Consensus Conference on Clinical Practice in Chronic Graft-versus-Host Disease (GVHD): First-Line and Topical Treatment of Chronic GVHD

REPORT

Consensus Conference on Clinical Practice in Chronic Graft-versus-Host Disease (GVHD): First-Line and Topical Treatment of Chronic GVHD Daniel Wolff,1 Armin Gerbitz,2 Francis Ayuk,3 Alexander Kiani,4 Gerhard C. Hildebrandt,1 Georgia B. Vogelsang,5 Sharon Elad,6 Anita Lawitschka,7 Gerard Socie,8 Steven Z. Pavletic,9 Ernst Holler,1 Hildegard Greinix10 Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is still associated with significant morbidity and mortality. First-line treatment of cGVHD is based on steroids of 1 mg/kg/day of prednisone. The role of calcineurin inhibitors remains controversial, especially in patients with low risk for mortality (normal platelets counts), whereas patients with low platelets at diagnosis and/ or high risk for steroid toxicity may be treated upfront with the combination of prednisone and a calcineurin inhibitor. Additional systemic immunosuppressive agents, like thalidomide, mycophenolic acid, and azathioprine, failed to improve treatment results in the primary treatment of cGVHD and are in part associated with higher morbidity, and in the case of azathioprine, with higher mortality. Despite advances in diagnosis of cGVHD as well as supportive care, half of the patients fail to achieve a long-lasting response to first-line treatment, and infectious morbidity continues to be significant. Therefore, immunomodulatory interventions with low infectious morbidity and mortality such as photopheresis need urgent evaluation in clinical trials. Beside systemic immunosuppression, the use of topical immunosuppressive interventions may improve local response rates and may be used as the only treatment in mild localized organ manifestations of cGVHD. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 16: 1611-1628 (2010) Ó 2010 American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation

KEY WORDS: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, Graft-versus-host disease, Immunosuppressive therapy INTRODUCTION Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) continues to be associated with significant morbidity and From the 1Department of Hematology and Clinical Oncology, University of Regensburg, Germany; 2Department of Immunology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charite´dUniversity Hospital Berlin, Germany; 3Interdisciplinary Clinic for Stem Cell Transplantation, University Cancer Center Hamburg (UCCH), Germany; 4Department of Internal Medicine I, University of Dresden, Germany; 5Johns Hopkins Oncology Center, Baltimore, Maryland; 6Department of Oral Medicine, The Hebrew UniversityeHadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel; 7St. Anna Children’s Hospital, Vienna, Austria; 8Service d’Hematologie Greffe & Inserm Hospital Saint-Louis, Paris, France; 9Experimental Transplantation and Immunology Branch, Center of Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland; and 10Department of Internal Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Austria. Financial disclosure: See Acknowledgments on page 1625. Correspondence and reprint requests: Daniel Wolff, MD, Department of Hematology and Oncology, University of Regensburg, F.J. Strauss Allee 11, 93053 Regensburg, Germany (e-mail: [email protected]). Received February 10, 2010; accepted June 21, 2010 Ó 2010 American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation 1083-8791/$36.00 doi:10.1016/j.bbmt.2010.06.015

is the leading cause for late mortality after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) [1,2]. Moreover, because of rising recipient age, and the use of unrelated donors as well as peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs) as a graft source, the incidence of cGVHD has been increasing [3]. Although major progress has been achieved in understanding the pathophysiology of acute GVHD (aGVHD), cGVHD is far less defined. Current concepts include the persistence of alloreactive T cells, a Th1-Th2 shift of the cellular immune response, defective peripheral, and central tolerance mechanisms (ie, failure of control by regulatory T cells and/or impaired negative selection of T cells in the thymus), replacement of antigen presenting cells (APCs) of the host by APCs of the donor leading to indirect antigen presentation of allo-antigens, an increasing role of B cells producing auto- and allo-antibodies against the host, and unspecific mechanisms of chronic inflammation leading to fibrosis of involved organs [4]. First-line treatment of cGVHD consists mainly of prednisone with a starting dose of 1 mg/kg/day, often combined with a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI). Evidence for first-line treatment options is based on controlled trials with the exception of severe cGVHD, which continues to be associated with interior survival [1]. Until recently, 1611

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no valid criteria for the diagnosis and staging of cGVHD severity were available, which limits the value of most reported trials on the treatment of cGVHD. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus criteria on diagnosis and staging of cGVHD as well as on treatment response criteria, reported in 2005, provide defined criteria that should improve the validity of reported results on treatment of cGVHD in the future [5-9]. Despite available evidence from controlled studies, no consensus has been achieved on first-line treatment of cGVHD. The Consensus Conference on Clinical Practice in Chronic GVHD held in fall of 2009 in Regensburg, Germany (complete program provided at www.gvhd.de), aimed to summarize the current available evidence for first-line and topical treatment and to provide practical guidelines for the use of treatment modalities. The presented consensus was based on a review of published evidence and a survey on the current clinical practice including transplant centers from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Moreover, the consensus was circulated among all transplant centers performing allo-HSCT in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, and was discussed during the Consensus Conference meetings. The Consensus Conference was organized under the auspices of the German working group on bone marrow and blood stem cell transplantation (DAG-KBT) and the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO), the Austrian Stem Cell Transplant Working Group of the Austrian Society of Hematology and Oncology, the Swiss Blood Stem Cell Transplantation Group (SBST), and the GermanAustrian Paediatric Working Group on SCT. The evaluation of evidence and the subsequent recommendation was graded according to the system used in grading of supportive care published by Couriel [10]. The evidence of the majority of treatment options in cGVHD is sparse, and, therefore, for most of the therapeutic options the strength of recommendation falls into category C. In addition, category C and evidence III level were further specified as shown in Tables 1 and 2. All recommendation and evidence levels were first rated by an expert panel and subsequently rated by all participants of the consensus process. Only evidence from the use in cGVHD was included in the evaluation. According to the number and severity of organs involved with cGVHD, the NIH consensus defined mild cGVHD as mild involvement of 2 organs only, excluding lung involvement, moderate cGVHD as mild involvement of more than 2 organs, or moderate organ involvement excluding moderate lung involvement, and severe cGVHD as any severe organ manifestation or moderate lung manifestations [8]. Here, we discuss first-line and topical treatment options for cGVHD. We mainly focus on reported clinical trials and retrospective analyses. The literature search was performed by the working group on first-line

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Table 1. Strength of Recommendation Strength of Recommendation Level A B C

C-1* C-2* D

Definition of Recommendation Level Should always be offered Should generally be offered Evidence for efficacy is insufficient to support for or against, or evidence might not outweigh adverse consequences, or cost of the approach. Optional Use in first-line treatment justified Use in equal to or greater than second-line treatment justified Moderate evidence for lack of efficacy or for adverse outcome supports a recommendation against use. Should generally not be offered.

*Only applied for topical treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD).

treatment within the Consensus Conference using the Pubmed database. Only English literature was considered. Abstracts from the Bone Marrow Transplantation Tandem meetings, the European Bone Marrow Transplantation meetings, and the American Society of Hematology meetings were cited, but were not included in the evidence rating. Principles of First-Line Treatment of cGVHD As the diagnosis of cGVHD has major consequences on the further clinical course of the patient, the diagnosis needs to be based on either diagnostic clinical signs of cGVHD or requires confirmation by histology as described by the NIH consensus as well as the consensus within the German/Austrian/Swiss Bone Marrow Transplantation Group [8]. Once diagnosis of GVHD is established, the first step is to distinguish classic cGVHD from overlap syndrome or late aGVHD. Especially in the latter situation as for overlap syndrome with dominating acute features, treatment should be applied according to standard practice in treatment of aGVHD (ie, treatment with steroids in Table 2. Quality of Evidence Supporting the Recommendation Strength of Evidence Level I II

III

III-1* III-2* III-3*

Definition of Evidence Level Evidence from $1 properly randomized, controlled trial Evidence from >1 well-designed clinical trial without randomization, from cohort or case-controlled analytic studies (preferable from >1 center) or from multiple time series or dramatic results from uncontrolled experiments Evidence from opinions of respected authorities based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports from expert committees Several reports from retrospective evaluations or small uncontrolled clinical trials Only 1 report from small uncontrolled clinical trial or retrospective evaluations Only case reports available

*Only applied for topical treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD).

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combination with a CNI). Standards for treatment of overlap syndrome with evenly balanced symptoms still need to be defined. While aGVHD is defined by the presence of exclusive features of aGVHD, the diagnosis of overlap syndrome is based on the simultaneous presence of symptoms of aGVHD and distinctive or diagnostic features of cGVHD [8]. The diagnosis of classic cGVHD requires the presence of either diagnostic or distinctive symptoms of cGVHD in the absence of features of aGVHD [8]. The Consensus Conference on Clinical Practice of Chronic GVHD focused on treatment of classic cGVHD. Prognostic features at diagnosis of cGVHD have been described. The presence of thrombocytopenia or direct progression from aGVHD have been associated with adverse outcome [1]. The value of “progressive onset” as a risk factor is limited by the fact that traditionally any GVHD being present at day 100 was documented as cGVHD. However, 2 studies reclassifying GVHD according to the NIH criteria revealed a significant proportion of patients being traditionally classified as cGVHD instead of late aGVHD [11,12]. The risk factor “thrombocytopenia” has been identified in cohorts receiving a myeloablative (MA) conditioning regimen and mainly bone marrow (BM) as a graft source [1]. Therefore, it remains to be shown whether low platelets remain as a risk factor in patients receiving nonmyeloablative regimens and PBSCs as a graft source. Additional risk factors are extensive skin disease (.50% body surface) as well as severe cGVHD (NIH grading) [1]. A detailed classification of cGVHD severity according to the NIH consensus is delineated in Table 3 [8]. As for treatment, prognosis of overlap syndrome is a matter of debate as well; Jagasia and colleagues [13] reported a significantly worse survival of patients with any features of aGVHD after day 100 of HSCT compared with cGVHD. This is in contrast to reports by Arora et al. [11] and Cho et al. [12], stating no significant survival difference in patients with overlap syndrome compared to classic cGVHD and to a retrospective analysis published by Vigorito et al. [14], demonstrating no significant survival differences between patients with late aGVHD and cGVHD. Currently, no uniformly accepted definition of steroid refractory cGVHD is available. Generally, accepted criteria for steroid refractory cGVHD are (1) progression despite immunosuppressive treatment using 1 mg/kg/day of prednisone for 2 weeks, (2) stable disease if 4 to 8 weeks on $0.5 mg/kg/day of prednisone, and (3) inability to taper below 0.5 mg/kg/day of prednisone. Treatment duration may vary depending on clinical manifestation (sclerosis requires longer to respond) or toxicity (shorter duration in the presence of significant toxicity) [9,15]. In the presence of primary treatment failure, alternative treatment options need to be started.

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Table 3. Severity Grading of cGVHD Severity Number of involved organs Severity of organ manifestations

Mild

Moderate

Severe

1-2

$3

$3

1 (excluding lung)

2 (or lung 1)

3 (or lung 2)

Treatment of Mild cGVHD During the Consensus Conference on Clinical Practice of Chronic GVHD, an agreement was achieved that mild cGVHD may be treated either with topical immunosuppressive agents or with systemic steroids alone. In the scenario of solely topical immunosuppression, a close follow-up and screening for any potential manifestation of cGVHD is crucial to detect systemic progression of cGVHD during topical treatment. An additional factor influencing the decision of treatment of choice is the risk for relapse of the underlying malignancy, supporting topical treatment in the presence of a high relapse risk. In pediatric patients, 2 additional considerations have to be taken into account. Side effects of systemic steroid therapy can be deleterious on a growing child. On the other hand, patients with nonmalignant underlying diseases have no benefit from the cGVHDassociated graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect even in mild disease courses. Therefore, topical therapy should be offered as often and as early as possible. Mild manifestations of cGVHD that cannot be sufficiently treated by topical treatment such as hepatic manifestations or fasciitis may be treated with systemic corticosteroids alone. Again, lower initial doses than 1 mg/kg/day of prednisone may be used, but evidence for or against a reduced dose of steroids is virtually absent. In the presence of a high risk of relapse, an approach using supportive treatment with either nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (involvement of fascia or joints) or ursodeoxycholic acid (hepatic disease) may be suitable treatment options as long as a close follow-up to detect progression is guaranteed. Because treatment is rather symptomatic and does not aim to control a systemic process, topical treatment should be continued as long as symptoms are present and may be tapered and withdrawn in the presence of remission of symptoms. The same applies for systemic treatment, although treatment for at least 4 to 8 weeks should be given to avoid frequent relapses of symptoms of cGVHD. Treatment of Moderate cGVHD: Role of Prednisone (A I) Treatment of moderate cGVHD requires systemic immunosuppression. Additional topical treatment may be applied to speed up the response or to improve local response rates, but it does not replace the requirement

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Table 4. First-Line Treatment Options in cGVHD Recommendation (citation number of references)

Evidence

Steroids

A [16-18]

I

Osteoporosis, avascular necrosis of the bone, diabetes

CNI

C [16,17]

II

Renal toxicity, hypertension

D [19]

II

GI complaints, infectious and relapse risk

D [18]

II

Hematologic toxicity, infectious risk

D [20,21]

II

Neurotoxicity, sedation, constipation, thrombosis

Agent

MMF in triple agent combinations Azathioprine Thalidomide

Side Effects

Comments Important but need to spare steroids because of side effect profile, generally sufficient in primary treatment of mild cGVHD as single agent, may be used in combination with CNI in moderate or severe cGVHD Only be used in combination with steroids, spares steroids, lower rate of avascular necrosis of the bone, may be considered in combination with steroids in primary treatment of severe cGVHD as well as in CNI dependent moderate cGVHD Failure to improve efficacy in a randomized trial documented Adverse outcome in a randomized trial in combination with steroids May be used in concomitant relapse of multiple myeloma

CNI indicates calcineurin inhibitors; MMF, mycophenolate mofetil; GI, gastrointestinal; cGVHD, chronic graft-versus-host disease.

for systemic immunosuppression. Standard treatment is 1 mg/kg/day of prednisone or an equivalent dose of methylprednisolone. So far, no other treatment option replacing steroids in first-line treatment has been evaluated, resulting in a grade A recommendation with an evidence grade of I, although a steroid-free approach has never been applied [16-18]. Steroid dependence of the majority of patients failing first-line treatment

indicates the central role of steroids in treatment of cGVHD (Tables 4). A first report in the early 1980s indicated that prednisone alone or in combination with other immunosuppressive agents (particularly azathioprine and cyclophosphamide) could improve the outcome of patients who required treatment for extensive cGVHD [66]. A randomized double-blinded study comparing

Table 5. Topical Immunosuppressive Treatment Options in cGVHD Organ

Agent (citation number of references)

Recommendation

Evidence

Topical steroids [7]

C-1

III-1

Skin atrophy

Tacrolimus/Pimecrolimus [22-25]

C-1

III-1

PUVA [26-31]

C-1

III-1

UVA [32-35]

C-1

III-1

Long-term risk for cutaneous malignancies Phototoxicity, risk for cutaneous malignancies Phototoxicity, risk for cutaneous malignancies

UVB [36]

C-1

III-2

GI Lung

Topical steroids [37-39] Topical steroids

C-1 B

III-1 III-2

Oral

Topical steroids [40-44]

C-1

III-1-III-3

Topical tacrolimus /cyclosporine [45-51]

C-2

III-1

Topical PUVA/UVB [44,52-54]

C-2

III-1

Topical steroids [55,56]

C-1

III-1

Topical cyclosporine [57-60]

C-1

III-1

Topical steroids [61-64]

B

III-3

Topical tacrolimus/ cyclosporine/pimecrolimus [63-65]

B

III-3

Skin

Eye

Vaginal

cGVHD indicates chronic graft-versus-host disease.

Side Effects

Phototoxicity, risk for cutaneous malignancies

Best results with topical budesonide Burning

Optional treatment option for refractory manifestations Risk for corneal thinning and infectious keratitis Burning, stinging

Increased risk for infectious complications and atrophy Burning

Comments Neck down: mid-strength steroids if no response upper strength steroids, face: hydrocortisone 1% Should be given twice daily Should not be used with phototoxic medication Requires no UV protection after treatment, should not be used with phototoxic medication Only effective in lichenoid cGVHD Either budesonide or beclomethasone May be combined with betamimetic agents Requires oral hygiene and possibly topical antifungals Potentially increases risk for oral malignancies, may be combined with topical steroids Psoralene may be given topically or systemically Duration of exposure should be limited Fewer long-term side effects compared to steroids, high long-term efficacy Topical estrogen application and antifungal prophylaxis suggested Less well tolerated but better long-term efficacy

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prednisone and placebo versus prednisone and azathioprine in patients with platelet counts .100,000/mL showed better outcome with prednisone alone, and thus established prednisone as the treatment of choice for patients with standard-risk extensive cGVHD [17]. The central role of prednisone was further confirmed by a randomized trial comparing prednisone alone versus prednisone and cyclosporine (CsA) in patients with extensive cGVHD and platelet counts .100,000/mL showing no difference in overall survival (OS) in the 2 arms and no better control of cGVHD [16]. Starting in the 1980s, the standard initial steroid dose for the treatment of cGVHD has been 1 mg/kg/ day, regardless of whether prednisone was used alone or in combination with other drugs [17,18,66]. There are no randomized studies comparing this dose with higher or lower initial doses. Recent retrospective analyses of patients with aGVHD indicate that 1 mg/kg/day could be at least as effective as 2 mg/kg/day for patients with grades I-1I aGVHD [67]. Considering the need for protracted treatment of cGVHD, it may be worthwhile exploring lower doses of steroids. Pending such studies 1 mg/kg daily is considered the standard initial dose. The Seattle group suggests to maintain this dose for 2 weeks and then to taper to 1 mg/kg every other day over a period of 6 to 8 weeks if symptoms are stable or improving, and then either maintain this dose for 2 to 3 months or continue straight on to taper by 10% to 20% per month [68]. The survey sent to all centers participating in the Consensus Conference revealed that 26 of 31 centers (84%) start to reduce the steroid dose after 2 weeks of treatment if symptoms are inactive. G. Vogelsang [15], from the Johns Hopkins group, reported that 90% of responding patients would have done so within 3 months after achieving the alternateday dose; thus, a reevaluation of patients at this stage should guide further tapering. Patients with complete responses (CRs) should be further tapered 10% to 20% monthly, whereas those still responding should stay on 1 mg/kg for about another 3 months after achieving maximum response and then slowly be tapered as described. If symptoms flare during tapering, increasing the steroid dose may again induce response. Patients who by the 3-month reevaluation have not responded should be considered for alternative treatment strategies [15,68]. Since the early 1960s, alternate dosing of steroids has been considered an effective regimen for the treatment of many immune-mediated disorders. The dosespacing is thought to maintain efficacy while reducing toxicity of the applied steroids [69]. However, there are no randomized studies comparing daily and alternateday strategies in cGVHD. In kidney transplant patients, the alternate-day dosing reduces the level of plasma lipids [70]. Likewise, administration of steroids as a single dose in the morning instead of a split dose

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is meant to match the circadian cycle and reduce side effects. Randomized studies in children treated with prednisolone for nephrotic syndrome and adults treated for proctocolitis showed similar efficacy of single compared to split-dose strategies [71,72]. Whether this holds true for patients being treated for cGVHD still has to be demonstrated in prospective studies. There are no studies comparing the effects and side effects of prednisone to other systemic steroid preparations such as methylprednisolone in patients with cGvHD. Role of CNIs (C II) Although the role of steroids in first-line treatment is well established, the role of CNIs is less clear. The potential benefit of the CNIs CsA and tacrolimus (FK506) in the treatment of cGVHD has been addressed in a small number of studies [16,17]. In a nonrandomized trial conducted more than 20 years ago, Sullivan et al. [17] added an alternating-day schedule of CsA (6 mg/kg twice a day) to a previously established alternating-day regimen of 1 mg/kg prednisone to treat 40 high-risk patients with newly diagnosed multiorgan cGVHD and thrombocytopenia\100,000/mL. After 9 months a CR rate of 33% and 4-year survival of 51% were reported. These results compared favorably to a 16% CR and 26% survival rate of a cohort of 38 patients with cGVHD and thrombocytopenia treated by the same center in a similar period of time. This study constituted the basis for the inclusion of CNIs to the therapeutic regimens for cGVHD in clinical practice for many years [15,68,73]. However, this practice was challenged by a randomized trial, in which Koc and colleagues [16] compared CsA alternating with prednisone every other day to alternate-day prednisone alone in 287 patients with newly diagnosed cGVHD and a platelet count .100,000/mL [16]. The primary endpoint of this study was the incidence of treatment-related mortality (TRM) at 3 years, which was not different between both groups. There was also no significant difference with respect to the incidence of secondary therapy, the discontinuation of immunosuppression, the incidence of recurrent malignancy, or OS in this study. In contrast, patients treated with CsA and prednisone showed a significantly inferior survival without recurrent malignancy (progression-free survival [PFS]) compared to patients treated with prednisone alone. In addition, a small subset of high-risk patients with progressive onset cGVHD displayed a tendency for increased TRM and inferior survival at 5 years in the CsA plus prednisone (16 patients) versus the prednisone alone (29 patients) arm. A significantly decreased rate of avascular necroses in patients treated in the combination arm was observed, suggesting that the addition of CsA to the therapeutic regimen resulted in lower

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cumulative doses of prednisone and a decreased incidence of complications related to steroid treatment. Although the study published by Koc et al. provided important information, it needs to be mentioned that all patients in the study received BM grafts following MA conditioning. Because it is known that the use of nonmyeloablative conditioning regimens influences the presentation of cGVHD and that PBSC grafts result in prolonged need for treatment of cGVHD when compared to BM, at this point it remains unclear whether the combination of steroids with a CNI is of advantage in the latter population [74,75]. Moreover, within the published trials, CNIs have been dosed with an every other day schedule without dose correction according to plasma levels, which differs from current practice with daily application and dose adjustments according to plasma levels. Limited published experience is available with respect to the role of FK506 for first-line treatment of cGVHD. In summary, evidence for the use of CNIs for treating newly diagnosed cGVHD patients is scarce and, based on the randomized trial by Koc et al. [16], cannot generally be recommended. In standard-risk patients (de novo or quiescent cGVHD, platelet counts .100.000/mL), the use of CsA in addition to steroids may be considered for those patients who are at high risk for glucocorticoid-usage-related complications (eg, based on age, sex, and/or the presence of comorbidities). Even though a direct comparison of CsA and FK506 in the treatment of cGVHD is lacking, clinical and indirect evidence suggests that both CNIs may be equally effective in this setting [19,76]. Serum concentrations of CsA or FK506, as well as creatinine and other clinical or laboratory signs of adverse events, should be monitored regularly because of associated drug toxicity. As there are no data showing a superiority of the alternating-day schedule, daily administration of CsA and FK506 is generally employed in clinical practice [16,17]. Caution should be advised, however, that some oral formulations of CsA (eg, Sandimmun optoralÒ) provide an improved bioavailability of the drug, and therefore, may result in increased serum concentrations. FK506 clearance is age dependent in pediatric patients, and especially children younger than 6 years of age have a higher clearance [77]. The role of CNIs in high-risk cGVHD (ie, progressive onset and/or with thrombocytopenia [platelet count \100,000/mL]) is unclear. The initially promising historic data of Sullivan et al. [17] on patients with cGVHD and thrombocytopenia, including a more recent update [78], cannot be readily transferred to current patient cohorts, considering the change in transplantation practice in the past 20 years. Therefore, more randomized studies are clearly warranted to clarify these issues.

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Treatment of Severe cGVHD In general, treatment of severe cGVHD follows the same rules as treatment of moderate cGVHD. Severe cGVHD has been associated with an increased mortality and may require prolonged immunosuppression [79]. Therefore, the combination of steroids with a CNI may be of potential advantage in severe cGVHD to spare steroids [16]. Furthermore, patients with severe de novo or quiescent onset of cGVHD after withdrawal of the CNI may be CNI dependent and may benefit from treatment with a combination of steroids with a CNI, but data evaluating this approach are virtually absent. Although the randomized trials on triple-agent first-line treatment of cGVHD did not differentiate the response rate according to the extent of organ manifestations, there is no indication that a triple-agent approach leads to an improved response rate and outcome in severe cGVHD [19-21]. Whether a 2-agent combination consisting of prednisone and an additional non-CNI agent such as mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), mTOR inhibitors, or extracorporeal photopheresis (ECP) improves the outcome has not been evaluated yet. Because the combination of prednisone and azathioprine resulted in an improved response rate but significantly worse survival, any alternative combination urgently requires its evaluation in a clinical trial [18]. As ECP has not been associated with an increased risk for infectious morbidity and mortality, it may be a promising candidate to be evaluated as a new combination partner with corticosteroids and may be a treatment option in first-line treatment, when contraindication for CNIs exist and high steroid-related toxicity must be expected [80,81]. Treatment of Progressive Onset of cGVHD Progressive onset of cGVHD is characterized by direct progression of active symptoms of aGVHD into symptoms of cGVHD during treatment of aGVHD and has been historically associated with a dismal outcome [1]. The majority of patients with progressive onset of cGVHD are on a CNI and steroids during onset of symptoms of cGVHD. Therefore, other treatment strategies need to be considered. Most of the 31 transplant centers responding to the survey on treatment of cGVHD reported, that when progressive onset cGVHD evolved during the taper of steroids and despite being on a CNI, treatment involved a temporary increase of the steroid dose and the addition of a new agent such as MMF or ECP to the CNI. The reported increased morbidity and mortality because of infectious complications when using the triple-agent combination of prednisone, a CNI, and MMF indicate the limitation of this approach [19]. Because of the low risk for infectious complications, ECP therefore may be a promising candidate for clinical trial evaluation treating cGVHD developing during treatment of aGVHD [80,81]. Other

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potential alternatives may be the replacement of the CNI by a mTOR inhibitor. Azathioprine (DII) Although responses of cGVHD to azathioprine have been documented, a double-blinded randomized trial comparing prednisone 1 placebo versus prednisone 1 azathioprine in standard risk cGVHD (platelets .100 000/mL) revealed a significantly increased nonrelapse mortality (40% versus 21%) and a significantly decreased OS (47% versus 61%) [18]. Therefore, azathioprine should not be used as first-line therapy in combination with steroids in patients with cGVHD. Thalidomide (DII) Although thalidomide displays therapeutic activity in second-line treatment of cGVHD, 2 randomized trials evaluating the efficacy of thalidomide in first-line treatment of cGVHD failed to show any advantage for the addition of thalidomide to standard immunosuppression with CsA and prednisone [20,21]. Arora et al. [20] published the results of a randomized trial comparing standard treatment with CsA and prednisone with additional thalidomide (dose range: 200-800 mg/day) in 1 arm in adult patients with newly diagnosed cGVHD. Each arm contained 27 patients and achieved identical response rates with 88% versus 84% after 6 months. Although mortality was not increased in the arm containing thalidomide, frequent side effects like constipation, sleepiness, and neuropathy attributable to thalidomide where observed. Koc et al. [21] published a second randomized trial comparing CsA and prednisone with additional thalidomide (each study arm contained 26 patients) in primary treatment of highrisk cGVHD (low platelets or progressive onset of cGVHD). Because of a high rate of side effects (doses .200 mg/day of thalidomide were not tolerated), thalidomide was prematurely terminated in 93% of patients (median on day 53). The most frequent side effects were neuropathy and neutropenia. MMF Although MMF is frequently applied in second-line treatment of cGVHD, its use in first-line treatment is less well established [68]. A randomized prospective trial by Martin et al. [19] has been recently published where placebo-controlled MMF was added within 14 days as first-line treatment after diagnosis in combination with CsA, FK506), or sirolimus. Most of the reported 151 patients also received prednisone at an initial dose of 1 mg/kg/day. Treatment success was very stringently defined as withdrawal of all systemic treatment after resolution of all reversible manifestations of cGVHD. OS trended to be lower in the treatment arm (87% versus 74%). The first-line use of MMF did not increase the proportion of patients who displayed resolution of

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cGVHD. Furthermore, MMF treatment was associated with increased risk of thrombocytopenia, but, more importantly, with a trend toward higher rates of recurrent malignancies and infections. The suspected negative impact of MMF on GVL effects in combination treatment seemed to have influence in this study especially in combination with steroids. Interestingly, the use of MMF did not influence the amount of systemic glucocorticoid treatment. Because the randomized trial did not include patients with progressive onset cGVHD, it remains unresolved whether MMF might be active in primary treatment in this situation. Given the poor prognosis of this specific patient subpopulation, further controlled trials are warranted. At this point, it is suggested that MMF does not add any benefit to first-line treatment of cGVHD when used as part of a triple agent regimen, but it may be used if steroid and CNI doses are reduced. Moreover, MMF has not been evaluated in combination with steroids only, for example, as a replacement for CNI in the initial therapy and may represent a suitable treatment alternative in situations with a high need to spare steroids especially in pediatric patients. ECP So far, published evidence on the use of ECP for treatment of cGVHD almost exclusively consists of patients with steroid-refractory or steroid-dependent disease [80-85]. Based on the excellent safety profile of ECP and frequently reported evidence that the GVL effect seems not to be impaired by ECP, leading experts in the field of allogeneic HSCT recommend the use of ECP earlier in the course of cGVHD [86,87]. Also, in clinical practice guidelines based on clinical experience Kanold and colleagues [88] considered ECP as first-line therapy of pediatric patients with limited cGVHD. Currently, a prospective phase II study is ongoing at the Medical University of Vienna (NCT00271869), recruiting patients with newly diagnosed liver or lung involvement by cGVHD, to investigate adjunct ECP. In another ongoing prospective phase II study (NCT00048789) ECP is investigated in cGVHD patients earlier in the course of their disease. In view of the poor prognosis of patients with refractory cGVHD and the promising results of ECP obtained with almost no severe side effects, it is tempting to assume that ECP in first-line therapy will substantially improve patients’ outcome. However, data on prospective controlled trials are currently lacking, and thus, studies investigating upfront use of ECP in well-defined patient populations are highly warranted. Results of the Survey on First-Line Treatment of cGVHD Thirty-one of 37 transplant centers performing allo HSCT within Germany (n 5 34), Austria (n 5 3), and

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Switzerland (n 5 1) responded to the paper-based survey sent via e-mail to representatives of the centers. The survey was sent in June 2009 to representatives of 37 transplant centers performing allo HSCT to document the current practice prior to the Consensus Conference and to identify areas of disagreement between transplant centers. Treatment of mild cGVHD The majority of centers (67%) stated the use of solely topical immunosuppression in mild cGVHD that can be reached by topical treatment. Three of 31 centers replied using either a combination of topical treatment options and systemic treatment with steroids or topical treatment only. One center used solely systemic treatment for treatment of mild cGVHD despite available topical treatment options. If visceral manifestations are present in mild cGVHD, half of the centers (15 of 31) replying to the survey stated using systemic application of steroids \0.5 mg/kg/day, whereas 14 of 31 centers stated using steroid doses between 0.5 and 1 mg/kg/day. Seven centers used partly an alternative approach, with 1 center using ECP only and 1 center combining CsA with MMF and in the presence of liver involvement with ursodeoxycholic acid, or CsA in combination with steroids. One center stated the use of a pulse of steroids. Treatment of moderate/severe cGVHD Half of the centers (16 of 31) stated using prednisone or methylprednisone with a dose range of 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day for treatment of moderate cGVHD and normal platelet counts. Four of 31 centers stated using an initial dose of steroids not exceeding 0.5 mg/kg/day. One-third of the centers (11 of 31) stated using the combination of a CNI and steroids. One center used steroids in combination with MMF, whereas 2 centers combine steroids not exceeding 0.5 mg/kg/day with topical immunosuppressants. In the presence of low platelets at diagnosis of cGVHD 20 of 31 responding centers would combine steroids with CNI. With regard to the type of steroid used, 16 of the centers reported the use of prednisone only, 7 centers reported using methylprednisolone only, and 8 additional centers stated using prednisone as well as methylprednisolone. Other steroids are not used. With regard to the distribution of the steroid dose, 19 centers stated the application of the total steroid dose once daily in the morning. Fifteen centers divide the steroid dose into 2 doses given in the morning and noon (n 5 4) or in the morning and at night (n 5 11). Two centers split the steroid dose into 3 doses given at morning, noon, and night. Three centers applied 2 different schedules and were counted twice. Six centers stated using daily application of steroids until complete withdrawal. Seven centers attempt to use an every other day schedule at doses

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above 0.25 mg/kg/day prednisone/methylprednisolone, whereas 18 centers stated using an every other day schedule after dose reduction below 0.25 mg/kg/ day. Several centers stated using an every other day schedule especially after reaching doses below 10 mg after long exposure to steroids. Regarding the initial dose of steroids, 25 centers applied steroids with an initial dose #1 mg/kg/day. Nine centers stated using initially higher doses for longer than 1 week and 3 centers used both approaches) Ten centers reported on the occasional use of pulsing steroids (.2 mg/kg/day prednisone/methylprednisolone) for \1 week to induce rapid symptom control. With regard to the start of the steroid taper in a patient being in CR of cGVHD after 2 weeks of treatment with prednisone 1 mg/kg/day, 26 centers stated to start the taper of the steroid dose, whereas 4 centers would continue for another 4 weeks with 1 mg/kg/ day prednisone before dose reduction. One center would continue 1 mg/kg/day for at least 3 months after achieving remission of cGVHD before start of dose reduction. Treatment of progressive onset of cGVHD Most of the centers (18 of 31) increase the steroid dose if progression to cGVHD in the absence of low platelets is diagnosed, continue the CNI, and start a new agent (ECP [n 5 9] or MMF [n 5 12]). Other centers would add an mTOR inhibitor (sirolimus [n 5 1], everolimus [n 5 1[), or change the CNI from CsA to FK506 (n 5 1). In addition, the use of antibodies including rituximab and antithymocyte globulin (ATG) and topical treatment with ultra violet AUVA or psoralen UVA (PUVA) photochemotherapy were reported by single centers. Five centers stated to continue steroids and the CNI with the same dose and add MMF (n 5 4) or ursodeoxycholic acid. Eight centers reported an increased dose of steroids only. Three centers would continue the same dose of steroids, stop the CNI, and add either MMF or an mTOR inhibitor or ECP. One center considered the use of alemtuzumab as combination partner. Three centers would increase the steroid dose, stop the CNI, and add either ECP (n 5 2) or rituximab (n 5 1). One center considered the use of etanercept. The concomitant presence of low platelets did not influence the treatment. Topical Treatment (Table 5) Although cGVHD is regarded as a systemic disease of complex pathophysiology, local manifestations may be treated with topical immunosuppression. Mild cGVHD may be accessible by topical treatment (oral mucosa, skin) and may not require systemic immunosuppression [8]. Topical treatment of mild cGVHD is even more important in patients with high risk of relapse, as mild cGVHD is associated with a decreased

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risk of relapse, and systemic immunosuppression may interfere with the graft-versus-malignancy effect [2]. Solely topical treatment requires close follow-up of patients to avoid progression to other organs outside the region treated topically. In moderate and severe cGVHD topical immunosuppression may be used as an adjunct to increase local response rates as well as to fasten local responses. This is of special importance in oral manifestations of cGVHD. Phototherapy of skin lesions may be another situation where topical immunosuppression may be added to systemic treatment. A third indication for topical treatment may be a mixed response on systemic immunosuppression with a good response at most sites but remaining symptoms at a single site that can be reached with topical treatment. This is of special relevance in oral and local cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. Moreover, topical immunosuppressive therapies for cGVHD are associated with less toxicity compared to systemic treatment. Their use can improve response rates and thus facilitate dose reduction, reduce toxicity, or even help circumvent the application of systemic drugs in cases of mild cGVHD. Topical immunosuppression may further be an important therapeutic approach to manifestations of cGVHD that can be reached topically in the presence of relapse of the underlying malignancy. Especially for topical therapy, the parents’ assistance may be necessary for children to improve compliance. An additional aspect of topical treatment in children is the risk of reaching significant systemic drug levels in small infants receiving topical treatment with steroids or CNIs. Cutaneous cGVHD Cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD are not only the most frequent manifestations in cGVHD, but often the only manifestation of cGVHD. Although lichenoidtype changes represent the early form of skin involvement of cGVHD, late manifestations of cGVHD may lead to superficial and subsequent deep sclerosis of the dermal layer resembling systemic sclerosis and are associated with major impairment of quality of life as well as of activity. Because the cutaneous manifestations can be easily reached by topical treatment, as for other skin diseases, a number of effective topical treatment options are available. Topical treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD may be the only treatment given or may be applied in addition to systemic immunosuppression to speed up response or to spare systemic immunosuppression (steroids). Another indication may be mixed response to systemic immunosuppression with active dermal manifestations persisting. One special aspect of topical treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD is the large surface potentially involved. Although UV-based treatment options may reach the

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whole body surface, ointments may not be feasible. Even more, topical steroids as well as topical CNIs applied to extended areas may have systemic side effects counteracting with the aim of targeting solely the skin [89-91]. Cutaneous PUVA (C-1 III-1) The combination of UVA light with the photosensitizer 8-methoxypsoralen (PUVA) represents a standard treatment for a number of dermatologic diseases, such as psoriasis, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, lichen planus, and localized scleroderma. PUVA has been evaluated in cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD in a number of retrospective studies and prospective trials [26-31]. Vogelsang et al. [31] reported a retrospective analysis of 40 patients treated with PUVA demonstrating a high local response rate (31 of 40 patients). PUVA is generally well tolerated with a high response rate in the skin and mild side effects. Notably, the effect of PUVA was only local, as cutaneous response did not correlate with response of other organ manifestations. Comparable results were observed in other trials [26,27,30,31,92]. Eight-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP, MeladinineÒ) is given orally 2 hours before UVA exposure at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg. Alternatively it may be applied topically using cream containing 8-MOP (dose range: 0.005-0.0006% 8-MOP) or bath with a final concentration ranging from 0.5 to 1 mg/l 8-MOP. After oral treatment with 8-MOP exposure, a UV skin and eye protection with UVA blocking sunglasses is required for 24 hours. Treatment is given typically on 3 to 4 days per week and frequency is reduced once stable response is achieved. The initial dose depends on the skin type ranging from 0.5 J/cm2 to 1 J/cm2. PUVA is mainly effective in lichenoid cGVHD. Sclerodermoid manifestations of cGVHD respond poorly and show increased phototoxicity. Of note, drugs like voriconazole or cotrimoxazole are associated with increased phototoxicity and photoallergies and must not be given during treatment with UV light. Potential side effects of oral methoxypsoralen may be nausea and mild elevation of liver enzymes, which has not been observed in topical application of the drug. Overall, PUVA is a useful treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD with low side effects taking into account the short-term risk for phototoxicity and potential long-term risk of the induction of basal cell carcinoma. UVA1 (C-1 III-1) UVA1, emitting exclusively in the long-wave UVA range (UVA1: 340-400 nm), is a well-established treatment in sclerosing skin diseases and has been used occasionally in treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. Calzavara et al. [32] reported 9 patients treated for cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD, with 4 having lichenoid and 5 with sclerodermoid

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manifestations. All patients responded, and CRs were reached in 5 patients including patients with sclerodermoid manifestations. A second retrospective analysis published by Wetzig at al. [34] reported on the results of UVA1 treatment of 10 patients with cGVHD (lichenoid, n 5 7, sclerodermoid, n 5 3) demonstrating CRs in 6 patients, partial responses (PRs) in 3 patients, and minor improvement in the remaining patient. Comparable results were achieved in other groups [33,35]. The UVA1 dose was 50 J/cm2 given on 3 days per week. Relapses of cGVHD became manifest if treatment was terminated too early. The advantage of high-dose UVA1 is the avoidance of a photosensitizer without need for UV protection and no systemic side effects associated with the latter. Again, drugs with phototoxicity and a high rate of photoallergies must not be given during treatment. UVB (C-1 III-2) Narrow-band UVB (311 nm) and broad band UVB (280-320 nm) are increasingly used in the treatment of dermatologic diseases including cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. However, published evidence is rather limited. In 1998, Enk et al. [36] reported a series of 5 patients treated with broadband UVB for lichenoid (n 5 3) or sclerodermoid cGVHD. Although 2 patients with lichenoid manifestations responded, no response was achieved in sclerodermoid cGVHD. The latter was confirmed by other groups. The failure in sclerodermoid cGVHD may be because of the limitation of the effect of UVB on epidermis. In contrast to UVA1 and PUVA, UVB does not reach the dermal layer involved in sclerodermoid cGVHD. UVB is typically given 3 to 5 times per week and the only short-term risk is phototoxicity especially when patients are taking photosensitizing drugs. As potential long-term risk, cutaneous malignancies have to be kept in mind. Topical Tacrolimus (ProtopicÒ) (C-1 III-1) The topical CNI FK506 (ProtopicÒ 0.1%) is a well-established treatment in atopic dermatitis and was occasionally used in the treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. Elad et al. [23] reported a retrospective analysis of 10 patients with steroiddependent cutaneous cGVHD. Treatment was given in different combinations with systemic immunosuppression. Significant responses were achieved in 7 patients including 1 CR. Treatment consisted of topical FK506 (ProtopicÒ) initially applied 2 to 3 times per day at a concentration of 0.03%. The dose was increased to 0.1% if well tolerated. Choi and Nghiem [22] reported on a series of 18 patients receiving topical tacrolimus 0.1% for cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD demonstrating a response rate of 72% with erythema and pruritus responding rapidly. Of note was a high rate of subsequent progression of cGVHD

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at other sides and loss of efficacy in 2 patients requiring intensification of systemic immunosuppression or introduction of PUVA. The advantage of topical FK506 is the avoidance of systemic side effects of CNIs, which is of special relevance in patients intolerant to systemic CNI. Moreover, short-term toxicity as seen for steroids with skin atrophy is basically absent, whereas the major potential long-term risk is the increased rate of cutaneous malignancies. Pimecrolimus (ElidelÒ) (C-1 III-1) Like topical FK506, pimecrolimus is a wellestablished drug in the treatment of atopic dermatitis and was occasionally used in treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. Ziemer et al. [25] reported a case of an infant suffering from refractory lichenoid cGVHD who achieved a CR. Comparable results have been achieved by other groups [24,93]. A potential advantage when compared to FK506 is the improved local tolerability. Topical CNI are of special relevance in areas where potent topical steroids should be avoided, such as in facial cGVHD involvement. Topical Steroids (C-1III-1) Although topical steroids are standard of care in numerous skin diseases, they have not been systematically evaluated in cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD. Nevertheless, topical steroids are frequently used in the treatment of cutaneous manifestations of cGVHD [7]. Generally, topical steroids are well tolerated; some long-term risks need to be taken into account as steroids may increase the risk for cutaneous infections and interfere with skin healing, and therefore must not be used in the presence of skin break down. Moreover, topical steroids may lead to skin atrophy. In general, neck-down areas may be treated with middle or upper mid-strength steroids; the latter should not be given for longer than 2 weeks. Facial manifestations should be solely treated with low potency topical steroids (hydrocortisone 1%) limited to a restricted time. In the case of a prolonged need for topical treatment of facial involvement, topical CNI should be considered instead. Of special relevance is the larger skin surface area-to-body weight ratio in children, increasing the risk for systemic side effects of topical steroids. Oral Mucosal Manifestations of cGVHD The oral cavity is the most frequent site of cGVHD involvement using BM transplantation (BMT) and the second most frequently involved site using PBSC transplantation (PBSCT) [94]. Moreover, oral cGVHD is often refractory to systemic therapies and does not correlate with severity of systemic manifestations; thus, complementary topical treatment is required [95]. If cGVHD only affects the oral mucosa, topical treatment may prevent the severe side effects associated

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with systemic treatments. As viral and fungal infections of the oral mucosa are frequently present in patients with cGVHD, sufficient diagnostic procedures and prophylactic oral hygiene has to be performed.

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Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (NCT00686855) compares topical dexamethasone with topical tacrolimus. Because dexamethasone mouth wash is not commercially available, it needs to be prepared on an individual formulation.

Budesonide (C-1 III-1) Budesonide is a corticosteroid with low bioavailability when absorbed through the oral mucosa, minimizing the risk for systemic side effects. Budesonide has been used for the treatment of oral manifestations of cGVHD. In a report by Elad et al. [40], all 12 patients responded to the budesonide mouthwash, including 7 with “good” or “complete” recovery as scored by both examiner and subject. An early response noted within the first 2 to 3 weeks of treatment was complemented by a probable cumulative effect seen during the first months of treatment. Sari et al. [41] reported on a retrospective matched pair analysis comparing systemic immunosuppression without (n 5 12) or with additional budesonide (n 5 11), showing a significant decrease in median oral cGVHD examination scores between the 2 groups. The overall response rate was 83% in the budesonide group compared to 36% in the control group. The efficacy of budesonide was confirmed in a case report published by Utsman et al. [43]. Pharmacokinetic studies of budesonide in patients with cGVHD and healthy individuals showed that only 2% of a buccal dose of budesonide achieved systemic circulation in healthy individuals. However, in patients with oral cGVHD, the percentage was 10%, probably because of alterations in drug uptake and metabolization [96]. A formal phase II trial evaluating the efficacy of budesonide in this context has recently been finished; final results are pending. A phase III trial evaluating the efficacy of budesonide in an effervescent tablet formulation in oral manifestations of cGVHD is currently ongoing (BUM-5/GVH). Until commercially available, BudenofalkÒ capsules need to be crushed and dissolved in 5 to 10 mL of water. Oral rinsing should be performed 3 times per day over a time span of 10 minutes. Because topical steroids increase the risk for fungal overgrowth, an antifungal prophylaxis should be added. Dexamethasone (C-1 III-2) Topical dexamethasone was evaluated in a retrospective analysis of 16 patients with oral manifestations of cGVHD [44]. Treatment with topical corticosteroids consisted of 0.1 mg/mL dexamethasone mouth wash 4 times a day in combination with antifungal prophylaxis. Nine patients showed complete remission, 2 improved, and 5 did not respond, demonstrating that topical dexamethasone is effective in oral manifestations of cGVHD with few side effects [44]. The use of higher concentrations of dexamethasone (0.4 mg/mL) was suggested [42]. Currently, a phase II trial headed by the

Topical Triamcinolone Fluocinonide, Clobetasole, Betamethasone Dipropionate, Prednisolone (C-1 III-3) Topical triamcinolone adhesive ointment has been developed and is approved for treatment of noninfectious inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa [97]. It is frequently used in treatment of oral manifestations of cGVHD, although no formal evaluation of effectiveness has been performed so far. It has to be applied to involved areas of the oral mucosa 1 to 2 times per day. Other topical steroids used in inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa are fluocinonide, clobetasole, betamethasone dipropionate, and prednisolon in different formulations [42]. Topical Cyclosporine (C-2 III-1) Topical cyclosporine mouth rinses are occasionally used in the treatment of oral manifestations of cGVHD. Epstein et al. [47] reported a retrospective analysis on the topical use of cyclosporine in 11 patients failing prior treatment of cGVHD including the use of topical dexamethasone. Treatment consisted of cyclosporine mouth rinses performed twice daily. Seven out of 11 patients responded. A second trial evaluated the use of cyclosporine administered in an adhesive hydroxypropyl cellulose base in patients with oral lichenoid reactions that remained active despite prior use of high-potency topical steroids and in some cases despite the combined use of topical and systemic immunosuppression. Signs and symptoms of ulcerative oral GVHD improved more than 50% in 3 of 4 patients treated with the addition of topical cyclosporine [48]. The topical use of cyclosporine may represent a useful adjunctive approach in the management of oral lichenoid reactions, although dose-finding and placebo-controlled studies are needed. It should be noted that cyclosporine has been associated with an increased risk of secondary malignancies, although there is no good evidence for either supporting or ruling out the malignant potential following topical oral application [98]. Topical FK506 (C-2 III-1) Because FK506 is successfully used in systemic prevention and treatment of GVHD, it has been also applied for topical treatment of oral manifestations of cGVHD. Eckardt et al. [46] reported 3 patients with refractory oral manifestations responding to the oral application of an FK506 containing ointment (ProtopicÒ 0.1%). The ointment was applied to

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GVHD lesions 2 times per day. Also, Fricain et al. [49] could show the long-term efficacy of topical tacrolimus in 3 patients with oral lesions of cGVHD. Albert et al. [45] reported on the results of a pilot trial evaluating FK506 in treatment of oral manifestations of GVHD in 6 children showing a complete response or a very good partial response in 4 patients and partial response in the remaining 2 patients. Sanchez et al. [51] topically applied 0.1% FK506 ointment 3 times a day for 2 months, which resulted in the complete resolution of oral lesions. Of interest was the systemic drug absorption in some patients. Recently, a combination protocol composed of dexamethasone rinse (0.5 mg/5 mL) and FK506 solution (0.5 mg/5 mL) was suggested [50]. Currently, topical FK506 is compared in a randomized phase II trial against dexamethasone (NCT00686855). Because ProtopicÒ has been originally developed for application to the skin, individual formulations of tacrolimus for treatment are used [50]. Because in cutaneous cGVHD and other skin diseases the use of CNI has been associated with an increased risk for epidermal malignancies, a cancerogenic potential of topical application of FK506 or CsA has to be considered when used in the oral cavity as well and requires follow-up visits. Oral Phototherapy: PUVA/UVB (C-2 III-1) The positive results of PUVA treatment for cutaneous cGVHD led to the evaluation of the efficacy of intraoral PUVA. In a retrospective analysis, 7 patients with oral manifestations of cGVHD received intraoral PUVA [44]. Methoxypsoralen was given at a reduced dose of 0.3 mg/kg 1 hour before UVA exposure. A glass fiber extension of an UVA source was used for manual intraoral application of 0.5 J/cm2. Treatment was given on 3 to 4 days per week and the UVA dose was raised by 0.5 J/cm2 if tolerated. Four of 7 patients showed local CR and 2 improved, whereas 1 did not respond. Responses were achieved despite prior resistance to systemic immunosuppressive treatment, and the efficacy of intraoral PUVA was confirmed by 2 case reports [53,54]. Elad et al. [52] reported on the use of intraoral UVB, which does not require exposure to a photosensitizing agent and showed a response in both patients treated. Low-level laser therapy may be an additional treatment for oral manifestations of cGVHD [99]. Intestinal GVHD As in other organ manifestations, topical treatment may also be an option for intestinal cGVHD used either in combination with a systemic immunosuppressive agent or as single agent in mild manifestations solely restricted to the intestinal tract. Despite its documented clinical efficacy, topical treatment of intestinal manifestations may be rather symptomatic and does not target the underlying systemic pathophysiology. Therefore,

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a close follow-up of all other organs potentially involved in cGVHD is mandatory. Moreover, topical treatment with steroids requires the understanding of the site of action in the intestinal tract of the agent used. For instance, budesonide given orally does not reach the distant part of the large bowel, and capsules may not work in esophageal manifestations of cGVHD because of the lack of exposure. Budesonide (C-1 III-2) The application of beclomethasone in the treatment of intestinal aGVHD and the positive results of topical budesonide in the treatment of oral manifestations of cGVHD led to the use of budesonide for treating intestinal manifestations of cGVHD [100,101]. A retrospective analysis evaluated the efficacy of budesonide in gastrointestinal (GI) cGVHD in 13 patients. Treatment consisted of budesonide with an initial daily dose of 3  3 mg orally. Complete resolution was achieved in 7 patients, and 1 patient achieved partial remission of cGVHD. One patient achieved a CR of GI manifestations, whereas systemic manifestations remained stable. Relapse of GVHD symptoms occurred after withdrawal of immunosuppression (n 5 3) as well as progression of GVHD at other sides (n 5 3), indicating a dominating local effect of budesonide. Despite these limitations, budesonide represents a treatment option in mild to moderate cGVHD, which is well tolerated [37]. Beclomethasone (C-1 III-1) Beclomethasone dipropionate has been evaluated in primary treatment of intestinal aGVHD and is associated with an increased response rate as well as better survival compared to solely systemic steroids [101]. Iyer et al. [38] reported on a compassionate use study using beclomethasone for treatment of intestinal manifestations of cGVHD after failure of systemic firstline treatment in the context of flaring symptoms after reduction of immunosuppression. Thirteen patients received beclomethasone 4  2 mg (solution on corn oil), whereas systemic immunosuppression consisting of CsA and methylprednisone was continued. Three patients showed CR and 6 additional patients responded partially, whereas 4 patients did not respond. A recent report confirmed the high efficacy of beclomethasone in treatment of GI manifestations of cGVHD in a series of 33 patients demonstrating a response rate of 86% [39]. Therefore, beclomethasone may be a useful topical treatment in intestinal manifestations of cGVHD with only little systemic effects. Ocular Manifestations of cGVHD Eye involvement is a frequent manifestation in cGVHD leading to significant impairment of quality of life because of blurred vision, pain, photophobia,

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and sometimes excessive tearing. The clinical symptoms of ocular GVHD include acute conjunctival inflammation, pseudomembranous, and cicatricial conjunctivitis as well as keratoconjunctivitis sicca syndrome and associated corneal complications such as persistent epithelial defects and corneal ulcers. The latter is often irreversible because of destruction of the lacrimal glands. Besides supportive treatment including lubrication with preservative artificial tears as well as control of drainage with punctal plugs, topical immunosuppression may improve symptoms of ocular involvement of cGVHD [10]. Topical Steroids (C-1 III-1) Robinson et al. [56] reported a series of 7 patients with cicatricial conjunctivitis as manifestation of cGVHD. Two of them received exclusively topical treatment, whereas 5 patients had been treated with additional systemic immunosuppression without local response. Treatment consisted of prednisolone acetate 1% eye drops applied to the conjunctiva initially 4/ day with subsequent reduction of frequency. CRs were achieved in all patients. One patient experienced a flare of symptoms after 6 months and responded to a second course. Although symptoms of inflammation resolved, no effect was achieved with respect to tear production. A second trial evaluated the efficacy of topical methylprednisolone in the treatment of ocular manifestations of Sjo¨gren’s syndrome in 21 patientsda condition comparable to ocular involvement of cGVHD [55]. Methylprednisolone sodium succinate 1% eye drops were applied to the conjunctiva initially 3 to 4/day with reduction of frequency after 2 weeks. CRs were achieved in 57% of patients, and the remaining 43% showed significant improvement of symptoms. Comparable results have been achieved with dexamethasone containing eye drops (Dexa sineÒ). Side effects of using topical steroids in the treatment of ocular manifestations of cGVHD are corneal thinning, infectious keratitis, ocular hypertension, and glaucoma and cataract development. Therefore, the use of topical steroids should be limited to a short period of time and requires a close follow-up with an ophthalmologist. Topical CsA (C-1 III-1) As for oral cGVHD, topical CsA may improve symptoms of ocular involvement of cGVHD. The largest series of patients with sicca syndrome partly associated with Sjo¨gren’s syndrome (31%) evaluated 877 patients in a placebo-controlled double-blind randomized trial [59]. Treatment consisted of CsA 0.1% or 0.05% eye drops applied to the conjunctiva 2/day. Overall, a response rate of 60% was achieved with significant improvement of the Schirmer test indicating recovery of tear production. This correlated with

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significant reduction of symptom burden (OSDI score) and reduction of corneal staining of dry areas. Interestingly, the lower concentration of CsA (0.05%) achieved better results and is currently being evaluated in a phase II trial in prevention of cGVHD after allogeneic HSCT (NCT00755040) as well as for CsA containing implants for treatment of dry eye syndrome in association with cGVHD (NCT00102583) [102]. Small case series on ocular manifestations of cGVHD confirm the efficacy of topical CsA [57,58,60]. Side effects of treatment are ocular burning or stinging as well as conjunctival redness in correlation to the CsA dose used. Given the high efficacy in treatment of dry eye syndrome as well as cGVHD, CsA 0.05% given 2 times daily may be an effective and safe treatment in moderate and severe manifestations of cGVHD.

Topical Treatment of Pulmonary Manifestations of cGVHD Pulmonary manifestions of cGVHD include bronchiolitis obliterans (BO), bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia (BOOP), and late interstitial pneumonitis. Although the underlying pathogenic mechanisms are poorly understood, especially for BO, an association with cGVHD has been reported [103]. Although pathological findings represent the gold standard criteria for the diagnosis of BO, lung biopsy is rarely performed in these patients and the diagnosis is usually based on pulmonary function tests (PFT) and high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) [103105]. In early BO, bronchiolar inflammation has been shown to be present [106,107], and therefore, early treatment may prove more promising than initiation of therapy once structural, fibrotic changes have occurred.

Topical Steroids (B III-2) In the only study reported to date, Bergeron et al. [108] retrospectively analyzed the role of topical treatment early in the course of progressive airflow obstruction using a combination of budenoside as an inhalative steroid and formoterol as a long-acting bronchodilator. Thirteen patients with mild to moderate BO were treated with this regimen and showed a durable improvement both clinically and in pulmonary function tests over the follow-up of 12.8 months (5-29 months). This combined regimen may be a more promising approach (BIII-2). In contrast to the results in BO after lung transplantation, a recently published retrospective analysis on inhaled high-dose fluticasone in treatment of BO after allo-HSCT showed some efficacy in a group of 17 patients [109]. Currently a prospective trial evaluating the efficacy of budesonide and formoterol in treatment of BO after allo-HSCT is ongoing [110].

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Topical Treatment of Vulvovaginal Manifestations of cGVHD cGVHD of the vulva and vagina is a relatively frequent manifestation of cGVHD and is often associated with oral and ocular symptoms. Mild manifestations may occasionally remain asymptomatic and are detected only by examination, whereas severe manifestations with sclerosis of vulvar and vaginal tissues lead to severe architectural changes [10]. Symptomatic manifestations should be evaluated and followed by a gynecologist. Because vulvovaginal manifestations are often not reported spontaneously by patients, careful evaluation of female patients is required. Although topical or systemic hormone replacement may improve some symptoms, a significant proportion of patients require topical and/or systemic immunosuppression. As in topical treatment of oral manifestations, exclusion and treatment of coexisting infectious complications is a crucial part of successful topical treatment. Topical Steroids (B III-3) Clobetasol gel (vagina) as well as bethametasone dipropionate gel (vagina) and ointment (vulva) has been evaluated in treatment of vulvovaginal manifestations of lichen planus as well as cGVHD [61,64,111]. In a cohort of 60 patients receiving intravaginal hydrocortisone 25 mg suppositories twice daily, an overall response rate of 80% was achieved [61]. Clobetasol has been evaluated in vaginal lichen planus manifestations as well, and some responses have been reported [62,63]. Because topical steroids increase the risk for local infectious complications and especially fungal infections, adequate monitoring as well as prophylaxis is crucial. Topical CNIs (Tacrolimus B III-3, Pimecrolimus B III-3, and CsA B III-3) The CNI FK506 (ProtopicÒ), pimecrolimus (ElidelÒ), and CsA have been evaluated in treatment of vulvovaginal lichen planus-like manifestations as well as of cGVHD manifestations [63-65]. Interestingly, in vulvovaginal lichen planus manifestations topical FK506 had a higher efficacy compared to topical steroids in terms of symptom relief. The ointment is usually applied twice daily for 4 weeks with subsequent taper. Moreover, topical CNIs do not increase the risk for local fungal and bacterial infections.

CONCLUSIONS cGVHD remains associated with significant morbidity and mortality but contributes to improved disease-free survival (DFS) after allogeneic HSCT for hematologic malignancies [2]. Moreover, immunosuppressive treatment is associated with significant long-term side

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effects such as renal insufficiency, osteoporosis/avascular osteonecrosis of the bone and contributes to infectious morbidity. Therefore, treatment strategies require a balance between effective control of cGVHD versus longterm side effects and the risk to counteract with the protective GVL effect. Several controlled trials significantly contributed to the current knowledge of optimal treatment of cGVHD, indicating the importance of steroids in first-line treatment of cGVHD [16-19]. A randomized trial evaluating the combination of steroids and CsA indicated a steroid-sparing efficacy but no increase in response rates for standard risk patients, whereas historically, patients with low platelets at time of diagnosis of cGVHD demonstrated an improved outcome with combination treatment [16,17]. The value of both controlled trials is limited by the fact that patients being included received exclusively BM grafts after MA conditioning regimens and clinical practice changed considerably during the last 10 years. Although steroids with or without a CNI are currently regarded as standard in first-line treatment of cGVHD, no additional substances such as thalidomide and MMF given as part of a 3-agent regimen improved the survival of affected patients [19-21]. Moreover, azathioprine in combination with steroids impaired survival because of increased infectious mortality [18]. Currently, no data are available evaluating the efficacy of the combination of steroids and MMF. The use of ECP has been associated with a steroidsparing capacity and a favorable side effect profile [80]. Nevertheless, currently no sufficient data are available to support the use of ECP in first-line treatment. Therefore, randomized trials evaluating the combination of steroids with ECP or steroids with MMF are urgently needed. An additional treatment option, which may be worth being evaluated in first-line treatment, are mTOR inhibitors, which display therapeutic activity in cGVHD, although data on the role in firstline treatment are still lacking. Topical immunosuppression is an important treatment option for mild manifestations of cGVHD and may be of significant advantage because of the absence of systemic side effects. It further does not interfere with the protective graft-versus-malignancy effect, and importantly, limited cGVHD has been shown to result in an improved DFS and OS rates in a number of diseases [2]. In patients requiring systemic immunosuppression, topical immunosuppression may be of use to speed up local response rates and to achieve response in manifestations resistant to systemic immunosuppression. Despite the importance of topical immunosuppression so far, only limited data are available for the majority of treatment options, and the current knowledge relates to uncontrolled retrospective case series and personal experience. Therefore, systematic evaluation of topical

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immunosppressive treatment approaches is required to improve clinical care for affected patients in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank all participating centers of conferences and surveys, which included participants from the transplant centers in Augsburg, Basel, Berlin, Cologne, Dresden, Duesseldorf, Erlangen, Essen, Freiburg, Greifswald, Hamburg, Hannover, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel, Leipzig, Linz, Mainz, Mu¨nster, Munich, Nantes, Nuernberg, Oldenburg, Paris, Regensburg, Rostock, Tuebingen, Ulm, Vienna, Wiesbaden, and Wuerzburg. The authors thank Anna Hackl for evaluating the survey on treatment of cGVHD. The conference was supported by the Jose Carreras Foundation project “Competence Center GVHD Regensburg.” Financial disclosure: Hildegard Greinix served as member of a steering committee for a cGVHD study of Therakos and received honoraria from Therakos for research presentations in corporate symposia at international scientific meetings. Daniel Wolff and Sharon Elad are paid consultants for Dr. Falk Pharma GmbH in association with clinical studies on budesonide in treatment of oral cGVHD.

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