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Concepts of urban information systems with application to India
CONCEPTS OF URBAN INFORMATION SYSTEMS WITH APPLICATION TO INDIA JERRY Hunter
College.
City University
C.
COINER
of New York. Department New York. NY 1001. U.S.A.
of Geology
and Geography.
Abstract-Urban information systems technology is rcvvzv,ed. with emphasis on peoprocessmg. segmentedoriented files and their application to urban data requirements. Implementation is assessed in terms of appropriate preconditions (governmental organization and data availability). detailed systems specifications and phasing. Four cities m India are then presented as examples of places where information systems technology may be beneficial but is hampered b) lack of appropriate preconditions.
ONE COMMONALITYin all governmental activities intensified by growing urbanization is the requirement for timely and reliable data. To enhance the ability to acquire, store and manipulate data, urban governments throughout the world are turning to computerbased information systems technology [l]. This technology is intended to delimit the flows and users of data within urban government and generate more timely and reliable information by augmenting existing flows and creating new ones. Although the use of computer technology to augment the flows of data and their transformation into information is relatively new, undefined information systems have been the bases of the governing process of cities since their inception. Therefore, the transition from a noncomputerized, undefined system of data collection and information formulation to a computerized information system depends to a large degree on identifying traditional information flows and designing computer systems to mimic them. The purpose of this paper is to provide planners and administrators with an overview of the key elements in an urban information system. New techniques for handling urban data via computers will be described, and transitions from existing data management methods to computerized information systems will be discussed. Possibilities for implementing computerized information systems in the four major cities in India are then evaluated in light of the above. Data relate the several functions of governing activity to each other and to the city proper (Fig. 1). The complex relationships implied by Fig. 1 are apparent in the following narrative description: Taxation looks to the physical facilities of the city as a source of revenue. Operations (city services-sewers. water, transport) modify these physical facilities. Policy Formulation (city political organs) determines what facilities are to be changed. Planning delimits and projects what changes should be made and how these changes will affect the city. Finally, Administration coordinates these activities within the governmental structure. Information systems enter here as the basic network of data that informs governmental agencies. Computer information systems can expand the network by introducing more data of a finer detail and can facilitate data analysis through more rapid manipulation and display. For instance, the city can be studied as a disaggregated spatial unit (e.g. city blocks, individually owned land parcels, census unit, postal route) to determine the impact of, say, new industrial sites. This expanded capability to describe the urban milieu rests on technological advances in the area of computer data processing and forms the basis of urban information systems technology. INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
TECHNOLOGY
What role do we expect information systems to play in urban government? The answer to this question depends on traditional data usage and information priorities (locally determined) within the governmental structure for which the system is being 141
JERRY C. COINER
142
Government
functions
G Dcta
Urban
Fig. I. Interrelationships puter-based information
landscape
between urban government functions. data and the landscape. Comnetworks increase the urban government’s ability to understand the city by increasing the density of data.
designed. Traditionally, computers have been introduced into urban environments strictly for accounting purposes. Such typical uses as employee paychecks and citizen tax bills have been gradually expanded to operations and planning. i.e. utilities mapping, socio-economic modeling and monitoring of .land use change. Since policy formulation is the last function impacted in most urban areas and few cities have implemented that capability, this study mainly addresses planning and operations aspects. Expansion of computer-based information systems into government operations is dependent upon the computer system’s ability to handle spatial data. As an operating entity, the government must take into account not only what kinds of changes are occurring within the urban area but where those changes take place. This is also true of planning, because part of the planning process assesses locational impacts of proposed projects. Thus. the key element in using information systems technology in government operations as well as planning is the availability of spatial data. When spatial data are incorporated in a computer-based information system, the technique is known as ‘geoprocessing’ [2]. Geoprocessing
Because geoprocessing forms the central core of any urban information system, it is singled out here for a detailed review. Within geoprocessing, there are several different approaches to incorporating spatial data into computer files. The one found most effective for use in urban areas is the segment-oriented file. Figure 2 outlines its construction. Segment-oriented technology had its origin in the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Geographic Base File/Dual Independent Map Encoded File, commonly known as GBF/DIME [3]. The format consists of nodes defined by street intersections or by the intersections of natural linear features, such as rivers, with streets. Nodes are connected by lines formed by roads or other linear landscape features. Each line between two nodes (intersections) defines a segment (street). These segments are the basic record units for storing
Concepts
of urban
information
systems
143
in India
For each street segment dime record contains.
o
From node To node Street nome Sreet type Left addresses Right addresses Left block Left tract Rrght block
Fig. 2. Steps in construction of GBF/DIME file. Descriptions of points. established by nodes and the lines between nodes. This figure is reproduced of the U.S. Bureau of the Census.
lines and areas are with the permission
data about the urban scene. Normally, a segment is divided into two block faces which contain data about conditions on each side of the segment. The record of each block face contains an identifier (name), an identifying number, references to the intersection which delimit the block face, and reporting and administrative units to which it may be subsumed (e.g. census track, postal zone). With this technology, it is possible to create a virtual map of the city within the computer system. The map resides in computer files, and portions, or its entirety, can be matched with other data elements (e.g. land use, transport, social and economic data) to allow spatial analysis of urban phenomena. A pictorial rendition of the relationship of a ~BF/~IME file to other types of urban data is shown in Fig. 3. Applications
This capability to conduct spatial analysis has brought about rapid expansion of computer-based information systems technology in urban operations, taxation and planning in North America and western Europe. Uses of segment-oriented files in urban operations include mass transit routing, traffic accident analysis, traffic flow control, sewage system design, crime pattern analysis, location of small businesses, assessment of energy requirements, civil defense shelter allocations, building inspections and others. To illustrate, Fig. 4 is a computer-generated map of housing code violations which allows assessment by area of housing conditions wi?hin Kansas City. The system has also been used by taxing authorities to create land ownership fifes which have contri-
144
JERRY C. COINER
Fig. 3. Relationships between a GBF/DIME file and other conventional types of urban This figure is reproduced with the permisston of U.S. Bureau of the Census.
buted to reducing property tax evasion. With segment-oriented files, planners have created a computer data base that represents data needed for constructing an urban plan. These same data could be used, after they have been appropriately structured within the computer, to support simulation and modeling operations to project present trends and conditions into the future. From a planner’s viewpoint, the system’s most helpful aspect is that it is flexible enough to allow transition from static master-plans of urban areas to more dynamic, and hopefully more successful, continuous planning. Inherently, files of a geoprocessing-based system could be loaded with time series data to monitor urban activities and infrastructure. INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
The widespread usage of information by urban governments has demonstrated
IMPLEMENTATION
systems technology, particularly geoprocessing, its utility. The question that remains is: what
HousIng code vIolot1ons Percent of 011 houslng units 0 I Mtles
Fig. 4. Computer-generated file. This figure is reproduced
Source of dato MInImum housing 30 day InspectIons
Legend -1.0 0 oo[ml 3.0 m 10.0 m 21.0 30.0 m
file
map created by imposing housing with the permission of R. Domsch. ning Department.
code data Wyandotte
on a GBF/DIME County, KS. Plan-
Concepts of urban informarion systems
in India
145
preconditions have led to its successful implementation? Implementation of urban information systems has been an extremely eclectic process in the U.S.A., where local level autonomy allows individual cities to decide the extent of technology used in the governing process. Review of the systems implementation phase for a number of cities reveals certain ~ommonalities within the experience. These can be generalized as (1) appropriate preconditions; (2) detailed systems spe~i~cation: and (3) phased implementation.
There are two major preconditions which create an information systems environment. The first precondition relates to the nature of organization within an urban government. Studies have shown the presence of two organizations, a formal organization, which exists in administrative manuals and charts, and an informal organization, which consists of a network of individuals actually conducting gove~ment operations. The degree of correlation between these two organizations varies from city to city and time to time, a situation which poses problems for systems designers. If the formal relationship is used to model the proposed computer-based system and if it does not define actual interactions between government agencies and individuals, the model may be totally ineffective. Therefore, the system designer must take into account not only the formal governing structure and relationships established by law but also the informal, interpersonal and organizational relationships that allow the government to operate on a day-today basis. This means that information systems for different urban areas tend to be unique-the system is a creature of the government that it supports, The second precondition involves the nature of the data available for an information system data base. Urban information systems which support municipal functions should conceptually access data from numerous sources, for instance, surveys, sampling schemes, maps, aerial photographs and census data. A system designer should be aware of the types of data available, their reliability, and their timeliness. If the data are of poor quality, i.e. of unknown reiiability, lacking in timeIiness or highly aggregated, it is futile to design and specify a large computer-based information system to store, manipulate and retrieve these poor quality data (the ‘garbage in, garbage out’ situation). Data availability and quality are probably more important considerations in developing countries than they have been in North America or western Europe. Experience with systems implementation in developing countries indicates that it may be necessary to place greater emphasis on improved data collection. This has not been the case in the U.S.A., where in most cases, existing data were acceptable and could be reformated to create the data base for the information system. (2) Detailed systems specijkation Specification of an information system is at once both the most difficult and most important task that the systems designer will undertake. It is during spe~fication that the human user must be interfaced with the technological components of the computer system. During specification, tasks will be identified for the information system to support. These tasks may range from aiding the police depertment in preparing parking summonses to supporting a ~lanner~~onomist in making socio-economic projections, In the past, problems have arisen because the individual who was to use the information produced by the system was not given enough consideration in systems design, and as a result, computer output products did not meet the actual needs of specific users. Failure to tailor output products to users can lead to nonutilization of the system by the people it was intended to support. Figure 5 defines the components of an information system and their relationships. It is important to note the feedback loops between the user or human element of the system and other system components.
There is no general strategy that can be defined for automation tasks within the urban government. Systems designers have learned, however, that conversion to automa-
146
JERRY C. COINER
r
I
Informarlon Display
_
Dota Acquwtlon
_
Analysts
t Data Sources
Fig. 5. Components
_
and relationships
-
RelatIonships
-1
Components
Data Base
within an urban information loops within the system.
system
Note
the feedback
tion initially takes much longer than anticipated because of problems with interfacing hardware, software and human users, who also create competing demands for implementation priorities. A guideline for implementation would be to phase systems development so that, initially, a minimum data base supports a maximum number of users (applications). For instance, widespread application of land use files in planning, taxation, and operations makes these files candidates for early computerization. Other candidates are census data series which provide insight into the socio-economic makeup of the city, and transport surveys which aid in transport analysis. If the initial application is successful, demand for further automation usually dictates how the system expands. In light of this, long range computer plans are difficult to structure, and if strictly followed, they can result in systems development which does not meet the most pressing data needs of the government. Urban information systems should retain flexibility, and this would seem to be particularly true in developing nations. ENVIRONMENT
FOR
IMPLEMENTATION
IN INDIA
Since the Government of India recently expressed interest in a computer-based information system and requested United Nations’ assistance in evaluating the feasibility of such a system within the country, a survey was conducted during January 1977 under the sponsorship of the United Nations Office of Technical Cooperation and the Government of India Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO) [S]. The urban portion of this survey involved discussion with urban planners, policy makers and technicians in four cities: Delhi, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. At the present time, no metropolitan area has a program to implement a computerbased information system. Studies of technology available in India, however, indicate that both computer hardware and software capability for these types of information systems are available in India. To illustrate, there are over 500 computer mainframes, and several of them were reported to be under-utilized. Clearly, computer availability would not seem to be an immediate problem. In the case of computer software, no segment-oriented file software has been developed in India, but the U.S. Bureau of the Census has exported segment-oriented file software at a minimum cost, and corporations, such as IBM, sell such software packages [6]. Also, the United Nations, Centre for Housing, Building &d Planning, has available a software package, Composite Mapping System (CMS), which allows geoprocessing of multiple types of data into cellular
Concepts of urban information
systems in India
147
files in contrast to segment-oriented files [7, 81. In sum. implementation of urban information systems does not seem constrained by either hardware or software availability. Personnel limitations do exist, in that few people within the country have training in urban information systems technology. This is a serious shortcoming, but one easily rectified through such organizations as Data for Development and the United Nations Development Programme. Based on interviews conducted in major Indian cities, there is considerable interest in information systems and computer processing of urban data but a reluctance to take the necessary steps to begin the transition from manual to computerized systems. Delhi
Interviews with personnel in the Delhi Administration reveal its unique situationbeing the National capital. it is administered similar to a State rather than an urban area. Administrative relationships are complicated by the co-location of the National government. As an example, the Centre TCPO prepares the master plan for Delhi. Because of its unique administrative situation, Delhi has the opportunity to automate data collection, as have other State and the Centre governments in India. Nevertheless, data collection is predominantly manual in Delhi, and although the scope of the data may be wider than that generally available to the other urban areas. it lacks timeliness. Land use data are not generally available and no central land use file exists. Bombay
Bombay metropolitan region has several overlapping government organizations which are interested in the use of a computer information system. However, no single organization has been designated to be responsible for the effort. This has led to interagency rivalries, and confusion has resulted over who is responsible for systems development. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay has an operating computer facility, but their main concerns are inventory control, payroll and tax billing. No effort has been made to plan a unified information system for the city. Data availability is also a difficulty. Population and employment data have not been collected since 1971. The Bombay Regional Development Authority has undertaken a land use survey. but the survey is not complete and is not intended for computer processing. Neither aerial photographs nor an adequate map base are present to relate land use information from one land unit to the next. Some transport planning data were acquired in the 1960s but they too are probably of little value because of their age. In summary, to quote a reliable official of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay, ‘No systematic statistical effort exists in Bombay’. Madras
Madras recently sponsored a study of its urban government functions and the data required to meet those functions as part of an effort to gain a large loan from World Bank. The Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA) recognized that it could not fulfill its commitment to report on the impact of World Bank funded development projects without better and more timely data on the urban region. As a result of this effort, clearcut lines of responsibility radiating from the MMDA were defined. The study further recommended establishment of a data bank and information system for Madras and identified a series of planning research projects which would be conducted using information from the system. In essence, the necessity of information systems support to urban government was recognized by the MMDA, but the momentum or resources to initiate these systems have not yet been acquired. In addition to the studies mentioned above, Madras is creating an extensive land use file which could be automated in a GBF/DIME context if the planned information system becomes a reality. This land use file is an exception to the data normally available. Other data series are generally as inadequate as those found in Bombay or Delhi.
148
JERRY C. COINER
The situation in Calcutta does not vary drastically from that found in other large metropolitan areas in India. Although the organizational structure is much clearer than in the Bombay case, data requirements seem greater with less data available. Two comments made during interviews highlight the dilemma: (1) estimates of informal sector activities are based on 1958-1959 survey data; and (2) no census of the pavement dwellers exists. These data problems are compounded by a lack of maps and security classi~cations on the few map products that are produced. Data processing is not now being used by any of the metropolitan agencies in the Calcutta metropolitan area. EVALUATION
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the preceding sections, critical preconditions for information systems implementation were identified, namely, governmental organization and data availability. The question now raised is: how well are these preconditions met in the case of the large Indian cities? As evidenced above, lack of the critical preconditions of governmental organization and data availability impede implementation in three of the four Indian cities discussed here. At present, urban data collection and planning are project-oriented with little cooperation or coordination between planning and operating agencies within the muni~palities, This low Ievel of cooperation is compounded by a general dearth of systematic data about the urban areas. None of the major areas have socio-economic data series that are later than the 1971 Census. Some support survey data are available, but they are not complete. Also, with few exceptions, land use information is unavailable. Both Bombay and Madras are attempting to conduct land use surveys, and these could provide basic inputs to computer-based land use files. It is apparent from these interviews that of the four cities visited, only Madras has given serious consideration to information systems approaches to urban planning and other governmental functions. The Madras effort, however, must be seen in perspective-it is still in a conceptual stage and problems of data to support the system still exist. When compared with information system development in North America or western Europe, the major difference in the Indian situation is the problem of data availability. To effectively utilize information systems in the context of a developing nation would seem to require more emphasis on data acquisition than has been customary when implementing systems in more developed countries. Furthermore, the need for data exists outside the requirement for information systems, and information systems may make data collection more efficient by rationalizing it and eliminating duplication between agencies. Governmental organizational problems are common to all forms of government at all levels of development. They are more blatantly exposed in an information system context because system designers must ask questions about organization that are usually not explicitly stated. Organizational problems identified in the municipal areas in India are no worse than those found in American cities, for example, or cities in other developing countries, but they should be addressed in the initial phases of information system development. Without a clear understanding of the organizational framework, the system designers and the system created will not focus on the information needs of the urban government. Initial survey results, such as those presented here, must be tempered by recognizing the limited scope and selective nature of both the interviews and subject matter covered. If the Indian government wishes to proceed with information systems development, problems are not in the computer hardware or software to support the effort. but in providing a data base and organizational structure which could make the urban information system viable. Since questions of governmental organization and data availability must be faced to gain any improvement in the quality of urban government, it would seem rational to approach these issues with the thought of gaining an even greater
Concepts
of urban
jnformation
systems
in India
measure of improvement by linking the most flexible technological tion-the urban information system.
149
frame to their solu-
Acknowludyrntunrs-The author wishes to acknowledge the United Nations. Office of Technical Cooperation. Centre for Housing, Building and Planning, which funded the mission to lndia and aiiowed the data obtained to be used in this paper. Reprinted with the permission of .~u~ur~~~. Indian Institute of Public Administration. Urban ; ‘fairs Quarterly.
REFERENCES I. J. Salmona. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Dotu Bmks uud Iujbrmation Spsrrm United Nations, Office ror Science and Technology. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. New York (1975). J. K. Duecker. Urban geocoding. Attcz. Ass. Am. G~~~r~p~l~r.~ 44. 31X-325 (1474). DIME: A Geographic Base File Package. U.S. Department of Commerce. Social and Economic Statistics Administration. Bureau of the Census. Washington. D.C.. n.d. L. J. A. Jusseaume. Spearheading the Movement Towards Intcnstve and Accelerated Development in the Field of lnformatics in India. United Nations Development Programme. New Delhi (1976). J. C. Coiner. Feasibility of Information Systems to Support Planning Functions in India. United Nations. Centrc for Housmg. Building and Planning. New York (1977). Geoprocessmg in the City of Long Beach. IBM Corporation. New York (1975). CA4.S fi ~~~~)ipusit~,~~~f~if~~ S,~srrm D~et{~?~~l~ru~i~/t. Federation of Rocky Mountain States. Denver (1975). CMS ff L.\crs .~uI~~~u~.Federation of Rocky Mountain States. Denver (lY771.
College.
City University
C.
COINER
of New York. Department New York. NY 1001. U.S.A.
of Geology
and Geography.
Abstract-Urban information systems technology is rcvvzv,ed. with emphasis on peoprocessmg. segmentedoriented files and their application to urban data requirements. Implementation is assessed in terms of appropriate preconditions (governmental organization and data availability). detailed systems specifications and phasing. Four cities m India are then presented as examples of places where information systems technology may be beneficial but is hampered b) lack of appropriate preconditions.
ONE COMMONALITYin all governmental activities intensified by growing urbanization is the requirement for timely and reliable data. To enhance the ability to acquire, store and manipulate data, urban governments throughout the world are turning to computerbased information systems technology [l]. This technology is intended to delimit the flows and users of data within urban government and generate more timely and reliable information by augmenting existing flows and creating new ones. Although the use of computer technology to augment the flows of data and their transformation into information is relatively new, undefined information systems have been the bases of the governing process of cities since their inception. Therefore, the transition from a noncomputerized, undefined system of data collection and information formulation to a computerized information system depends to a large degree on identifying traditional information flows and designing computer systems to mimic them. The purpose of this paper is to provide planners and administrators with an overview of the key elements in an urban information system. New techniques for handling urban data via computers will be described, and transitions from existing data management methods to computerized information systems will be discussed. Possibilities for implementing computerized information systems in the four major cities in India are then evaluated in light of the above. Data relate the several functions of governing activity to each other and to the city proper (Fig. 1). The complex relationships implied by Fig. 1 are apparent in the following narrative description: Taxation looks to the physical facilities of the city as a source of revenue. Operations (city services-sewers. water, transport) modify these physical facilities. Policy Formulation (city political organs) determines what facilities are to be changed. Planning delimits and projects what changes should be made and how these changes will affect the city. Finally, Administration coordinates these activities within the governmental structure. Information systems enter here as the basic network of data that informs governmental agencies. Computer information systems can expand the network by introducing more data of a finer detail and can facilitate data analysis through more rapid manipulation and display. For instance, the city can be studied as a disaggregated spatial unit (e.g. city blocks, individually owned land parcels, census unit, postal route) to determine the impact of, say, new industrial sites. This expanded capability to describe the urban milieu rests on technological advances in the area of computer data processing and forms the basis of urban information systems technology. INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
TECHNOLOGY
What role do we expect information systems to play in urban government? The answer to this question depends on traditional data usage and information priorities (locally determined) within the governmental structure for which the system is being 141
JERRY C. COINER
142
Government
functions
G Dcta
Urban
Fig. I. Interrelationships puter-based information
landscape
between urban government functions. data and the landscape. Comnetworks increase the urban government’s ability to understand the city by increasing the density of data.
designed. Traditionally, computers have been introduced into urban environments strictly for accounting purposes. Such typical uses as employee paychecks and citizen tax bills have been gradually expanded to operations and planning. i.e. utilities mapping, socio-economic modeling and monitoring of .land use change. Since policy formulation is the last function impacted in most urban areas and few cities have implemented that capability, this study mainly addresses planning and operations aspects. Expansion of computer-based information systems into government operations is dependent upon the computer system’s ability to handle spatial data. As an operating entity, the government must take into account not only what kinds of changes are occurring within the urban area but where those changes take place. This is also true of planning, because part of the planning process assesses locational impacts of proposed projects. Thus. the key element in using information systems technology in government operations as well as planning is the availability of spatial data. When spatial data are incorporated in a computer-based information system, the technique is known as ‘geoprocessing’ [2]. Geoprocessing
Because geoprocessing forms the central core of any urban information system, it is singled out here for a detailed review. Within geoprocessing, there are several different approaches to incorporating spatial data into computer files. The one found most effective for use in urban areas is the segment-oriented file. Figure 2 outlines its construction. Segment-oriented technology had its origin in the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Geographic Base File/Dual Independent Map Encoded File, commonly known as GBF/DIME [3]. The format consists of nodes defined by street intersections or by the intersections of natural linear features, such as rivers, with streets. Nodes are connected by lines formed by roads or other linear landscape features. Each line between two nodes (intersections) defines a segment (street). These segments are the basic record units for storing
Concepts
of urban
information
systems
143
in India
For each street segment dime record contains.
o
From node To node Street nome Sreet type Left addresses Right addresses Left block Left tract Rrght block
Fig. 2. Steps in construction of GBF/DIME file. Descriptions of points. established by nodes and the lines between nodes. This figure is reproduced of the U.S. Bureau of the Census.
lines and areas are with the permission
data about the urban scene. Normally, a segment is divided into two block faces which contain data about conditions on each side of the segment. The record of each block face contains an identifier (name), an identifying number, references to the intersection which delimit the block face, and reporting and administrative units to which it may be subsumed (e.g. census track, postal zone). With this technology, it is possible to create a virtual map of the city within the computer system. The map resides in computer files, and portions, or its entirety, can be matched with other data elements (e.g. land use, transport, social and economic data) to allow spatial analysis of urban phenomena. A pictorial rendition of the relationship of a ~BF/~IME file to other types of urban data is shown in Fig. 3. Applications
This capability to conduct spatial analysis has brought about rapid expansion of computer-based information systems technology in urban operations, taxation and planning in North America and western Europe. Uses of segment-oriented files in urban operations include mass transit routing, traffic accident analysis, traffic flow control, sewage system design, crime pattern analysis, location of small businesses, assessment of energy requirements, civil defense shelter allocations, building inspections and others. To illustrate, Fig. 4 is a computer-generated map of housing code violations which allows assessment by area of housing conditions wi?hin Kansas City. The system has also been used by taxing authorities to create land ownership fifes which have contri-
144
JERRY C. COINER
Fig. 3. Relationships between a GBF/DIME file and other conventional types of urban This figure is reproduced with the permisston of U.S. Bureau of the Census.
buted to reducing property tax evasion. With segment-oriented files, planners have created a computer data base that represents data needed for constructing an urban plan. These same data could be used, after they have been appropriately structured within the computer, to support simulation and modeling operations to project present trends and conditions into the future. From a planner’s viewpoint, the system’s most helpful aspect is that it is flexible enough to allow transition from static master-plans of urban areas to more dynamic, and hopefully more successful, continuous planning. Inherently, files of a geoprocessing-based system could be loaded with time series data to monitor urban activities and infrastructure. INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
The widespread usage of information by urban governments has demonstrated
IMPLEMENTATION
systems technology, particularly geoprocessing, its utility. The question that remains is: what
HousIng code vIolot1ons Percent of 011 houslng units 0 I Mtles
Fig. 4. Computer-generated file. This figure is reproduced
Source of dato MInImum housing 30 day InspectIons
Legend -1.0 0 oo[ml 3.0 m 10.0 m 21.0 30.0 m
file
map created by imposing housing with the permission of R. Domsch. ning Department.
code data Wyandotte
on a GBF/DIME County, KS. Plan-
Concepts of urban informarion systems
in India
145
preconditions have led to its successful implementation? Implementation of urban information systems has been an extremely eclectic process in the U.S.A., where local level autonomy allows individual cities to decide the extent of technology used in the governing process. Review of the systems implementation phase for a number of cities reveals certain ~ommonalities within the experience. These can be generalized as (1) appropriate preconditions; (2) detailed systems spe~i~cation: and (3) phased implementation.
There are two major preconditions which create an information systems environment. The first precondition relates to the nature of organization within an urban government. Studies have shown the presence of two organizations, a formal organization, which exists in administrative manuals and charts, and an informal organization, which consists of a network of individuals actually conducting gove~ment operations. The degree of correlation between these two organizations varies from city to city and time to time, a situation which poses problems for systems designers. If the formal relationship is used to model the proposed computer-based system and if it does not define actual interactions between government agencies and individuals, the model may be totally ineffective. Therefore, the system designer must take into account not only the formal governing structure and relationships established by law but also the informal, interpersonal and organizational relationships that allow the government to operate on a day-today basis. This means that information systems for different urban areas tend to be unique-the system is a creature of the government that it supports, The second precondition involves the nature of the data available for an information system data base. Urban information systems which support municipal functions should conceptually access data from numerous sources, for instance, surveys, sampling schemes, maps, aerial photographs and census data. A system designer should be aware of the types of data available, their reliability, and their timeliness. If the data are of poor quality, i.e. of unknown reiiability, lacking in timeIiness or highly aggregated, it is futile to design and specify a large computer-based information system to store, manipulate and retrieve these poor quality data (the ‘garbage in, garbage out’ situation). Data availability and quality are probably more important considerations in developing countries than they have been in North America or western Europe. Experience with systems implementation in developing countries indicates that it may be necessary to place greater emphasis on improved data collection. This has not been the case in the U.S.A., where in most cases, existing data were acceptable and could be reformated to create the data base for the information system. (2) Detailed systems specijkation Specification of an information system is at once both the most difficult and most important task that the systems designer will undertake. It is during spe~fication that the human user must be interfaced with the technological components of the computer system. During specification, tasks will be identified for the information system to support. These tasks may range from aiding the police depertment in preparing parking summonses to supporting a ~lanner~~onomist in making socio-economic projections, In the past, problems have arisen because the individual who was to use the information produced by the system was not given enough consideration in systems design, and as a result, computer output products did not meet the actual needs of specific users. Failure to tailor output products to users can lead to nonutilization of the system by the people it was intended to support. Figure 5 defines the components of an information system and their relationships. It is important to note the feedback loops between the user or human element of the system and other system components.
There is no general strategy that can be defined for automation tasks within the urban government. Systems designers have learned, however, that conversion to automa-
146
JERRY C. COINER
r
I
Informarlon Display
_
Dota Acquwtlon
_
Analysts
t Data Sources
Fig. 5. Components
_
and relationships
-
RelatIonships
-1
Components
Data Base
within an urban information loops within the system.
system
Note
the feedback
tion initially takes much longer than anticipated because of problems with interfacing hardware, software and human users, who also create competing demands for implementation priorities. A guideline for implementation would be to phase systems development so that, initially, a minimum data base supports a maximum number of users (applications). For instance, widespread application of land use files in planning, taxation, and operations makes these files candidates for early computerization. Other candidates are census data series which provide insight into the socio-economic makeup of the city, and transport surveys which aid in transport analysis. If the initial application is successful, demand for further automation usually dictates how the system expands. In light of this, long range computer plans are difficult to structure, and if strictly followed, they can result in systems development which does not meet the most pressing data needs of the government. Urban information systems should retain flexibility, and this would seem to be particularly true in developing nations. ENVIRONMENT
FOR
IMPLEMENTATION
IN INDIA
Since the Government of India recently expressed interest in a computer-based information system and requested United Nations’ assistance in evaluating the feasibility of such a system within the country, a survey was conducted during January 1977 under the sponsorship of the United Nations Office of Technical Cooperation and the Government of India Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO) [S]. The urban portion of this survey involved discussion with urban planners, policy makers and technicians in four cities: Delhi, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. At the present time, no metropolitan area has a program to implement a computerbased information system. Studies of technology available in India, however, indicate that both computer hardware and software capability for these types of information systems are available in India. To illustrate, there are over 500 computer mainframes, and several of them were reported to be under-utilized. Clearly, computer availability would not seem to be an immediate problem. In the case of computer software, no segment-oriented file software has been developed in India, but the U.S. Bureau of the Census has exported segment-oriented file software at a minimum cost, and corporations, such as IBM, sell such software packages [6]. Also, the United Nations, Centre for Housing, Building &d Planning, has available a software package, Composite Mapping System (CMS), which allows geoprocessing of multiple types of data into cellular
Concepts of urban information
systems in India
147
files in contrast to segment-oriented files [7, 81. In sum. implementation of urban information systems does not seem constrained by either hardware or software availability. Personnel limitations do exist, in that few people within the country have training in urban information systems technology. This is a serious shortcoming, but one easily rectified through such organizations as Data for Development and the United Nations Development Programme. Based on interviews conducted in major Indian cities, there is considerable interest in information systems and computer processing of urban data but a reluctance to take the necessary steps to begin the transition from manual to computerized systems. Delhi
Interviews with personnel in the Delhi Administration reveal its unique situationbeing the National capital. it is administered similar to a State rather than an urban area. Administrative relationships are complicated by the co-location of the National government. As an example, the Centre TCPO prepares the master plan for Delhi. Because of its unique administrative situation, Delhi has the opportunity to automate data collection, as have other State and the Centre governments in India. Nevertheless, data collection is predominantly manual in Delhi, and although the scope of the data may be wider than that generally available to the other urban areas. it lacks timeliness. Land use data are not generally available and no central land use file exists. Bombay
Bombay metropolitan region has several overlapping government organizations which are interested in the use of a computer information system. However, no single organization has been designated to be responsible for the effort. This has led to interagency rivalries, and confusion has resulted over who is responsible for systems development. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay has an operating computer facility, but their main concerns are inventory control, payroll and tax billing. No effort has been made to plan a unified information system for the city. Data availability is also a difficulty. Population and employment data have not been collected since 1971. The Bombay Regional Development Authority has undertaken a land use survey. but the survey is not complete and is not intended for computer processing. Neither aerial photographs nor an adequate map base are present to relate land use information from one land unit to the next. Some transport planning data were acquired in the 1960s but they too are probably of little value because of their age. In summary, to quote a reliable official of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay, ‘No systematic statistical effort exists in Bombay’. Madras
Madras recently sponsored a study of its urban government functions and the data required to meet those functions as part of an effort to gain a large loan from World Bank. The Madras Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA) recognized that it could not fulfill its commitment to report on the impact of World Bank funded development projects without better and more timely data on the urban region. As a result of this effort, clearcut lines of responsibility radiating from the MMDA were defined. The study further recommended establishment of a data bank and information system for Madras and identified a series of planning research projects which would be conducted using information from the system. In essence, the necessity of information systems support to urban government was recognized by the MMDA, but the momentum or resources to initiate these systems have not yet been acquired. In addition to the studies mentioned above, Madras is creating an extensive land use file which could be automated in a GBF/DIME context if the planned information system becomes a reality. This land use file is an exception to the data normally available. Other data series are generally as inadequate as those found in Bombay or Delhi.
148
JERRY C. COINER
The situation in Calcutta does not vary drastically from that found in other large metropolitan areas in India. Although the organizational structure is much clearer than in the Bombay case, data requirements seem greater with less data available. Two comments made during interviews highlight the dilemma: (1) estimates of informal sector activities are based on 1958-1959 survey data; and (2) no census of the pavement dwellers exists. These data problems are compounded by a lack of maps and security classi~cations on the few map products that are produced. Data processing is not now being used by any of the metropolitan agencies in the Calcutta metropolitan area. EVALUATION
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the preceding sections, critical preconditions for information systems implementation were identified, namely, governmental organization and data availability. The question now raised is: how well are these preconditions met in the case of the large Indian cities? As evidenced above, lack of the critical preconditions of governmental organization and data availability impede implementation in three of the four Indian cities discussed here. At present, urban data collection and planning are project-oriented with little cooperation or coordination between planning and operating agencies within the muni~palities, This low Ievel of cooperation is compounded by a general dearth of systematic data about the urban areas. None of the major areas have socio-economic data series that are later than the 1971 Census. Some support survey data are available, but they are not complete. Also, with few exceptions, land use information is unavailable. Both Bombay and Madras are attempting to conduct land use surveys, and these could provide basic inputs to computer-based land use files. It is apparent from these interviews that of the four cities visited, only Madras has given serious consideration to information systems approaches to urban planning and other governmental functions. The Madras effort, however, must be seen in perspective-it is still in a conceptual stage and problems of data to support the system still exist. When compared with information system development in North America or western Europe, the major difference in the Indian situation is the problem of data availability. To effectively utilize information systems in the context of a developing nation would seem to require more emphasis on data acquisition than has been customary when implementing systems in more developed countries. Furthermore, the need for data exists outside the requirement for information systems, and information systems may make data collection more efficient by rationalizing it and eliminating duplication between agencies. Governmental organizational problems are common to all forms of government at all levels of development. They are more blatantly exposed in an information system context because system designers must ask questions about organization that are usually not explicitly stated. Organizational problems identified in the municipal areas in India are no worse than those found in American cities, for example, or cities in other developing countries, but they should be addressed in the initial phases of information system development. Without a clear understanding of the organizational framework, the system designers and the system created will not focus on the information needs of the urban government. Initial survey results, such as those presented here, must be tempered by recognizing the limited scope and selective nature of both the interviews and subject matter covered. If the Indian government wishes to proceed with information systems development, problems are not in the computer hardware or software to support the effort. but in providing a data base and organizational structure which could make the urban information system viable. Since questions of governmental organization and data availability must be faced to gain any improvement in the quality of urban government, it would seem rational to approach these issues with the thought of gaining an even greater
Concepts
of urban
jnformation
systems
in India
measure of improvement by linking the most flexible technological tion-the urban information system.
149
frame to their solu-
Acknowludyrntunrs-The author wishes to acknowledge the United Nations. Office of Technical Cooperation. Centre for Housing, Building and Planning, which funded the mission to lndia and aiiowed the data obtained to be used in this paper. Reprinted with the permission of .~u~ur~~~. Indian Institute of Public Administration. Urban ; ‘fairs Quarterly.
REFERENCES I. J. Salmona. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Dotu Bmks uud Iujbrmation Spsrrm United Nations, Office ror Science and Technology. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. New York (1975). J. K. Duecker. Urban geocoding. Attcz. Ass. Am. G~~~r~p~l~r.~ 44. 31X-325 (1474). DIME: A Geographic Base File Package. U.S. Department of Commerce. Social and Economic Statistics Administration. Bureau of the Census. Washington. D.C.. n.d. L. J. A. Jusseaume. Spearheading the Movement Towards Intcnstve and Accelerated Development in the Field of lnformatics in India. United Nations Development Programme. New Delhi (1976). J. C. Coiner. Feasibility of Information Systems to Support Planning Functions in India. United Nations. Centrc for Housmg. Building and Planning. New York (1977). Geoprocessmg in the City of Long Beach. IBM Corporation. New York (1975). CA4.S fi ~~~~)ipusit~,~~~f~if~~ S,~srrm D~et{~?~~l~ru~i~/t. Federation of Rocky Mountain States. Denver (1975). CMS ff L.\crs .~uI~~~u~.Federation of Rocky Mountain States. Denver (lY771.