Connections and structural applications of fibre reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments

Accepted Manuscript Connections and structural applications of fibre reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments Hai Fang, Yu Bai, Weiqing Liu, Yujun Qi, Jun Wang PII:

S1359-8368(18)32198-X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.047

Reference:

JCOMB 6232

To appear in:

Composites Part B

Received Date: 14 July 2018 Revised Date:

27 October 2018

Accepted Date: 8 November 2018

Please cite this article as: Fang H, Bai Y, Liu W, Qi Y, Wang J, Connections and structural applications of fibre reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments, Composites Part B (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.047. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Connections and structural applications of fibre reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments Hai Fang a, Yu Bai b, Weiqing Liu c, Yujun Qi d and Jun Wang e a

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College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China. Tel: +86 25 58139869; fax: +86 25 58139877. E-mail: [email protected]

b

Corresponding author, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia. Tel: +61 3 9905 4987; Fax: +61 3 9905 4944; E-mail: [email protected] Corresponding author, Advanced Engineering Composites Research Center, Nanjing Tech

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c

University, Nanjing 211816, China. Tel: +86 25 58139861; fax: +86 25 58139862. E-mail: [email protected]

College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China. E-mail:

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d

[email protected] e

College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

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Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have become known for their specific advantages for civil infrastructure construction. High corrosion resistance in particular is one such strength, which has led to successful applications worldwide. This paper focuses on the structural

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applications of FRP composites as major load-carrying members (therefore strengthening of existing structures is not included) in aggressive environments. It is review and comparatively studied for environmental effects on FRP composites at the structural level mainly about joints

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and connections, including elevated environmental temperatures, humidity and water immersion, and ultraviolet (UV) exposure. The quantifications of such environmental effects on structural responses further assist development of large scale civil structures made from FRP composites. We therefore also present a few implementations of FRP composites in civil infrastructure construction including i) FRP truss and frame structures in high humility areas, ii) FRP composite bumper systems for bridge piers, iii) floating FRP structures for solar panels, iv) FRP steel composite piles for foundation applications, and v) FRP sheets, planks and piles for modular assembly of a retaining wall. These results are introduced as initiatives from own

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experiences, with the aim of demonstrating their applicability and providing examples for others with similar needs.

Keywords: reinforced

polymer

composites;

Civil

infrastructure;

Construction;

Aggressive

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Fibre

environments; Connections; Structural stiffness: Load-carrying capacity

1. Introduction

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In recent decades, fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have gained considerable attention for construction in civil infrastructure [1-3]. The demand for building civil infrastructure systems

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with FRP composites in aggressive environments has grown due to their exceptional material properties such as high strength, light weight, and excellent fatigue and corrosion resistance [412]. In the retrofitting of existing structures, FRP fabric and plates are often used as reinforcement, externally bonded or mechanically fastened to reinforced concrete (RC) beams, slabs and columns [13-20]. The performance of FRP-strengthened RC structures has been reviewed [21] with a strong focus on studies which contributed directly to the development of

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strength models. The use of FRP to strengthen steel structures has become an option, the critical issue in the strengthening of steel structures being the bond between FRP and steel [22-24]. Reviews and gap analysis have also focused on the durability concerns of FRP composites in civil infrastructure applications [25-29]. FRP composites are successfully used as rods for

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internal reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures [30, 31]. Furthermore, applications of FRP composites have been reported in new structural constructions as structural members [32-

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38], particularly including bridge decks for pedestrian and highway bridge superstructures [39], supporting frame structures [40-42], multi-storey office building [43] and residential buildings [44, 45], electricity transmission towers [46] and composite piles used for foundation construction [47]. With specific connections such as the sleeve connection in [48], it is also possible to form primary load-bearing structures such as space frames and building frames using FRP tubular members. Hollaway reviewed and discussed in 2010 the development in the applications of FRP composites materials in buildings and civil infrastructure [49]. Bakis et al. [50] presented a comprehensive state-of-the-art report on FRP composites for construction in civil engineering.

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The review was organized into specific sections on structural shapes, bridge decks, internal reinforcements, externally bonded reinforcements, and standards and codes. Later, Cheng and Karbhari [51] presented a state-of-the-art review of the developments of typical FRP bridge components (i.e. decks and girders) as well as bridge systems that had become available from the

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early 1980s to 2006. Reviews of advanced FRP composites [52, 53] highlighted their use in prefabricated pavement, utility poles, pipelines, renewable energy harvesting, chimneys/flues, rapidly deployable housing, natural composites for green buildings, decking for marine and naval structures and advanced retrofitting. Although FRP composite systems as primary loading-

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bearing elements are relatively new concepts in civil construction, recent developments have demonstrated that these systems provide a cost-effective alternative when each component is

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appropriately designed [54, 55].

The material responses of FRP composites subjected to various environmental effects have been well reported [56]. However, reviews of their performance at structural level such as for joints and connections are still limited and initiatives on applications and practices of FRP composites in civil constructions are not well introduced in literature. As FRP composites are relatively new materials for structural construction in civil engineering, it becomes important and

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necessary to review results on the mechanical performance of their joints and connections and to introduce developments of new structures made from such materials in actual practices especially under aggressive environments. Considering the existing reviews available in literature and thanks to the recent practices of new constructions of civil infrastructure using FRP

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composites, this paper focuses on research into the mechanical performance of such composites at structural level mainly for joints and connections subjected to environmental effects that

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include elevated environmental temperatures, humidity, water immersion and ultraviolet (UV) exposure. Although fire is another critical environmental scenario, fire performance of FRP structures is not reviewed in this study because this topic has been covered in recent publications [57-61]. This paper also introduces some practices in developments of civil infrastructure using FRP composites in corrosive environments, most from the authors’ experiences in the last decade. This overview of the authors’ own initiatives and practices includes: i) frame and truss assemblies in port regions; ii) FRP composite bumper systems for bridge piers; iii) floating FRP structures for solar energy; iv) FRP composite piles; and v) modular FRP retaining walls. These structures are currently in service, showing satisfactory structural performance and durability,

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thereby demonstrating their applicability and providing examples for similar needs.

2 Effects of typical aggressive environmental factors on FRP joints and connections In order to provide focuses on FRP joints and connections at structural level and emphases on

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real applications and practices of FRP composites in civil constructions, this section first reviews the results of connection performances under aggressive environments. Remarks are also given at the end of this section to highlight the importance of understanding in degradation of such

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mechanical performance due to environmental factors for further structural applications.

2.1 Elevated temperatures

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Structural FRP components can be fashioned in standard shapes similar to those used for steel members: I, L, box, tube and channel sections for construction. Experimental investigations have been conducted of pultruded FRP materials cut from structural components in a few studies, where the failure modes indicating load capacities for various loading scenarios (e.g. compression, tension and shear) were obtained at different temperature levels [59, 62, 63]. Such results, together with empirical and mechanism-based modelling approaches, were given in [59,

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64]. This paper, however, focuses on the connections of FRP composites at structural level. Mechanical bolting, as a prevailing approach for steel structural construction, is often used to connect FRP members. Studies of temperature effects on bolted FRP joints are still limited in comparison to those on FRP materials. Two types of single-bolt FRP joints were tested

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in tension at 20oC, 60oC and 80oC by Turvey and Wang [65]. The tests were designed to achieve a bearing failure (Type I) or a tension failure (Type II) at room temperature, based on two

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different configurations of the end-distance (E) to bolt-diameter (D) ratio and the width (W) to bolt-diameter (D) ratio. All Type I joints showed a consistent bearing failure mode as that which occurred at room temperature. A reduction of 38.7% in load-carrying capacity was found at 60oC and a reduction of 51.0% was found at 80oC. A more significant reduction in load-carrying capacity was identified in Type II joints, with a 48.5% decrease at 60oC and 56.4% at 80oC; this was because a transition of failure modes from tension to bearing in Type II joints commenced at 60oC. Recently, Wu et al. [38] conducted an experimental study in 2016 on pultruded FRP bolted joints subjected to tensile loading and elevated temperatures. Consistent shear-out failure

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mode was identified for the joints examined at various temperatures from room temperature to 220oC. Reductions in load-carrying capacity compared to that at room temperature were found as 14% at 60oC, 38% at 100oC, 64% at 140oC, 78% at 180oC and 85% at 220oC. Less reduction in capacity up to 60oC was found for a new type of blind bolted joints while similar reductions

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reported after 60oC. Temperature effects on singled bolted FRP joints with close-fit bolt-hole clearance and laterally unrestrained condition (representing pin-bearing behaviour) were investigated by Anwar in 2017 [66]. About 44% decrease in pin-bearing strength was identified when temperature increased to 60oC as the highest temperature investigated in this work.

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Multi-bolt FRP joints with a series of geometric configurations in terms of end-distance (E), pitch distance (P), side distance (S) and bolt diameter (D) were examined by Turvey and

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Wang [67] at room temperature and at the elevated temperature of 60oC. The geometric configurations were found to considerably affect the reduction in joint strength at the elevated temperature. The maximum degradation of the ultimate joint strength was found to be 36%, corresponding to the scenario of E/D of 4, P/D of 2 and S/D of 4. No degradation was identified in the joints associated with the geometry of E/D of 2, P/D of 4 and S/D of 2. Finally, an average reduction in ultimate joint strength was obtained as 17% for twelve groups of multi-bolt FRP

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joints with different geometric characteristics. In addition to ultimate joint strength, a damage load was defined in that study prior to the ultimate load, in accordance with the joint load– displacement curve as the first evidence of load reduction. A more significant decrease was identified in the damage loads of multi-bolt FRP joints when the temperature was increased from

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room temperature to 60oC. The glass transition temperature and decomposition temperature of the composite material were investigated through dynamic mechanical analysis and

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thermogravimetric analysis. Three empirical or mechanism-based models were proposed to characterize strength under elevated temperature and were confirmed by providing good predictions for maximum loads. Like bolted connections, adhesive bonding has aroused strong interest as a connection

technique for FRP structural components. In an experimental study, Zhang et al. [68] investigated adhesively-bonded double-lap joints (with a bond length of 50 mm) in tension, composed of pultruded FRP adherends and an epoxy adhesive at temperatures ranging from -35oC to an elevated temperature of 60oC. Almost no difference was found for the joint ultimate loads at -35oC and room temperature. However, obvious reductions in joint ultimate

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load were recorded when the temperature increased to 45oC, and a maximum decrease of 32% was identified at 60oC in comparison to that at room temperature. The failure mechanism was also found to change from fibre-tear to adhesive failure when the temperature increased, especially at temperatures above 50oC. It should be noted that bond length might affect the

bond length of 50 mm was examined by Zhang et al. [68].

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temperature dependence of the load-carrying capacity of adhesively-bonded joints. Only one

2.2 Humidity and water immersion (deionized, salted or alkaline solutions)

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It has been reported that the presence of water may slightly reduce the elastic modulus and strength of polymer resins or structural adhesives, because moisture ingress can lead to

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plasticization or chemical and physical breakdown of the interfacial adhesion forces within the molecular structure [69]. Because FRP composites, as a combination of polymer resin and fibres, may show degradation of mechanical properties, such degradation has been experimentally studied since the 1990s. For example, Liao et al. [70] exposed pultruded FRP composites (glass fibre reinforced vinyl ester) to deionized water or salt (NaCl) solutions at either room temperature or 75°C for various durations. Chu and Karbhari [71] examined several material

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properties (such as glass transition temperature, tensile strength and short beam shear strength) of pultruded E-glass vinyl ester composites after deionized water saturation at different temperatures of 23, 40, 60, and 80°C for up to 75 weeks. Further studies were conducted by Nkurunziza et al. [72] on pultruded glass fibre reinforced vinylester rebar under combined tensile

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loading and water immersion; by Karbhari et al. [28] on pultruded E-glass/vinylester composites with deionized water immersion (at room temperature) and sustained bending simultaneously;

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and by Riebel and Keller [73] on pultruded glass fibre reinforced polyester composites under compression with exposure of 18 months to an alkaline solution (pH 13.4) at different temperatures (20, 40 and 60°C). This section focuses more closely on the connection performance of FRP structures. An

experimental investigation was performed by Turvey and Wang [65] on pultruded FRP singlebolt tension joints after water immersion at different temperatures (room temperature, 60°C and 80°C) for a maximum of 13 weeks (91 days). After water immersion at room temperature for 13 weeks, the joints (Type I) which had been designed to achieve a bearing failure mode at room temperature showed almost no loss of load-bearing capacity, whereas a loss of about 10% was

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found in the joints (Type II) which had been designed with a tension failure mode at room temperature. More significant reductions in load-bearing capacity were found in the joints after water immersion at higher temperatures. For example, the residual load-bearing capacity of Type I joints was only 22.5% and the residual load-bearing capacity of Type II joints was only 30.6%

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of that at 80°C before water immersion. It should be remembered that the joint strength also decreased significantly at elevated temperatures (60 and 80°C) prior to any water immersion, as discussed previously in Section 2.1. Pultruded FRP joints with two bolts in one column were designed by Turvey and Wang [67] with a series of geometric parameters, as explained in

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Section 2.2. Such joints were immersed in water for 6.5 weeks (about 45 days) at two different temperatures (room temperature and 60°C) and the residual load-bearing capacity was measured.

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All the joints with different geometric parameters showed more or less reductions in loadbearing capacity after environmental conditioning. The most significant loss of 28% after water immersion at room temperature corresponded to the joints with E/D of 2, S/D of 2 and P/D of 2. More severe loss of load-bearing capacity was found in the joints immersed to 60°C in water, with a maximum reduction of 56% for the scenario of E/D of 2, S/D of 4 and P/D of 4. In adhesively-bonded pultruded FRP joints, specimens with a bond length of 50 mm were

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all preconditioned for 70 days in 40°C water; subsequently, they were subjected to fatigue loading (with a tensile stress ratio of 0.1 and four stress levels of about 44%, 53%, 63% and 76% of the ultimate joint strength) simultaneously under different environmental conditions [74]. These were 1) -35°C without humidity control, 2) room temperature (23°C) and 50% relative

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humidity (RH), 3) 40°C and 50% RH, and 4) 40°C and 90% RH. The general conclusion was that higher temperatures and/or humidity levels induced a shorter fatigue life. The joints loaded

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at a stress level of about 44% of the ultimate joint strength achieved fatigue lives ranging from 484,288 to 1,909,376 cycles under 40°C and 50% RH, and ranging from 553,739 to 1,313,940 under 40°C and 90% RH. At the same stress level, the fatigue life of joints examined under room temperature and 50% RH ranged from 1,030,600 to 2,215,704 cycles. Although a higher stress level caused a shorter fatigue life, this phenomenon did not become more pronounced in the presence of the elevated temperature of 40°C and/or the presence of a higher humidity level (90% RH). This finding was supported by the research of Zhang et al. [74] which produced derived S-N curves from different environmental conditions with almost the same slope,

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indicating that the ultimate joint strength and the corresponding stress level dominated joint fatigue life.

2.3 UV effects

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Ultraviolet (UV) light is believed to have negative effects on most polymers, since it is associated with wavelengths of 290 to 400 nm and can dissociate the molecular bonds in most polymers. UV effects on different types of FRP composites were reported in 2003 by Karbhari et al. [27], mainly at the material level. Further experimental study was conducted by Correia et al.

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[75] in 2006 for UV effects on pultruded FRP composites (E-glass fibre and polyester resin), including two scenarios of UV exposure. In the first scenario, a UV-accelerated weathering

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apparatus was employed to provide repeated cycles of light (with an irradiance of 0.77 W/m2/nm at 340 nm) and moisture up to 6346 hours (about 265 days). In the second scenario, a xenon-arc light accelerated weathering apparatus was used to supply a constant irradiation of 0.5 W/m2/nm at 340 nm, and cycles of water spray (18 min) plus dry intervals (102 min), up to 2000 hours (about 84 days). No obvious loss in flexural strength was detected from the first scenario. A slight decrease in the average tensile strength was observed for the specimens after exposure of

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2000 hours (about 84 days) in both scenarios. That average decrease was associated with a relatively large data variation. It was concluded that UV mainly resulted in gloss loss and a change in colour (surface yellowing), rather than a compromise in mechanical properties. This result is consistent with studies of UV on FRP composites in general [27].

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It appears that UV effects alone are restricted to a limited thickness near the surface. Studies of UV effects on the mechanical performance of FRP connections and structures are

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therefore of less concern. A relevant work in this regard was reported by Nguyen et al. [76], in which steel/carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites double-strap joints made by the hand lay-up process were exposed to an irradiation level of 1.26 W/m2/nm at 340nm for 371 hours (equivalent to about 16 days) on each side of the joints. An obvious improvement of joint stiffness was observed and this was attributed to post-curing effects of the heat associated with the UV exposure. However, the joint strength after UV exposure showed a considerable reduction in comparison to the initial strength, with the maximum value of 50% corresponding to the shortest bond length of 30 mm. Similar strength degradation was found from exposure to an elevated temperature produced without UV radiation but at the same level as that during the UV

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exposure. It was therefore determined that, as the adhesive layer within the steel/CFRP doublestrap joints was well protected from UV by the CFRP adherend, the strength degradation was mainly caused by the elevated temperature rather than by UV radiation.

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2.4 Summary and remarks

Through the efforts of previous studies as reviewed above, valuable data are obtained which can quantify the degradations due to environmental factors in the major mechanical properties of FRP composites as structural components and of both adhesive bonding and mechanical bolting

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as main connection methods for FRP structures. Furthermore, a few design guidelines have been developed to provide partial safety factor approaches considering such degradations in

environmental effects [77-81].

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mechanical performances for structural resistance of FRP composites and connections due to

This knowledge can assist further applications of civil structural construction using FRP composites as load-carrying structural components in civil infrastructure in aggressive environments. Research worth noting concerns a pedestrian bridge located in the Alps region of Pontresina, Switzerland. After eight years of use, a detailed inspection of the bridge exposed to a

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harsh Alpine climate was conducted in 2005 during safety and serviceability testing [82]. In addition to a colour change from initial white to light yellow, a variety of local defects and damages were found such as local crushing caused by impacts or local cracks due to inappropriate storage and lifting, and fibre blooming and degradation of cut surfaces. The

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cracking and damages were mainly observed from open sections due to local bending of free flanges. This finding highlights that members with closed cross sections may be superior to open

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sections for such structural applications, leading to a few further structural developments using FRP members with closed sections assisted by specific joint configurations [41, 83]. Nevertheless, no materials stiffness losses were found from the pultruded structural members taken from the bridge after eight years’ service; however noticeable decrease in material strength up to 18% was identified. Such strength degradation was deemed noncritical because of proper safety factors considered in the initial design. This bridge was further examined in 2014 after 17 years’ service in relatively agreeisve environment of Swiss Alps [84]. Again the results about the material stiffness showed no obvious decreases over the 17 years. Significant losses in axial tensile strength were observed especially

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for couples cut from the flanges of structural members (up to 32%). Full-scale structural testing indicated no further decreases in the overall structural stiffness of the two truss spans in 2014, after the initial slight reduction of stiffness measured in 2005. The serviceability criterion was still satisfied therefore after service of 17 years. In terms of the structural safety, a secured

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margin still remained, again because of the initial safety factors considered for the strength properties. However application of an appropriate coating to FRP structures exposed to harsh environments is highlighted mainly for limit of fibre blooming. Inspired by the satisfaction of structural serviceability and safety after a long term of service based on this work, a few new

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providing solutions for cases with similar needs.

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practices from our own initiatives are introduced next, demonstrating their applicability and

3. Frame and truss assemblies in port regions 3.1 Frame structures

Frame structures made using glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites have attracted interest since 1990s [85]. The dynamic performances of very large GFRP frames (five storey and sic storey frames) were recently evaluated in [86, 87], highlighting the absence of material

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ductility of GFRP materials. This may be improved by introducing an innovative steel sleeve connection for GFRP beams and columns [88], showing satisfactory ductility and energy dissipation capacity through the yielding of steel connections. GFRP frame structures were used to replace traditional steel frames for a few applications

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in ports in China. One example is in Yangshan Deepwater Port in the Shanghai International Shipping Center (built as the first fully automated container terminal in China). In addition to the

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electrical insulation of GFRP composites (to minimize electrical signal interference) and reduced maintenance costs, this project may also suggest applications of FRP structures for requirements of durability in coastal corrosive environments and electromagnetic shielding. The GFRP frames were constructed to support cooling containers in the storage yard of Yangshan Port (Fig. 1a). A single GFRP structure is a three-storey frame supported by columns of identical height (8.1 m), each storey consisting of three spans in the longitudinal direction and one span in the transverse direction (Fig. 1b). Each span has identical length (6.1 m) and width (1.5 m). The main frame structure is made of pultruded FRP sections with wood core. The columns are 184×184 mm in section and the frame beams 110×210 mm, each with the wall thickness of

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10 mm. In the pultrusion process, the wood core and the GFRP skin are integrally bonded and formed through high temperature moulding. The beam and column components are connected through embedded steel plates with assistance from stainless steel bolts. Polyester felt is used on the outer surfaces of the GFRP skins including the connection locations (Fig. 1b), to ensure

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satisfactory durability and appearance of the structural components. Compared to common GFRP pultruded sections, such components with wood cores may effectively mitigate local indentations, splitting and buckling of the GFRP skin, consequently providing better mechanical properties [5]. In addition, moulded FRP grids are used for the stair and deck structures (Fig. 1c).

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Those grids were made through a continuous resin infusion process with fibre roving alternating in both longitudinal and transverse directions to form a grid structure with stiff nodes. The cross-

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sections of moulded GFRP grids in two directions are identical. The handrails are assembled with pultruded composite profiles of circular section (Fig. 1d). Based on the results reported about the applications of FRP structures in literature, a design service life of 40 years is expected for the main structure under the premise of no major maintenance requirements. The structures were built in 2010 and have now been in service for eight years.

Axial compression experiments were performed on the GFRP column components (Fig. 2a),

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identifying the typical failure mode of global buckling followed by local wrinkling and structural collapse (Fig. 2b). The resulting load–displacement curves are shown in Fig. 2c, where the corresponding ultimate capacity was 1026 kN. Four-point bending experiments were conducted on the beam components, as shown in Fig. 3a. Failure was initiated due to tensile cracks

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occurring near the loading point and the beams finally lost their load-carrying capacity due to cracks propagation along the side of the beam and through the depth (Fig. 3b). Typical load-

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displacement curves are plotted in Fig. 3c, with failure initiated at 154 kN and the ultimate capacity marked at 211 kN.

3.2 Truss bridges

GFRP composites have been successfully used as structural components in the construction of truss bridges. Such truss structures are characterized by a clear loading path, where loads are transmitted through transverse beams to chord members and diagonal members. Again, satisfactory overall structural stiffness can be achieved conveniently in a truss configuration at structural level rather than through the elastic modulus of GFRP materials. A truss footbridge

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was developed using pultruded GFRP sections and built in 1997 for ski tourism in the Swiss Alps by Keller et al. As already mentioned, this bridge was evaluated for long-term performance [82] in 2005 and later again in 2014 [84]. A vehicle truss bridge consisting of thick-wall GFRP members with square hollow sections was presented as an example of truss bridge applications

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[89]. Structural testing was performed on a reduced scale truss girder with a simply supported span length of 13 m made by assembling GFRP tubular profiles and steel jacket joints [90]. One of the concepts in this structure was to introduce prestressing and keep all members in compression for possible load combination. Space truss structures were developed by Yang et al.

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[41, 42] using pultruded GFRP tubular members and specific space nodal connectors. The space frame structures were evaluated statically and dynamically for implementation in supporting

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structures of pedestrian bridges. Hybrid FRP-aluminum space truss structures were also developed [91] for fast construction of bridges showing satisfactory load carrying capacities. However, the proposed truss structures were not specifically dedicated for applications in aggressive environments and no long-term performance was reported for them. Several truss bridges were required for boat docks in Yangshan Deepwater Port in the Shanghai International Shipping Center. Previous successful experiences suggested the GFRP

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structures as a potential solution considering their corrosion resistance to the harsh coastal environment as well as their light weight and convenience for fast assembly. Fig 4a shows a bridge assembled at Nanjing Tech University for experimental evaluation with the intention of use in harsh environments such as port regions. The bridge is 6.1 m in span length and 1.3 m in

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width, resulting a self-weight of 120 kg and an expectation of a design load-carrying capacity of 3.5 kN/m2. Full-scale experimental investigation was conducted on the truss bridge under a simply supported boundary condition with a clear span of 5.5 m and load was applied using

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sandbags corresponding to 3.6 kN/m2 (Fig. 4b). The resulting maximum vertical deflection was 22.3 mm at mid-span (Fig. 4c). After the understanding achieved from the full-scale experimental evaluation, seven GFRP truss bridges 3 m in span length, 1.5 in width and 1.48 m in depth were installed at several boat dock locations in Yangshan Port (Fig. 5). The GFRP members were manufactured in factory through the pultrusion process and assembled into the truss structures, then transported to the sites and placed in position using a crane (Fig. 5a), and finally fixed at the two ends of the bridge (Fig. 5b). They are still in good service currently, as shown in Fig. 5c. A few advantageous

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features have been acquired through this practice, including the fast construction process due to the modular design for assembly, the absence of requirement for painting and maintenance and the absence of biodegradation under such harsh environmental conditions, as well as the

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possibility for disassembly and relocation.

4. FRP composite bumper systems for bridge piers

Ship collisions with bridge piers are among the most frequent accidents in waterborne traffic. In view of the large variations of deadweight tonnage and approach speeds, ship-bridge-pier

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collisions can not only cause severe damage to the bridge but also result in tragic loss of life [92, 93]. According to the Federal Highway Administration in the U.S., collision damage of a vehicle

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or a ship impacting a bridge is the third main cause of bridge failure or collapse, following the first two causes which are flood and overweight vehicles [94]. Thus, the protection of bridge piers against ship collisions is of high importance and increasingly invokes research attention to proper design of bridge anti-collision systems [95].

In the past two decades, several types of system have been developed on the basic principles of energy absorption and momentum buffering. Six major anti-collision systems for bridge piers

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were reviewed by Voyiadjis et al. [96], namely pile fender systems, rubber fender systems, hydraulic/pneumatic fender systems, retractable fender systems, gravity-type fender systems and floating fender systems. Distinctive characteristics and service conditions were clearly identified for each type. It appears that steel fender systems have been most commonly used [97]. Such

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systems are associated with a few disadvantages, such as high initial cost, poor corrosion resistance and high maintenance requirements, but the advantages are high rigidity and low

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deformability due to the structural steel material [98]. From this point of view, FRP composites are particularly attractive for applications in such anti-collision structures due to their exceptional material properties such as high strength and light weight, excellent corrosion resistance and satisfactory cushioning performance [5, 49, 99]. A few studies have been conducted to develop composite structures incorporating FRP composites for effective energy dissipation applications [100-102]. From the extensive research and development activities in the last several years, three of anti-collision system types using FRP composites have been developed and put into practice through our own experience: the fixed composite bumper system, the floating composite bumper system and the large-scale floating composite bumper system.

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4.1 Fixed composite bumper system Fig. 6a shows segments for a composite bumper system used to fix on the bridge piers as an anticollision system. The main structure is made of continuous GFRP composite blocks containing PU foam as the core material. The outer shell is formed by GFRP with a thickness of 8 to 10 mm;

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this layer is expected to distribute compact forces through its elastic deformation. The inside spatial grids are reinforced with GFRP webs and filled with foam core, resulting in satisfactory load-bearing capability and energy dissipation capacity. The structure can be fabricated by a vacuum-assisted resin infusion process. Connections between fender facilities and bridge piers

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are made of concrete-filled steel tube gauge piles and expansion bolts. This new anti-collision system offers several remarkable advantages over steel bumpers, such as modular fabrication and

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assembly of segments, efficiency for on-site installation, excellent corrosion resistance, as well as ease in replacing damaged segments. Such systems have already been installed on more than ten bridges in China. Fig. 6 shows applications of the anti-collision system on the Xinmengge Bridge (Fig. 6b), Oubei Bridge (Fig. 6c) and Wuhan Yingwuzhou Yangtze River Bridge (Fig. 6d).

Experimental and numerical studies were conducted on FRP and foam core panels as the

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basic elements in such anti-collision systems. The panels consisted of two GFRP skins with a PU foam core sandwiched in between. They were tested under quasi-static compression to investigate the deformability and energy absorption through the foam core. However, the sandwich panels with foam core presented relatively low stiffness and peak strength in

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compression due to the low strength and stiffness of the foam core, and thus may not be adequate in the case of large impact forces. Foam core sandwich panels reinforced with lattice webs were

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therefore developed [103, 104], consisting of not only two GFRP skins and PU foam core but also orthogonal GFRP lattice webs between them, as shown in Fig. 7a. Results from compression tests on such sandwich panels with lattice webs (see Fig. 7b) registered largely improved peak load and stiffness in comparison to those without lattice webs as demonstrated in Fig. 7c. An in-depth numerical investigation was also conducted [105] to evaluate and understand the impact performance of the fixed composite bumper system installed on a bridge pier of a stayed bridge using a nonlinear explicit dynamic finite element approach (LS-DYNA) (Fig. 8a). The modelling results indicated that the fixed composite bumper system effectively reduced the

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peak collision forces (Fig. 8b) to a non-destructive level for the bridge pier through an effective manner of energy dissipation.

4.2 Floating composite bumper system

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As the fixed composite bumpers are firmly connected to bridge piers they are not suitable for situations where a large change in water level is expected. To resolve this problem, a floating composite bumper system was developed which can move up and down with changes in water level (Fig. 9).

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In this application, the bridge is located across Wulong River in Fuzhou, China. This bridge is a long-span prestressed concrete T rigid frame bridge with the total span length of 552 m and

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depth of 33 m. As shown in Fig. 9a, the floating system consists of six modular segments connected through six pairs of concave and convex joints. It was installed surrounding the bridge pier and individual modular segments could be easily replaced due to the joint design configuration using high density polyethylene (HDPE) go-through bolts (see Fig. 9a). The modular segments were manufactured through a vacuum-assisted resin infusion process (VARIP) similar to that of FRP wind blades for wind-turbine applications. The cross-section of the FRP

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floating system was designed with a box shape with height of 2 m and width of 1 m respectively. The surface FRP shell was 10 mm thick and most of the internal webs were 8 mm thick. Sixteen arch rubber fenders 0.5 m in height were installed between the inside surface of the floating system and the bridge piers. As well, several 30 mm thick polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) plates

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were arranged between the rubber fenders and bridge pier. FRP guardrails were also installed on top of the floating system for safe operation above the structure (Fig. 9a). Finally, Fig. 9b shows

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a view of the bridge piers after installation of the floating system in 2011, with clear completion and structural integration. It has been in service since then without further maintenance.

4.3 Large-scale floating composite bumper system The successful development of the floating system using GFRP and foam core sandwich configuration has opened opportunities for further applications to major bridges with large diameter piers. The associated challenge for large-scale applications lies in the manufacture of such foam-filled FRP blocks with lattice webs using an integral moulding method. An innovative approach was recently developed for such a FRP floating bumper system at a very large scale

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[106]. As shown in Fig. 10, the large-scale anti-collision system consists of six or more largescale cylindrical segments in which each segment is composed of upper and lower half circular subsegments through VARIP and HDPE bolts with a diameter of 240 mm connecting the modular segments. This innovative large-scale bumper system offers the advantages of self-

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floating ability, modular assembly for convenient installation on site, excellent corrosion resistance and low maintenance requirements, as well as ease in potential replacement of damaged units.

This system provides great design flexibility, with its size and geometry adaptable to the

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bridge piers. The cross-sectional geometric features, PU core depth, GFRP skin thickness and GFRP lattice web spacing can be optimized and designed according to the requirements of load

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capacity and energy absorption capacity. Moreover, the properties of the GFRP skin and lattice web can be designed through optimization of fibre orientation and stacking sequence, as intensively studied in [107, 108]. In that floating bumper system, ceramic particles were added into the inner cylinder to achieve better energy absorption, as also indicated in previous studies [109]. Fig. 11a shows the experimental setup for evaluation of the stiffness and energy dissipation capacity of the segments with and without ceramic particles. The comparisons (Fig.

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11b and c) are for the resulting load-deflection curves and energy absorption respectively. It was found that, with the use of ceramic particles, the ultimate elastic load and energy absorption were increased by about 37% and 660%, respectively.

The large-scale floating system has been successfully applied in more than ten bridges for

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pier protection in China. Fig. 10 shows a completed project of a suspension bridge in Wuhan, China across the Yangtze River. The on-site assembly of such a large-scale modular system for a

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single bridge pier in this project normally took only days, as the majority of the time for manufacturing the cylinder units was completed in the factory. The installation sequence was i) the modular units were transported to the riverside, lifted from the trailer using a small crane and placed at the side of the wharf (Fig. 10a); ii) six HDPE bolts were prepared for the floating system to connect one side unit and two corner units so that half of the ring structure was formed (Fig. 10b); iii) then the other two corner units and one side unit were connected to form the other half of the ring structure using six HDPE bolts; iv) each of the half ring structures was floated on the water and dragged to the bridge pier by a barge (Fig. 10b); v) the structures were finally located to enclose the bridge pier and HDPE bolts were carefully inserted through the bolt holes

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in the concave convex joints of adjacent half-loops. Fig. 10c shows two bridge piers of the suspension bridge from a distance where the ring structures surround the piers elegantly and have

5. Floating GFRP structures for supporting solar panels

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been in service in the current without maintenance for the past three years.

Compared with the traditional photovoltaics (PV) power plants on the ground, water floating PV power plants reduce land occupation and minimize dust accumulation on the solar panels, with improved energy efficiency. The floating support structure for the solar panels is important not

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only in terms of load-carrying capacity but also in long-term performance in such corrosive environments, especially considering the current life requirement of 25 years for PV power

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plants.

Light weight, excellent resistance corrosion and freezing-thaw effects and sufficient structural stiffness to wind and wave loads need to be considered for the design of such floating structures. It has been reported that some such structures are usually made in small scale from HDPE materials. Their service life has been from 10 to 15 years and has been difficult to meet the 25 year service life requirement for applications of PV power plants [110]. Moreover, the

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brackets used to support the solar panels are often made of galvanized steel which needs to be regalvanized about every three years, resulting in high maintenance costs for applications in such corrosive environments. These challenges severely hamper the development of floating PV power plants.

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FRP composites appear to be a promising material option to tackle the aforementioned challenges; however studies in this regard is still very limited. A floating support system was

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successfully developed using GFRP composites, through our efforts for development of PV power plants on water. The first practical application is shown in Fig. 12a. The floating support system consists of mainly GFRP primary and secondary beams and supporting brackets (Fig. 12b). The primary beams are 10.2 m long, 500 mm wide and 500 mm high. A 150 mm deep groove is opened on the upper surface along the length of the primary beams. The secondary beams of the floating structure are with 9.5 mm long, and 200 mm high and 150 mm wide. Therefore, the secondary beams can be placed into the grooves as shown in Fig. 12b, connecting individual primary beams into the floating structure. Apart from the mechanical interlocking at the groove locations, bolts are used to fix the secondary beams with the primary beams to form

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an integrated structure. Steel plates (4 mm thick) are embedded at both ends of the primary beams during the manufacturing process. These steel plates can be connected through bolts so that the primary beams can be joined and extended in the longitudinal direction. GFRP brackets are fixed on the secondary beams through bolted connections, as shown in

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Fig. 15b, so that solar panels can be secured within the FRP frames. The total self-weight of such a GFRP floating structure (9.5 m by 10.2 m, including the aforementioned GFRP bracket frames and solar panels) is about 3.6 tons and it can float on water independently (Fig. 12a). Without consideration of wind load, the draught depth of the floating structure is about 230 mm. If wind

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load is taken into consideration, this depth becomes 330 mm and still meets the service requirements in general.

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The manufacturing of such GFRP floating structures uses different approaches and processes for different components, including the primary and secondary beams and various sections of the bracket frame (Fig. 12). As the cross-sections used for the bracket frame include constant shapes of square tube and L and C channels, pultrusion is used for their manufacture. While the GFRP primary and secondary beams consist of lattice-reinforced sections with PU foam core inside, i.e. the beam surface layer and lattice webs are made of glass fibre reinforced resin matrix and PU

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foams are filled between the lattice webs and face sheets (Fig. 12c). Because that structural form is more complex than the other GFRP components, therefore a manufacturing process based on vacuum infusion and resin transfer is employed for the primary and secondary beams (Fig. 12c). Fig. 12a shows the completed GFRP floating structure with the supporting GFRP bracket frames

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and solar panels installed. It was manufactured in factory in 2016 and assembled on site in the

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same year, providing service of more than two years so far without maintenance.

6. FRP composite piles 6.1 Sheet piles

GFRP composites sheet piles have stimulated interest for geo-application because of the complex harsh operating environments such as high humidity and various chemical contents. In general, two structural forms have been applied using GFRP sheet piles, cantilever application and frame revetment. The former usually consists of U- or Z-shaped sections joined laterally through mechanical interlocking connections. The frame type revetment consists of a continuous sheet pile wall with transverse beams to enhance overall structural stiffness. It has also been reported

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that composites sheet piles can be pulled out without structural damage. Single, connected and concrete-backfilled GFRP sheet pile panels were investigated by Shao and Shanmugan [111], with focus on the moment capacities, deflection limits and failures modes. It was found that single panel GFRP piles showed a higher average capacity than that of three connected panels,

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which suffered from uneven load distribution and connection effects. The dynamic responses of a pultruded GFRP sheet pile with the total length of 9 m was studied by Boscato et al. [112], who was concluded that the GFRP sheet units could be satisfactorily installed using a pile driving rig in a procedure similar to that in steel sheet piling applications. Considering the relatively low

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elastic modulus of pultruded GFRP profiles, strengthening methods were proposed by Wang et al. [113] to enhance the GFRP flange using steel plates. Different layers of fibre volume were

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studied and the results indicated that fibre volume affected not only the failure mechanisms of the GFRP sheet piles but also their stiffness and load capacity. Furthermore, strengthening steel plates improved the sheet pile stiffness but with negligible enhancement of the ultimate carrying capacity because of the interface debonding between steel and GFRP. In view of the advantages of FRP composite sheet pile systems, a construction project for revetment applications was pioneered in April 2016 with our practice to enhance a retaining wall

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along a river for 50 m using FRP sheet piles 5 m in height. Fig. 13a shows the FRP sheet piles manufactured using a VARIP and assembled in factory. Such piles are corrugated sections with a constant thickness of 11.5 mm. An interlocking connection configuration was designed at the edge of the corrugated sections of the sheet piles (Fig. 13a). The piles were transported to the site

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and installed into the soil using a hoist machine (Fig. 13b) and completed as shown in Fig. 13c. Such FRP sheet piles were applied in long distance for a waterway project in Jiangsu China (Fig.

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13d), where their performance such as the deformation was inspected after every two years with satisfactory service condition indicated so far.

6.2 Tubular piles

FRP piles with tubular sections have also attracted interest for applications in bridge piers, pile foundations, bollards and structures to prevent soil erosion [47, 114], especially when corrosion resistance is required, such as in humid environments or those with sulphate content. Such tubular piles are mainly designed to carry lateral pressure from surrounding soil and to transfer vertical loads to soil foundation below; therefore, adequate load-bearing capacity and buckling

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resistance are required. A solution is to form a composite section consisting of an FRP tubular section as the outer layer and a steel tubular section within it. The FRP outer layer protects the inner steel tube by isolating the steel from corrosive environments. Meanwhile, vertical loads can be sustained by the composite section. This solution may reduce the overall need for steel

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thickness and therefore the pile self-weight. Additional advantages may include more convenient transportation and deployment and fast installation due to their light weight in comparison to concrete piles.

Through our practices, two projects were completed in 2013 where tubular piles were

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installed as bridge piers to support a bridge superstructure overpass in Taiyuan, China and to support a highway bridge along the Hang-shen line from Shanghai to Hangzhou, China. Both

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sites were reported to contain corrosive soil environments and therefore high corrosion resistance was required for the pile structures. For the piles implemented as foundations for the overpass structure in Taiyuan, two steel tubular sections were used, with outer diameters of 1800 mm and 1500 mm respectively. The steel tubes were 10 mm thick and 12 m long, covered by FRP layers 2.5 mm thick (Fig. 14a). The installation of piles was completed using a hoist (Figs. 14b to 14d), through the process used for traditional concrete piles. For the application of the tubular piles in

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the Hang-shen highway bridge, the composite section had a 609 mm outer diameter and a 16 mm thick steel tube within covered by a 2.5 mm thick FRP layer for the length of 11.1 m (Fig. 15a). The tubular piles were manufactured by wrapping a steel tube in a FRP layer of +45/-45o fibres to the longitudinal axis. A filament winding process was used to wrap the continuous fibre

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impregnated by resin into the steel tube surface before the process of curing, resulting in excellent wear resistance and corrosion resistance. After sufficient curing, the tubular piles 11.1

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m in length were shipped to the construction site (Fig. 15b) and then piled into soil using a piling machine (Fig. 15c).

7. GFRP modular retaining wall system Apart from inland applications, GFRP composites have also attracted strong interest for the construction of retaining walls in coastal regions because of their superior corrosion resistance to steel and steel reinforced concrete and their superior decay resistance to that of timber. It has been reported [115] that the installation of a GFRP composites seawall system may not require heavy machinery, significantly saving construction time in comparison to traditional concrete

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seawalls. In practice, backfills create pressures on retaining walls, introducing bending stress and deformation to the wall components. Therefore, the seawall system must provide sufficient bending resistance and satisfy relevant strength and deformation requirements. Especially regarding deformation, although there are no specific design specifications for GFRP seawall

117] are recommended for retaining walls in general.

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structures as a retaining wall system, allowable deflections in the range of L/100 to L/60 [116,

Considering the relatively low elastic modulus of GFRP composites, appropriate design is important to achieve adequate structural stiffness in bending, and such sections are further

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required to be designed for convenient connection in order to form continuous retaining walls with adaptation to possible changes in wall orientation. A modular GFRP seawall system

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(ArmourWall) was developed in Australia using web-flange plank and pile sections with assistance from a specifically-designed mechanical interlocking connection and this system has attracted a few applications in Australia since 2016 with satisfactory performance received so far (Fig. 16). The web-flange section is double-H plank with adequate sectional inertial moment contributed by flange areas distant from the neutral axis. The plank section is designed with pin and eye connections in the flanges to join with other plank or pile sections. Such connection

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configurations are provided at a few locations around a pile section and therefore wall orientations can change at pile locations (Fig. 16). The double-H plank sections were manufactured through a pultrusion process with nominal depth, width and thickness of 260 mm, 580 mm and 6.4 mm respectively. The nominal diameter

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of the round pile is 300 mm and the thickness is 6.4 mm. A series of experimental studies was conducted to evaluate the bending performance of the hollow GFRP double-H plank and round

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pile sections [118]. As shown in Fig. 17a and b, such specimens were loaded under four-point bending with a span length of 2.8 m. The load–displacement curves for both double-H plank and round pile sections are shown in Fig. 17c, and the slope in the linear stage was used to determine the corresponding bending stiffness. The plank specimen failed through shear cracking along the web-flange junction, due to the shear stress there exceeding the corresponding inter-laminar shear strength, as also observed in a few previous studies [119-122]. The pile specimen showed much higher bending stiffness and also a larger ultimate load. It lost its load-carrying capacity due to local crushing failure at the loading location. As mentioned, in many cases the design of a retaining wall system is dominated by deflection limits and this requirement is even more critical

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in structures made from GFRP composites because of their low elastic modulus. The plank and pile sections further allow filling of concrete (or other backfill materials) to improve the bending stiffness. Four-point bending experiments were conducted on the plank and pile specimens filled with concrete (Fig. 17d and e respectively). The resulting load–

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displacement curves (Fig. 17f) received from the middle span evidenced considerable improvements in bending stiffness for both sections [123]. This study however focused only on the short term mechanical responses of the GFRP modular retaining wall system. Long-term performance such as material viscoelasticity and creep-induced deflection may be of interest as

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intensively investigated in several previous studies [124-126].

To evaluate the connection performance of two adjacent sections in terms of load transfer

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and rotation capacity, three plank sections 415 mm in length were assembled through their specific joint configurations and tested in the transverse direction (Fig. 18a). The web-flange sandwich sections were evaluated in [127, 128] to understand the effects of the rotational stiffness of the web-flange junctions on the ultimate capacity of the GFRP bridge decks. It should be noted that in this study the two ends of the specimen were fixed covering the web-flange junctions to minimize end rotation and junction rotation, so that the connection rotation could be

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the focus. The load and displacement curve measured at the middle span is shown in Fig. 18b, where an excessive deformation of more than 60 mm can be seen due to rotation of the connection. The large deflection introduced high tensile stresses at the web-flange junction and the transverse direction was also associated with weak material strengths of the pultruded GFRP

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composites. Initial cracking at web-flange junctions was noticed first at about 7 kN (Fig. 18b) and the cracking developed with the increase in loading. However, the cracking at the junctions

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did not bring ultimate failure and the load continued to increase with larger deflection achieved until the loading was manually stopped (Fig. 18b). It was evident that the mechanical interlocking system was mechanically effective in transferring the stresses to adjacent sections up to a joint rotation of 12° or greater, and it was also convenient for assembly.

8. Summary FRP composites have shown their advantages in mechanical properties under in aggressive environments as reported in numerous studies. The many advantages of FRP composites support the development of low weight, high strength and more durable civil infrastructure under

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aggressive environments. However there is a clear lack in reviews about the demonstrations of large scale civil structures and infrastructure constructed using FRP composites. This paper therefore focused on such practices of FRP composites as major load-carrying members for civil construction in aggressive environments, and emphasizes the suitability of FRP composites for

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such specific applications in comparison to conventional materials. The paper started with a review on major results for environmental effectiveness of FRP composites at structural level in form of connections and in situations including elevated environmental temperatures, humidity and water immersion, and UV radiation as the main aggressive environmental factors.

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Quantification on the changes in material properties of FRP composites subjected to various environmental effects and loading conditions were not included to avoid repeated reports as these

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are well covered in a few existing reviews and articles.

Furthermore this paper presented several implementations of FRP composites for construction of large scale structures in civil infrastructure applications, mainly from the authors’ practices over the last decade, including i) FRP truss and frame structures in high humility areas, ii) FRP composites bumper systems for bridge piers, iii) floating FRP structures for solar panels, iv) FRP composite piles for foundation applications, and v) GFRP planks or piles for modular

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retaining walls. These structures, currently in service and regularly inspected, show satisfactory structural performance and durability so far, demonstrating remarkable advantages including cost effectiveness. It is expected that such practices may demonstrate applicability and provide solutions for other similar needs, therefore providing insightful indications to further assist

environments.

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design and industry uptake of such FRP applications for civil infrastructure in aggressive

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Further research is being conducted to fully maximize the applications of FRP composites for civil infrastructure construction. Other development work needs to be carried out, especially with respect to modular solutions, improved high temperature performance, recycling and reusability, and performance based design approaches.

Acknowledgements The support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51578285 and 51778285) and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. BK20161545) and the Australian Research Council through the Discovery scheme (DP180102208) are

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acknowledged. Thanks also go for the industry supports and to the technicians at Nanjing Tech University and Monash University for their assistance in conducting relevant experiments.

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Fig. 10. Application of large-scale floating composite bumper system in a suspension bridge in Wuhan China across the Yangtze River with a) floating components ready for transportation to construction site, b) floating transportation process, and c) installation and in position

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