to contribute to the cumulative knowledge in the compulsive buying field by determining the prevalence of this phenomenon and its associated risk factors in university students, with the final aim of advancing in prevention and intervention in the initial stages of this problem. Our results revealed that the estimated prevalence of compulsive buying in the sample considered was 7.4%. Findings were also clear about the major role that the psychological determinants examined played in this behavioral problem. In fact, comparisons among compulsive buyers and noncompulsive buyers groups revealed the existence of statistically significant differences 16

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in just about every one of the variables examined. Specifically, there were differences as for gender, the materialism dimensions of importance, success and happiness, the psychological distress symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion,

RI P

T

somatization, and hostility, and the subjective well-being indicators of self-esteem, optimism, and life satisfaction, with the compulsive buyers group showing statistically significant higher scores in the materialism dimensions and symptomatology, and lower

SC

scores in subjective well-being indicators. In establishing a risk profile for compulsive

MA NU

buying, it was found that all the groups of psychological variables explored contributed towards explaining a large amount of variance of this problem (44.1%). Our results confirmed that while the importance dimension of materialism and the psychological symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsession-compulsion, somatization, and hostility constituted risk factors for compulsive buying, life satisfaction acted as a protective

ED

factor in relation with this problem. Accordingly, we advise the development of

PT

prevention and intervention guidelines focused on reducing, on the one hand, the central role assigned to money and possessions in life, and, on the other, alleviating

CE

the psychological distress symptoms. The potentiation of subjective well-being, in general, and of life satisfaction, in particular, would also contribute, in light of our

AC

findings, towards diminishing the risk of young people becoming compulsive buyers.

17

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT REFERENCES 1.Grant JE, Potenza MN, Krishnan-Sarin S, Cavallo DA, Desai RA. Shopping problems

T

among high school students. Comp Psychiat 2011; 52:247-52.

RI P

2. Harvanko A, Lust K, Odlaug BL, Schreiber LRN, Derbyshire K, Christenson G, Grant JE. Prevalence and characteristics of compulsive buying in college students. Psychiatry Res

SC

2013; 21:1079-85.

3. Yurchisin J, Johnson KKP. Compulsive buying behavior and its relationship to perceived

MA NU

social status associated with buying, materialism, self-esteem and apparel-product involvement. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal 2004; 32:291-314. 4. Roberts JA. Compulsive buying among college students: An investigation of its antecedents, consequences and implications for public policy. J Consum Aff 1998; 32:295-

ED

319.

5. Roberts JA, Jones E. Money attitudes, credit card use, and compulsive buying among

PT

American college students. J Consum Aff 2001; 35:213-40. 6. Black DW. Compulsive buying disorder: a review of the evidence. CNS Spectrums

CE

2007; 12:124-32.

AC

7. O‟Guinn TC, Faber RJ. Compulsive buying: A phenomenological exploration. J Consum Res 1989; 16:147-53. 8. Edwards EA. Development of a new scale for measuring compulsive buying behavior. Financial Counseling and Planning 1993; 4: 67-84. 9. McElroy SL, Keck PE, Pope HG, Smith JMR, Strakowski SM. Compulsive buying: A report of 20 cases. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55:242-8. 10. Reisch LA. Women and addictive buying: The gender question revisited. In: García I, Olábarri E, editors. El consumo y la adicción a las compras. Diferentes perspectivas, Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco; 2001, p. 169-95. 18

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 11. Dittmar H. Compulsive-buying a growing concern? An examination of gender, age and endorsement of materialistic values as predictors. Br J Psychol 2005; 96:467-91.

RI P

An empirical re-inquiry. J Econ Psychol 2005; 26:509-22.

T

12. Neuner M, Raab G, Reisch L. Compulsive buying in maturing consumer societies:

13. Otero-López JM, Villardefrancos E. Prevalence, sociodemographic factors,

SC

psychological distress, and coping strategies related to compulsive buying: a cross-

MA NU

sectional study in Galicia, Spain. BMC Psychiatry 2014; 14:101. 14. Dittmar H, Kapur P. Consumerism and well-being in India and the UK: identity projection and emotion regulation as underlying psychological processes. Psychol Studies 2011; 56:71-85.

ED

15. Otero-López JM, Villardefrancos E. Five-Factor Model personality traits, materialism, and excessive buying: A mediational analysis. Pers Individ Differ 2013;

PT

54:767-72.

CE

16. Mueller A, Claes L, Mitchell JE, Faber RJ, Fischer J, de Zwann M. Does compulsive buying differ between male and female students. Pers Individ Differ 2011;

AC

50: 1309-12.

17. Rose P. Mediators of the association between narcissism and compulsive buying: The roles of materialism and impulse control. Psychol Addict Behav 2007; 21:576-81. 18. Faber RJ, Christenson GA. In the mood to buy: Differences in the mood states experienced by compulsive buyers and other consumers. Psychol Mark 1996; 13:80319. 19. Mueller A, Mitchell JE, Crosby RD, Cao L, Johnson J, Claes L, de Zwaan M. Mood states preceding and following compulsive buying episodes: An ecological momentary assessment study. Psychiatry Res 2012; 200:575-80. 19

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 20. Otero-López JM, Villardefrancos E. Materialism and addictive buying in women: The mediating role of anxiety and depression. Psychol Rep 2013; 113: 328-44.

RI P

focus in compulsive buying. Cogn Ther Res 2012; 36: 451-7.

T

21. Williams AD, Grisham JR. Impulsivity, emotion regulation, and mindful attentional

study. J Cons Pol 1990; 13: 355-87.

SC

22. Scherhorn G, Reisch LA, Raab G. Addictive buying in West Germany: An empirical

MA NU

23. Kyrios M, Frost RO, Steketee G. Cognitions in compulsive buying and acquisition. Cogn Ther Res 2004; 28: 241-58.

24. Mueller A, Claes L, Mitchell JE, Wonderlich SA, Crosby RD, de Zwaan M. Personality prototypes in individuals with compulsive buying based on the Big Five

ED

Model. Behav Res Ther 2010; 48:930-5.

PT

25. Hanley A, Wilhelm MS. Compulsive buying: An exploration into self-esteem and money attitudes. J Econ Psychol 1992; 13:5-18.

CE

26. Otero-López JM, Villardefrancos E, Castro C, Santiago MJ. Materialism, life-

AC

satisfaction and addictive buying: Examining the causal relationships. Pers Individ Differ 2011; 50: 772-6. 27. Silvera DH, Lavack AM, Kropp F. Impulse buying: The role of affect, social influence, and subjective well-being. Journal of Consumer Marketing 2008; 25: 23-33. 28. Wray TB, Dvorak RD, Hsia JF, Arens AM, Schweinle WE. Optimism and pessimism as predictors of alcohol use trajectories in adolescence. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse 2013; 22:58-68.

20

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 29. Tomba E, Offidani E, Tecuta L, Schumann R, Ballardini D. Psychological well‐being in out‐patients with eating disorders: A controlled study. Int J Eating Disord 2014; 47:

T

252-8.

RI P

30. Nayebzadeh S, Heirany F, Nasirizadeh MJ, Eghbali A, Riahi MH. The relationship between positive psychology components and compulsive buying among students. The

SC

AYER 2015; 2: 315-26.

31. Reisch LA, Neuner M. Women and addictive buying: The gender question revisited.

MA NU

In: García I, Olábarri E, editors. El consumo y la adicción a las compras. Diferentes perspectivas, Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco; 2001, p. 169-95. 32. Raab G, Elger CE, Neuner M, Weber B. A neurological study of compulsive buying

ED

behaviour. J Consum Policy 2011; 34:401-13.

33. Lado N, Villanueva ML. Los valores materiales en el comportamiento del consumidor. Un estudio exploratorio de los jóvenes. Revista Española de Investigación

PT

de Marketing ESIC; 3: 87-101.

CE

34. Richins ML, Dawson S. A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement: Scale development and validation. J Cons Res 1992; 19:303-16.

AC

35. Richins, ML. The material values scale: Measurement properties and development of a short-form. J Cons Res 2004; 31: 209-19. 36. González JL, Derogatis LR, De Las Cuevas C, Gracia R, Rodríguez F, Henry M, Monterrey AL. The Spanish Version of the SCL-90-R. Normative Data in the General Population. Towson: Clinical Psychometric Research, 1989. 37. Derogatis LR. SCL-90-R. Administration, scoring and procedures. Manual for the Revised Version of the SCL-90. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1977. 38. Caparrós B, Villar E, Ferrer J, Viñas F. Symptom Check-List-90-R: fiabilidad, datos normativos y estructura factorial en estudiantes universitarios. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2007; 7:781-94.

21

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 39. Martín-Albo J, Núñez JL, Navarro JG, Grijalvo F. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Translation and validation in university students. Span J Psychol 2007; 10: 45867.

T

40. Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

RI P

University Press, 1965.

41. Gray-Little B, Williams VS, Hancock TD. An item response theory analysis of the

SC

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1997; 23: 443-51. 42. Atienza FL, Balaguer I, García-Merita ML. Satisfaction with life scale: Analysis of

MA NU

factorial invariance across sexes. Pers Individ Differ 2003; 35: 1255-60. 43. Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The Satisfaction with Life Scale. J Pers Assess 1985; 49:71-5.

44. Scheier MF, Carver CS, Bridges MW. Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism

ED

(and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation

PT

Test. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994; 67: 1063-78. 45. Herzberg PY, Glaesmer H, Hoyer J. Separating optimism and pessimism: a robust

CE

psychometric analysis of the revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R). Psychol Assess

AC

2006; 18: 433-8.

46. Otero-López JM, Luengo A, Romero E, Gómez JA, Castro C. Psicología de la personalidad. Manual de prácticas, Barcelona: Ariel; 1998. 47. Norum PS. The role of time preference and credit card usage in compulsive buying behaviour. International Journal of Consumer Studies 2008; 32: 269-275. 48. Koran LM, Faber RJ, Aboujaoude E, Large MD, Serpe RT. Estimated prevalence of compulsive buying behavior in the United States. Am J Psychiatry 2006, 16:1806-12. 49. Hubert M, Hubert M, Gwozdz W, Raab G, Reisch LA. Compulsive buying–an increasing problem? Investigating and comparing trends in Germany and Denmark, 22

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2010-2012. Journal für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit 2014; 9:280-4. 50. Odlaug BL, Grant JE. Impulse-control disorders in a college sample: results from

T

the self-administered Minnesota Impulse Disorders Interview (MIDI). Primary Care

RI P

Companion to the J Clin Psychiatry 2010; 12.

51. Müller A, Claes L, Georgiadou E, Möllenkamp M, Voth EM, Faber RJ, et al. Is

SC

compulsive buying related to materialism, depression or temperament? Findings from a

MA NU

sample of treatment-seeking patients with CB. Psychiatry Res 2014; 216:103-7. 52. Claes L, Bijttebier P, Van Den Eynde F, Mitchell JE, Faber R, de Zwaan M, Mueller A. Emotional reactivity and self-regulation in relation to compulsive buying. Pers Individ Differ 2010; 49: 526-30.

ED

53. Kasser T, Cohn S, Kanner AD, Ryan RM. Some costs of American corporate capitalism: A psychological exploration of value and goal conflicts. Psychol Inq 2007;

PT

18: 1-22.

CE

54. Weinstein A, Mezig H, Mizrachi S, Lejoyeux M. A study investigating the association between compulsive buying with measures of anxiety and obsessive–

AC

compulsive behavior among internet shoppers. Compr Psychiat 2015; 57: 46-50. 55. Reeves RA, Baker GA, Truluck CS. Celebrity worship, materialism, compulsive buying, and the empty self. Psychol Mark 2012; 29: 674-9. 56. Diener E, Suh M, Lucas E, Smith H. Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychol Bull 1999; 125: 276-302. 57. Mitchell JE. Compulsive buying disorder group treatment manual. In: Mueller A, Mitchell JE, editors. Compulsive buying. Clinical foundations and treatment, New York: Taylor and Francis Group; 2011, p. 169-278.

23

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 1 Comparisons among non-CB and CB as for gender, materialism dimensions, psychological distress symptoms, and subjective well-being indicators

%

n

CB N= 108 %

n

Gender

%

Χ2= 5.34, p= .021

718 730

49.6 50.4

676 664

50.4 49.6

42 66

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

11.87 8.87 7.96

2.87 2.91 2.41

F= 174.54, p= .001 F= 86.44, p= .001 F= 67.15, p= .001

12.88 19.48 17.18 11.04 5.05

5.74 7.81 7.48 5.82 3.18

F= F= F= F= F=

17.27 6.49 9.30

3.85 2.64 2.79

F= 30.73, p= .001 F= 52.80, p= .001 F= 20.19, p= .001

172.38, p= .001 186.57, p= .001 213.78, p= .001 26.80, p= .001 20.63, p= .001

Table 2

CE

PT

ED

MA NU

Materialism Importance 8.44 2.97 8.16 2.79 Success 6.36 2.99 6.16 2.90 Happiness 6.05 2.57 5.90 2.51 Psychological distress symptoms Anxiety 7.15 4.98 6.69 4.62 Depression 11.48 6.72 10.84 6.19 Obs.-comp. 10.44 5.33 9.90 4.72 Somatization 8.68 4.96 8.49 4.83 Hostility 3.72 3.19 3.61 3.16 Subjective well-being Self-esteem 19.58 4.54 19.76 4.53 Life satisfaction 8.14 2.50 8.27 2.44 Optimism 10.53 2.96 10.62 2.95 Note. Non-CB = Non-compulsive buyers; CB = Compulsive buyers

38.9 61.1

SC

Male Female

Comparison Non CB vs. CB

T

N

Non-CB N= 1340

RI P

Total sample N= 1448

AC

Results of the logistic regression analysis with compulsive buying as dependent variable

Gender (male=0, female=1) Importance Success Happiness Anxiety Depression Obsession-compulsion Somatization Hostility Self-esteem Life satisfaction Optimism

B

S.E.

Wald

P

OR

95% CI

-.315

.255

1.526

.217

.730

.442-1.203

.350 .062 .004 .111 .070 .109 .062 .085 .022 -.163 .061

.054 .053 .067 .036 .025 .031 .028 .042 .037 .058 .052

41.972 1.334 .004 9.488 7.718 12.447 4.851 4.091 .354 7.796 1.368

.001 .248 .947 .002 .005 .001 .028 .043 .552 .005 .242

1.418 1.064 1.004 1.118 1.072 1.115 .940 .918 1.022 .850 1.063

1.276-1.577 .958-1.181 .881-1.145 1.041-1.200 1.021-1.127 1.050-1.185 .889-.993 .845-.997 .951-1.098 .758-.953 .959-1.178

Note. Nagelkerke„s R2= 0.441

24