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Consumption intention toward ethnic food: determinants of Dayak food choice by Malaysians
Accepted Manuscript Consumption intention towards ethnic food: determinants of dayak food choice by malaysians Hiram Ting, Sharon Tan, Alexandra Nastassia John PII:
S2352-6181(17)30007-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.jef.2017.02.005
Reference:
JEF 102
To appear in:
Journal of Ethnic Foods
Received Date: 23 January 2017 Revised Date:
23 February 2017
Accepted Date: 23 February 2017
Please cite this article as: Ting H, Tan S, John AN, Consumption intention towards ethnic food: determinants of dayak food choice by malaysians, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2017), doi: 10.1016/ j.jef.2017.02.005. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT CONSUMPTION INTENTION TOWARDS ETHNIC FOOD: DETERMINANTS OF DAYAK FOOD CHOICE BY MALAYSIANS
Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
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[email protected]
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Hiram Ting*
Sharon Tan
College, Penampang, Malaysia [email protected]
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Alexandra Nastassia John
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Faculty of Accountancy, Finance and Business, Tunku Abdul Rahman University
Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
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[email protected]
*Corresponding Author
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT CONSUMPTION INTENTION TOWARDS ETHNIC FOOD: DETERMINANTS OF DAYAK FOOD CHOICE BY MALAYSIANS
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ABSTRACT
The awareness and trying of ethnic cuisine have increased due to the developing exchange of
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trade, movement of ethnicities across the globe, and tourist travelling opportunities. More
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people consume ethnic food for the appreciation of culture and the taste. Although the Dayaks are the largest indigenous group in Malaysia, little is done to date to explicate why Malaysians consume Dayak food. The present study aims to investigate Dayak food choice of non-Dayak Malaysians and assess its effect on consumption intention. Self-administered questionnaire-based survey was used and 195 respondents were sampled purposively in
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Malaysia. The results show that only health consideration and sensory appeal have positive effect on intention to consume Dayak food. It implies that most Malaysians consume only
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selected Dayak dishes occasionally. Practical implications of the study are provided.
Keywords: Ethnic Food; Dayak; Consumption Intention; Food Choice; SEM
INTRODUCTION
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ethnic food, food with a tale and history behind them, are consumed today because more and more people eat for the appreciation of culture rather than for the mere reason of survival. Although Abraham Maslow stated that the primary use of food is to satisfy hunger and the physiological needs [1], food has increasingly exerted many roles in human life. People with
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ethnicity are also eager to share about culture, and food can provide the avenue to provide
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nourishment for the body as well as for the higher need to be aware of what is being eaten.
The awareness and trying of ethnic cuisine have increased in the past decades due to the
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developing universal exchange of trade, movement of different ethnicities accross the globe, tourist travelling opportunities, and globalisation [2]. Internationally, there is a trend towards “exotic” or ethnic food [3]. The most involved ethnic food consumer segments are largely found to be younger generation who work and live in big cities [4]. Consuming ethnic food
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provides them not only adventure but also emotional mobility. It brings to mind memories of vacations to unique locations, and it reflects and reinforces affective tie and openness to new
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cultures.
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The position of food in tourism has paramount value over last few years as tourists also seek authenticity, despite the fact that every ethnic group has different styles of preparing, cooking, preserving and eating style of food, and alteration, transformation or changes due to the waves of modernization not only involved the preparation, equipments, ingredients, processing methods but also the eating decorum and others related matters. Ethnic native food in fact is a window of the identity of the Sarawak [5, 6]. This predisposition has allowed unique culinary attractions to be part of the holiday destination. Historically, owing to the 2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT large forest area and style of living during the pre-independent era most of the native groups’ traditional food were created, prepared and cooked using the natural resources from the forest like meat of the wild animal, fish, shoots, stems, leaves, roots, barks and many others. These food treasures in turn have contributed to the uniqueness of Sarawak gastronomic tourism
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culture.
Figure 1: Sarawak, located at the top-left region on Borneo7, is the largest state by land area in
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Malaysia. Sarawak is in northwest Borneo, bordering another state of Malaysia, Sabah, to the
Borneo is the largest island in Asia.
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northeast, Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo, to the south, and Brunei in the northwest.
The Dayak in Sarawak, a state in Malaysia, is geographically separated by Dayak ethnicities
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also scattered across the Indonesian Kalimantan side of Borneo. Comparatively, Sarawak is the largest of the 14 Malaysian states located on the island of Borneo and is separated from Peninsular Malaysia by the South China Sea as shown in Figure 1. Sarawakʼs cultural and
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racial compositions are more diverse than that in Peninsular Malaysia. Dayak has become a convenient label to refer to the Iban, Bidayuh and the Orang Ulu, as there are the most
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populous groups [8]. It is also a generic term that refers to the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the Borneo Island [9]. The Dayaks are a riverine and farming people, inhabiting the middle and upper reaches of rivers in Borneo. Owing to the large forest area and the style of living before the formation of Malaysia, the Dayak’s traditional food, such as Paku kubok (ferns) (Fig. 2), tuak (alcoholic beverage made from rice wine) (Fig. 3) and ayam pansuh (meat cooked with bamboo) (Fig. 4), were created, prepared and cooked using the natural
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT resources from the forest [5]. These food treasures, including Daun Sabong (Fig. 5), Midin (Fig. 6A), Pekasam Ensabi (Fig. 6B), Daun Bandung Tutok (Fig. 6C) and Terung Dayak (Fig. 7), made by local natural ingredients such as wild animal meat, fish, shoots, stems, leaves, roots, barks and many others have contributed to the uniqueness of Sarawak
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gastronomic culture. In light of what they are and how they live, Dayak food becomes the best reflection of their culture. As such, Dayak food not only offers unique dishes, but also
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represents the riches of traditions and practices of the people.
Figure 2: Paku Kubok (Neophrolepis acutifolia), giant jungle ferns stir-fried with wild ginger flowers, anchovies and chillies11. Paku kubok is believed to have benefits to health, especially for women during confinement period. It can increase the production of breast
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remains crunchy.
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milk. Hence, this dish is served greatly for women. When stir-fried, the texture of the fern
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Figure 3: Tuak, or rice wine is brewed from glutinous rice17. This drink uses yeast which is often readily available in local markets, or some prefer to ferment it with ginger and galangal and rice powder. Tuak is usually served during special occasions, such as weddings, and as a main celebratory drink during the harvest festival, called Gawai Dayak by the native Dayaks in Sarawak. It can be stored for a very long time, and is said to taste better with age.
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Figure 4: Ayam Pansuh, chicken stewed in bamboo with tapioca leaves and seasonings10.
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This is one of the famous traditional dishes of Dayak in Sarawak. It is made of chicken and tapioca leaves. All marinated meat will be filled into the bamboo and capped with tapioca leaves. Then, the bamboo is placed over the wood fire. This dish is commonly served during
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every festival celebration in Sarawak.
Figure 5: Known as Daun Sabong by the Iban ethnicity, Daun Dodah by the Bidayuh ethnicity, and Daun Melinjo with scientific name Gnetum gnemon, sometimes eaten raw or
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stir fried 12. It is especially stir-fried with shrimp paste. The taste is subtle and unique. It is often served in their meals in Sarawak. Cultvated Melinjau trees have light green leaves throughout whereas the wild Melinjau trees gives red and pink leaves with the older green
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leaves.
Figure 6A: Midin, the jungle fern, Stenochlaena palustris, is one of most well-known dishes by tourists and visitors when cooked. It has become an indispensable dish in local food courts and restaurants 13. This fern is distributed widely over the jungle of Sarawak. It is commonly cooked with shrimp paste or alcohol. It has also been served as a green salad with vinegar.
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Figure 6B: Pekasam Ensabi, pickled local cabbage, with a sour and slightly salty taste 14. It is
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served. This is one of the well-known cuisines in Dayak society.
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also known as Kimchi of the Iban even though it is not spicy. It can be mixed with lime when
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Figure 6C: Daun Bandung Tutok, Manihot esculanta or pounded tapioca leaves sautéed with garlic. It can be found among Iban and Bidayuh cuisines15. It is commonly cooked with onion, chili and garlic. This is a common dish that may appear in daily meal. Traditionally,
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the tapioca leaves are pounded with a lesung batu, also known as the pestle and mortar.
Figure 7: Terung Dayak, also known as Terung Assam, Solanum ferox 16. It is commonly made into soup. It tastes pleasantly sour. However, it can also be made into jam. In Sarawak,
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most Sarawakians cook it with seafood. It has been regularly served in daily meals.
Notwithstanding the popularity of ethnic food and the significance of Dayak food in Malaysia, little study is done to articulate the determinants of Dayak food choice from local
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT non-Dayak residence [18]. As various ethnic food from the Malay and Chinese communities have been accepted as restaurant and home cooked food and are consumed by diverse groups, it is thus necessary to assess the intention of local consumers to consume Dayak food. It is believed that such pioneering attempt will not only determine Dayak food choice, but also lay
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foundations to perpetuate more behavioural studies on Dayak food in wider communities which would have significant implications on local food and beverage businesses and tourism
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industry.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
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Ethnic Food
Ethnic food concerns the everyday food and eating at home, with various types of food often defined by ethnic groups, regions, cultures, and religions. Kwon [19] provides a narrow and
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broad definition of what ethnic food is. Ethnic food in the narrower sense is defined as food
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or nourishment originating from a gathering of legacy, heritage, and culture which utilises its information and knowledge of resource. Elements of local ingredients based on plants and/or animal are accumulated, understood, and made into tradition. Moreover, local ingredients provide the food item with a geographical tag. Origin and spread of ingredient availability provide an extensive insight on what is within a country or region’s sources and what is not. Ethnic food is also characterized as a gathering of a nation’s or country’s cuisine that is culturally and socially accepted defined by the people outside of that separate ethnic group
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [19]. This acknowlegement shows that the ethnic food must be understood not only from the ingredients and it’s nutritional value, but also from other aspects, such as culture, ecology,
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history and environment.
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Consumption of Ethnic Food
Food consumption choices always have an effect on the decisions that people make. These
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would include food that is excellent in terms of taste due to its freshness, food which can be easy and quick to purchase and prepare instantly, and ethnic food with identifiable ingredients, such as spices and flavours [20]. All these have contributed to the awareness and knowledge of ethnic cuisine which is fast becoming popular in the last few decades. The recognition of ethnic food in Asia is fast increasingly popular, especially whereby consumers
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are gastronomically adventurous in their tastebuds and are seemingly inclined towards particular food with functional properties [21]. Despite the presence of many food choices in
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Malaysia and Sarawak, consumers are willing to indulge much more when it comes to trying out new cultures and diverse cuisine and when selecting their food. Moreover, they prefer
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enhanced eating experiences such as intense flavors and extreme textures.
Despite the presence of internationalised food and eating establishments, opportunities exist for local fanfare to excel in a region of culinary coalescence such as Southeast Asia as enjoyment for local dishes is currently on the rise [22]. Howell [23] has documented that the demand for ethnic food is anticipated to double from 2005 to 2015 with annual revenue
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT hitting $75 billion. Generally, ethnic food is commonly linked with the past as it represents stability in sustainable living. Hence, the unique identity of ethnic Dayak food in Sarawak is fascinating as it has particular traditional food preparation techniques which are practiced and
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is inherited from one generation to another.
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Food Choice and its Determinants
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Human behaviour can be affected my various ways due to the complex nature when it comes to selecting food. The criteria in which consumers are able to choose the varieties of food offered is an embodiment of several factors which influences sensory and non-sensory functions [24]. In addition, earlier works by Babicz-Zielińska [25] have implicitly accentuated personal factors, such as motives and emotions, to be precursors towards food
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consumption choices. One example is how one’s desire to be slim and healthy can become a motive to perform certain dietary practices into believing that certain food may have its
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perfunctory role in achieving the desired results.
A number of recent studies have found that the following eight factors, namely health, mood, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, price, weight control, familiarity, are common indicators in many countries when eliciting consumers’ eating habits [24]. One of the objectives of past research has been to predetermine its reliability and validity in diverse populations. Since its pioneer research by Steptoe and Pollard [26], Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) has been applied in both Western and Asian societies to assess
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT underlying motives for food choice [27]. Albeit its popularity amongst many consumer food choice studies, consumption intention towards Dayak ethnic food have not been included in the past, hence the purpose of the present study in understanding the determinants of
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consumers’ choice of Dayak food and its effect on consumption intention.
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Consumption Intention
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The emphasis of gastronomy combines the eating into a new cultural world from both a mental and physiological point of view. There are studies which reveal Malaysians are increasing their knowledge of consuming foods which are nutritious, wholesome, safe and friendly to the environment [28]. These pertinent changes in their routine may be the reason for them to have the intention to consume Dayak food that is prepared with natural
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ingredients. Using the theory of reasoned action as the underpinning basis [29], it is believed that determinants of Dayak food choice would have significant effect on consumption
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intention.
Research Model and Hypotheses
Figure 10: Research Model of the Study
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 10 shows the research model. In light of the underpinning theory and past literature on ethnic food and food choice, the following hypotheses are formulated. All hypotheses are postulated to have positive relationship except for price and weight control due to their
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inverse effect on consumption intention towards food in general.
H1 Health factor is positively related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H2 Mood condition is positively related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H3 Convenience to consume Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention. H4 The sensory appeal of Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention. H5 The natural content of Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention.
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H6 The price of Dayak food is inversely related to consumption intention. H7 The consideration of weight control is inversely related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H8 The familiarity with Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention.
METHODOLOGY
Since the present study is relatively new in terms of its context, non-Dayak Malaysians are the target population. A priori power analysis is adopted to determine minimum sample size
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT which holds sufficient statistical power to explain the effect of food choice determinants on consumption intention towards Dayak food. A quantitative approach using self-administered questionnaire was appropriated. All statements were adapted from FCQ [24, 26, 27]. Aside from demographic variables, all variables were measured using multiple statements to cater
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for adjustment of measurement error, thus ensuring reliability and predictive validity [30]. A seven-point Likert scale where 1 denoting strongly disagree to 7 denoting strongly agree was used to measure these variables. A post hoc Harman single-factor analysis was later executed
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to ensure that common method bias was not an issue in the data [31, 32]. Besides, a pretest
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was conducted to check the comprehensibility of all the statements in the questionnaire [33].
Questionnaire was distributed at universities, colleges and public places in Malaysia using purposive sampling technique. Only non-Dayak Malaysians who have tried Dayak food
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before were targeted. 300 copies were distributed, and 195 completed and usable copies were collected in a month’s time in May 2016, accounting for an effective response rate of 65 percent. Data entry was done using SPSS but analysis was carried out using SmartPLS [34].
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As structural equation modeling of partial least squares (PLS-SEM) is becoming increasingly useful in explaining complex consumer behaviour in marketing research [35], it is used to
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enhance explanatory capacity of key target variables and their relationships [30, 36].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Measurement Model Assessment
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Table 1 shows all the constructs in this study demonstrate good convergent validity. As the loadings of all items are above 0.708, all average variance extracted (AVE) values are thus
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above the minimum threshold of 0.5. Instead of using Cronbach alpha and Composite Reliability, Dijkstra-Henseler’s rho (rhoA), which provides more accurate estimation of data consistency, is used and the values indicate the items loaded on each construct are reliable
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[34].
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Table 1: Convergent Validity Assessment
Table 2 demonstrates that the correlation values corresponding to the respective constructs do
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not violate the most conservative Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT)0.85 criterion for assessing discriminant validity [36]. As such, there is no issue with multi-collinearity in the outer model. Moreover, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and other fit indices,
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namely the squared Euclidean distance (d_ULS), the geodesic distance (d_G), normed fit index (NFI) and the root mean squared residual covariance matrix (rms theta), are used to test
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the model fit of the research model [36]. Apart from NFI which is slightly lower than 0.9, all the results of the saturated model indicate that the model has a good fit [35, 37-38].
Table 2: Discriminant Validity Assessment
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Structural Model Assessment
Prior to assessing the structural model, collinearity test on the inner model is carried out.
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denotes that there is no issue with collinearity in the model.
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Since the VIF values of each construct is lower than the offending value of 3.3 [39], it
Table 3 shows the results of relationships between constructs which are in accordance to the
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hypotheses of the study. A bootstrapping procedure is performed using 1000 bootstrap sample. As a result, only sensory appeal and health consideration are found to have positive effect on intention to consume Dayak food. Although the relationship between price and consumption intention is also significant, the result does not support the postulated inverse relationship. As such, only the first and fourth hypotheses in the study are supported.
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Moreover, these two factors carry small to medium effect on consumption intention as shown in f 2 values. This could well explain why variance explained (R2) in the model is 21.3
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percent. Finally, a blindfolding procedure is administered, and the result of CV redundancy (Q2) at 0.147 implies the model has predictive relevance, suggesting that the exogenous
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constructs possess predictive ability over the endogenous construct [30].
Table 3: Beta Coefficient between Constructs
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT It is necessary to note that the non-Dayak Malaysians in the study are slightly inclined to consuming Dayak food. Although most of them know Dayaks, they might not know Dayak food well. Similarly, although all of them have tried Dayak food before, they know no more than three Dayak dishes in general. This could well explain why only health consideration
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and sensory appeal are found to be positively related to intention to consume Dayak food, despite the widespread use of FCQ in determining food choice. Dayak food is known but not well-known. Moreover, it is not intensively distributed, like the Malay and Chinese food in
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Sarawak, let alone Malaysia. By the same token, despite of Dayak food being distributed widely, consumers may be faced with multiple options in choosing which food products may
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pique their interest, hence having to make new decisions that may involve new identifications, knowledge and even food preparation practices seen as a arduous process
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[42].
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IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Food is often regarded as being expressive identity, and integral component of cultural riches
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and heritage [43, 44]. It is also well documented that food when produced, prepared and eaten is inherently part of the culture of a particular country and that it does not solely depend on its quality, but also infused with human culture which includes religion [45]. The multi-ethnic and cultural communities in Sarawak and Malaysia provide an ideal place for recognition and growth of interest in ethnic cuisine [46]. Since food tastes can be acquired and transmitted more easily than other cultural products, such as language and belief systems, ethnic food is the perfect medium for reinforcing ethnic identity and country heritage [47]. As such, 15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Sarawak has every potential to be well known with gastronomic tourism, in addition to ecotourism, cultural tourism, and wildlife tourism [48]. In light of the aforementioned, it is imperative that Dayak food be promoted more intensely in Sarawak and Malaysia. If nonDayak Malaysians are unfamiliar with Dayak food, and they take only certain food
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occasionally, the chances of visitors and tourists from neighbouring and distant countries trying Dayak food would be low. Promotion and distribution activities need to come from all quarters in a collaborative manner. Dayak food eateries and local events to promote the food
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need to be encouraged and supported by various means. When the concept of Malaysian consumers towards Dayak food changes, and their acceptance increases, it would have a
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positive ripple effect on food businesses and tourism industry.
The present study is however delimited to non-Dayak Malaysians who have tried Dayak food
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before. There is no comparison between different ethnic groups in the country nor perceptions from international communities. Moreover, the results of the study infer there are other important variables which would contribute to consumption intention of Dayak food.
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Factors such as awareness, subjective norm and desire to try unfamiliar food could provide more additional explanation to consumption intention of Dayak food. Moreover, the halalness
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of Dayak food also becomes a major hindrance to consumption to the Malays and Muslims. As such, treating all non-Dayak Malaysians as homogenous might have limited more insights into the intention to consume Dayak food.
The input and the quest of this research could also be further investigated to position ethnic food as an important component in consumer’s preference when selecting food options. The 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT promotion of ethnic food is an effective way of preserving culinary heritage as consumers are becoming more discerning in their tastebuds and are willing to experience new flavours and food products. Moreover “authentic” ethnic food can also be used as a branding tool to attract visitors and tourists to that destination, something which is not well-studied but potential in
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Sarawak and Malaysia. Furthermore, since Dayak food is relatively unfamiliar to non-
Malaysians, qualitative studies, experiments and action research could be carried out to not only gain more insights into behaviours related to consuming Dayak food, but also make the
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studies practically meaningful to the food and beverage, and tourism industries, as well as the
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local communities.
Appendix Health
The food that I consume contains a lot of vitamin and minerals. (HEA1)
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The food that I consume is good for my skin/teeth/nails, etc. (HEA2)
Mood
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The food that I consume is high in fibre and roughage. (HEA3)
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The food that I consume makes me feel good. (MOD1) The food that I consume cheers me up. (MOD2) The food that I consume helps me cope with stress. (MOD3)
Convenience The food that I consume is easy to prepare. (CON1) The food that I consume can be cooked very simply. (CON2)
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The food that I consume can be bought in shops close to where I live or work. (CON3)
Sensory Appeal The food that I consume smells nice. (APP1)
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The food that I consume looks nice. (APP2) The food that I consume tastes good. (APP3)
The food that I consume contains no additives. (NAT1)
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Natural Content
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The food that I consume contains natural ingredients. (NAT2)
The food that I consume contains no artificial ingredients. (NAT3)
Price
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The food that I consume is not expensive. (PRC1) The food that I consume is cheap. (PRC2)
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Weight Control
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The food that I consume is good value for money. (PRC3)
The food that I consume is low in calories. (WCT1) The food that I consume helps me control my weight. (WCT2) The food that I consume is low in fat. (WCT3)
Familiarity The food that I consume is what I usually eat. (FAM1)
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The food that I consume is something that I am familiar with. (FAM2) The food that I consume is like food I ate when I was a kid. (FAM3)
I plan to consume Dayak food. (INT1) I expect to consume Dayak food in near future. (INT2)
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I will try to consume Dayak food in coming days. (INT3)
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Intention
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
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The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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This research project was supported by the Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) under the Special Funding for Research Institutes (Grant number: 105/SpFRI/1428/16/5). The assistance of Sarawak Tourism Board (STB) in providing
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pictures of Dayak food and relevant information is also appreciated.
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Available from: 36 http://findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m0FNP/is_14_44/ai_n14868156/ [24] Prescott J, Young O, O'neill L, Yau NJ and Stevens R. Motives for food choice: a comparison of consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand. Food qual prefer
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[25] Babicz-Zielińska E. Role of psychological factors in food choice–a review. Pol J Food Nutr Sci 2006; 15: 379-84.
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[26] Steptoe A, Pollard TM and Wardle J. Development of a measure of the motives
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underlying the selection of food: the food choice questionnaire. Appita J 1995 ; 25: 267-84. [27] Markovina J, Stewart-Knox BJ, Rankin A, Gibney M, de Almeida MD, Fischer A, Kuznesof SA, Poínhos R, Panzone L and Frewer LJ. Food4Me study: Validity and reliability of Food Choice Questionnaire in 9 European countries. Food Qual Prefer 2015; 45: 26-32.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [28] Rezai G, Kit Teng P, Mohamed Z and Shamsudin MN. Structural equation modeling of consumer purchase intention toward synthetic functional foods. J Food Prod Market 2014; 20: 13-34.
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[29] Ajzen I and Fishbein M. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. 1980. [30] F. Hair Jr J, Sarstedt M, Hopkins LG and Kuppelwieser V. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Euro Bus Rev 2014; 26: 106–121.
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doi:10.1108/ebr-10-2013-0128.
[31] Chang SJ, Van Witteloostuijn and Eden L. From the editors: Common method variance
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in international business research. J Int Bus Stud 2010; 41: 178-84.
[32] Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Lee JY and Podsakoff NP. Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J appl
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psychol 2003; 88: 879.
[33] Hunt SD, Sparkman Jr RD and Wilcox JB. The pretest in survey research: Issues and preliminary findings. J Market Res 1982: 269-73.
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[34] Ringle CM, Wende S, Becker JM and GmbH R. SmartPLS - Statistical Software For
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Structural Equation Modeling [Internet]. Smartpls.com. 2017 [cited 2017 January 22]. Available from: http://www.smartpls.com [35] Hair Jr JF, Hult GT, Ringle C and Sarstedt M. A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications; 2016.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [36] Henseler J, Dijkstra TK, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM, Diamantopoulos A, Straub DW, Ketchen Jr DJ, Hair JF, Hult GT and Calantone RJ. Common beliefs and reality about PLS: Comments on Rönkkö and Evermann (2013). Organ Res Methods 2014; 17: 182-209.
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[37] Bentler PM and Bonett DG. Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychol bull 1980; 88: 588.
[38] Dijkstra TK and Henseler J. Consistent partial least squares path modeling. MIS
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quarterly. MIS quarterly 2015; 39: 297-316.
[39] Hu LT and Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
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Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct equ modeling: a multidisciplinary journal 1999; 6: 1-55.
[40] Lohmoeller JB. Latent variable path analysis with partial least squares. Heidelberg:
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Physica. 1989.
[41] Diamantopoulos A and Siguaw JA. Formative versus reflective indicators in organizational measure development: A comparison and empirical illustration. Brit J Manage
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2006; 17: 263-82.
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[42] Dressler-Hawke EM and Mansvelt J. Shaping the “Authentic”: Marketing Ethnic Food to Consumers. The New Cultures of Food: Marketing Opportunities from Ethnic, Religious and Cultural Diversity; 2016. 299 p. [43] Bessière J. Local development and heritage: traditional food and cuisine as tourist attractions in rural areas. Sociologia ruralis 1998; 38: 21-34.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [44] Cusack I. African cuisines: Recipes for nationbuilding? J Afr Cult Stud 2000; 13: 20725. [45] Montanari M. Food is culture. Columbia University Press; 2006.
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[46] University of Guelph. Department of Consumer Studies, Ellis KS. Qualitative Study of Consumer Conceptions and Perceptions Towards Ethnic Foods. (Thesis). 1990.
[47] Van Esterik P. Celebrating ethnicity: Ethnic flavor in an urban festival. Ethnic Groups.
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An International Periodical of Ethnic Studies Bronx 1982; 4:207-27.
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[48] The Official Portal of the Sarawak Government [Internet]. Sarawak.gov.my. 2017 [cited
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2017 January 22]. Available from: http://www.sarawak.gov.my/seg.php?
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 1: Convergent Validity Assessment Item
Loading
rhoA
AVE
Health
HEA1
0.931
0.938
0.871
HEA2
0.930
HEA3
0.939
MOD1
0.948
MOD2
0.942
MOD3
0.921
CON1
0.867
CON2
0.882
Sensory Appeal
0.893
APP1
0.900
APP2
0.901
APP3
0.897
NAT1
0.927
NAT2
0.924
NAT3
0.892
PRC1
0.905
PRC2
0.906
PRC3
0.873
WCT1
0.938
WCT2
0.964
WCT3
0.945
FAM1
0.926
FAM2
0.945
FAM3
0.867
INT1
0.920
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Natural Content
CON3
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Price
Weight Control
Familiarity
Intention
0.878
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Convenience
0.939
0.945
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Mood
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Construct
0.776
0.902
0.809
0.922
0.836
0.877
0.801
0.955
0.900
0.937
0.834
0.899
0.800
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT INT2
0.899
INT3
0.863
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SC
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Note: See Appendix for the items
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2: Discriminant Validity Assessment APP
CON
FAM
HEA
INT
MOD
NAT
PRC
WCT
FAM
0.498
0.596
HEA
0.262
0.372
0.272
INT
0.398
0.155
0.272
0.303
MOD
0.688
0.567
0.603
0.418
0.332
NAT
0.179
0.231
0.251
0.575
0.266
PRC
0.507
0.487
0.658
0.296
0.379
WCT
0.148
0.379
0.324
0.733
0.184
SC
0.327
0.199 0.423
0.350
0.234
0.595
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CON
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APP
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Note: Criteria: discriminant validity is established at HTMT0.85
0.376
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 3: Beta Coefficient between Constructs S.E.
f2
APP INT
0.182*
0.102
0.023
CON INT
-0.086
0.085
0.005
FAM INT
0.011
0.099
0.000
HEA INT
0.206*
0.110
MOD INT
0.078
0.109
NAT INT
0.111
0.090
PRC INT
0.209*
0.099
0.031
WCT INT
-0.122
0.097
0.008
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0.023 0.003 0.010
SC
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*p <0.05
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Beta
S2352-6181(17)30007-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.jef.2017.02.005
Reference:
JEF 102
To appear in:
Journal of Ethnic Foods
Received Date: 23 January 2017 Revised Date:
23 February 2017
Accepted Date: 23 February 2017
Please cite this article as: Ting H, Tan S, John AN, Consumption intention towards ethnic food: determinants of dayak food choice by malaysians, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2017), doi: 10.1016/ j.jef.2017.02.005. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT CONSUMPTION INTENTION TOWARDS ETHNIC FOOD: DETERMINANTS OF DAYAK FOOD CHOICE BY MALAYSIANS
Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
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[email protected]
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Hiram Ting*
Sharon Tan
College, Penampang, Malaysia [email protected]
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Alexandra Nastassia John
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Faculty of Accountancy, Finance and Business, Tunku Abdul Rahman University
Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
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[email protected]
*Corresponding Author
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT CONSUMPTION INTENTION TOWARDS ETHNIC FOOD: DETERMINANTS OF DAYAK FOOD CHOICE BY MALAYSIANS
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ABSTRACT
The awareness and trying of ethnic cuisine have increased due to the developing exchange of
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trade, movement of ethnicities across the globe, and tourist travelling opportunities. More
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people consume ethnic food for the appreciation of culture and the taste. Although the Dayaks are the largest indigenous group in Malaysia, little is done to date to explicate why Malaysians consume Dayak food. The present study aims to investigate Dayak food choice of non-Dayak Malaysians and assess its effect on consumption intention. Self-administered questionnaire-based survey was used and 195 respondents were sampled purposively in
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Malaysia. The results show that only health consideration and sensory appeal have positive effect on intention to consume Dayak food. It implies that most Malaysians consume only
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selected Dayak dishes occasionally. Practical implications of the study are provided.
Keywords: Ethnic Food; Dayak; Consumption Intention; Food Choice; SEM
INTRODUCTION
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ethnic food, food with a tale and history behind them, are consumed today because more and more people eat for the appreciation of culture rather than for the mere reason of survival. Although Abraham Maslow stated that the primary use of food is to satisfy hunger and the physiological needs [1], food has increasingly exerted many roles in human life. People with
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ethnicity are also eager to share about culture, and food can provide the avenue to provide
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nourishment for the body as well as for the higher need to be aware of what is being eaten.
The awareness and trying of ethnic cuisine have increased in the past decades due to the
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developing universal exchange of trade, movement of different ethnicities accross the globe, tourist travelling opportunities, and globalisation [2]. Internationally, there is a trend towards “exotic” or ethnic food [3]. The most involved ethnic food consumer segments are largely found to be younger generation who work and live in big cities [4]. Consuming ethnic food
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provides them not only adventure but also emotional mobility. It brings to mind memories of vacations to unique locations, and it reflects and reinforces affective tie and openness to new
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cultures.
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The position of food in tourism has paramount value over last few years as tourists also seek authenticity, despite the fact that every ethnic group has different styles of preparing, cooking, preserving and eating style of food, and alteration, transformation or changes due to the waves of modernization not only involved the preparation, equipments, ingredients, processing methods but also the eating decorum and others related matters. Ethnic native food in fact is a window of the identity of the Sarawak [5, 6]. This predisposition has allowed unique culinary attractions to be part of the holiday destination. Historically, owing to the 2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT large forest area and style of living during the pre-independent era most of the native groups’ traditional food were created, prepared and cooked using the natural resources from the forest like meat of the wild animal, fish, shoots, stems, leaves, roots, barks and many others. These food treasures in turn have contributed to the uniqueness of Sarawak gastronomic tourism
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culture.
Figure 1: Sarawak, located at the top-left region on Borneo7, is the largest state by land area in
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Malaysia. Sarawak is in northwest Borneo, bordering another state of Malaysia, Sabah, to the
Borneo is the largest island in Asia.
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northeast, Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo, to the south, and Brunei in the northwest.
The Dayak in Sarawak, a state in Malaysia, is geographically separated by Dayak ethnicities
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also scattered across the Indonesian Kalimantan side of Borneo. Comparatively, Sarawak is the largest of the 14 Malaysian states located on the island of Borneo and is separated from Peninsular Malaysia by the South China Sea as shown in Figure 1. Sarawakʼs cultural and
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racial compositions are more diverse than that in Peninsular Malaysia. Dayak has become a convenient label to refer to the Iban, Bidayuh and the Orang Ulu, as there are the most
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populous groups [8]. It is also a generic term that refers to the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the Borneo Island [9]. The Dayaks are a riverine and farming people, inhabiting the middle and upper reaches of rivers in Borneo. Owing to the large forest area and the style of living before the formation of Malaysia, the Dayak’s traditional food, such as Paku kubok (ferns) (Fig. 2), tuak (alcoholic beverage made from rice wine) (Fig. 3) and ayam pansuh (meat cooked with bamboo) (Fig. 4), were created, prepared and cooked using the natural
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT resources from the forest [5]. These food treasures, including Daun Sabong (Fig. 5), Midin (Fig. 6A), Pekasam Ensabi (Fig. 6B), Daun Bandung Tutok (Fig. 6C) and Terung Dayak (Fig. 7), made by local natural ingredients such as wild animal meat, fish, shoots, stems, leaves, roots, barks and many others have contributed to the uniqueness of Sarawak
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gastronomic culture. In light of what they are and how they live, Dayak food becomes the best reflection of their culture. As such, Dayak food not only offers unique dishes, but also
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represents the riches of traditions and practices of the people.
Figure 2: Paku Kubok (Neophrolepis acutifolia), giant jungle ferns stir-fried with wild ginger flowers, anchovies and chillies11. Paku kubok is believed to have benefits to health, especially for women during confinement period. It can increase the production of breast
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remains crunchy.
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milk. Hence, this dish is served greatly for women. When stir-fried, the texture of the fern
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Figure 3: Tuak, or rice wine is brewed from glutinous rice17. This drink uses yeast which is often readily available in local markets, or some prefer to ferment it with ginger and galangal and rice powder. Tuak is usually served during special occasions, such as weddings, and as a main celebratory drink during the harvest festival, called Gawai Dayak by the native Dayaks in Sarawak. It can be stored for a very long time, and is said to taste better with age.
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Figure 4: Ayam Pansuh, chicken stewed in bamboo with tapioca leaves and seasonings10.
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This is one of the famous traditional dishes of Dayak in Sarawak. It is made of chicken and tapioca leaves. All marinated meat will be filled into the bamboo and capped with tapioca leaves. Then, the bamboo is placed over the wood fire. This dish is commonly served during
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every festival celebration in Sarawak.
Figure 5: Known as Daun Sabong by the Iban ethnicity, Daun Dodah by the Bidayuh ethnicity, and Daun Melinjo with scientific name Gnetum gnemon, sometimes eaten raw or
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stir fried 12. It is especially stir-fried with shrimp paste. The taste is subtle and unique. It is often served in their meals in Sarawak. Cultvated Melinjau trees have light green leaves throughout whereas the wild Melinjau trees gives red and pink leaves with the older green
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leaves.
Figure 6A: Midin, the jungle fern, Stenochlaena palustris, is one of most well-known dishes by tourists and visitors when cooked. It has become an indispensable dish in local food courts and restaurants 13. This fern is distributed widely over the jungle of Sarawak. It is commonly cooked with shrimp paste or alcohol. It has also been served as a green salad with vinegar.
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Figure 6B: Pekasam Ensabi, pickled local cabbage, with a sour and slightly salty taste 14. It is
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served. This is one of the well-known cuisines in Dayak society.
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also known as Kimchi of the Iban even though it is not spicy. It can be mixed with lime when
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Figure 6C: Daun Bandung Tutok, Manihot esculanta or pounded tapioca leaves sautéed with garlic. It can be found among Iban and Bidayuh cuisines15. It is commonly cooked with onion, chili and garlic. This is a common dish that may appear in daily meal. Traditionally,
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the tapioca leaves are pounded with a lesung batu, also known as the pestle and mortar.
Figure 7: Terung Dayak, also known as Terung Assam, Solanum ferox 16. It is commonly made into soup. It tastes pleasantly sour. However, it can also be made into jam. In Sarawak,
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most Sarawakians cook it with seafood. It has been regularly served in daily meals.
Notwithstanding the popularity of ethnic food and the significance of Dayak food in Malaysia, little study is done to articulate the determinants of Dayak food choice from local
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT non-Dayak residence [18]. As various ethnic food from the Malay and Chinese communities have been accepted as restaurant and home cooked food and are consumed by diverse groups, it is thus necessary to assess the intention of local consumers to consume Dayak food. It is believed that such pioneering attempt will not only determine Dayak food choice, but also lay
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foundations to perpetuate more behavioural studies on Dayak food in wider communities which would have significant implications on local food and beverage businesses and tourism
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industry.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
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Ethnic Food
Ethnic food concerns the everyday food and eating at home, with various types of food often defined by ethnic groups, regions, cultures, and religions. Kwon [19] provides a narrow and
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broad definition of what ethnic food is. Ethnic food in the narrower sense is defined as food
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or nourishment originating from a gathering of legacy, heritage, and culture which utilises its information and knowledge of resource. Elements of local ingredients based on plants and/or animal are accumulated, understood, and made into tradition. Moreover, local ingredients provide the food item with a geographical tag. Origin and spread of ingredient availability provide an extensive insight on what is within a country or region’s sources and what is not. Ethnic food is also characterized as a gathering of a nation’s or country’s cuisine that is culturally and socially accepted defined by the people outside of that separate ethnic group
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT [19]. This acknowlegement shows that the ethnic food must be understood not only from the ingredients and it’s nutritional value, but also from other aspects, such as culture, ecology,
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history and environment.
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Consumption of Ethnic Food
Food consumption choices always have an effect on the decisions that people make. These
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would include food that is excellent in terms of taste due to its freshness, food which can be easy and quick to purchase and prepare instantly, and ethnic food with identifiable ingredients, such as spices and flavours [20]. All these have contributed to the awareness and knowledge of ethnic cuisine which is fast becoming popular in the last few decades. The recognition of ethnic food in Asia is fast increasingly popular, especially whereby consumers
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are gastronomically adventurous in their tastebuds and are seemingly inclined towards particular food with functional properties [21]. Despite the presence of many food choices in
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Malaysia and Sarawak, consumers are willing to indulge much more when it comes to trying out new cultures and diverse cuisine and when selecting their food. Moreover, they prefer
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enhanced eating experiences such as intense flavors and extreme textures.
Despite the presence of internationalised food and eating establishments, opportunities exist for local fanfare to excel in a region of culinary coalescence such as Southeast Asia as enjoyment for local dishes is currently on the rise [22]. Howell [23] has documented that the demand for ethnic food is anticipated to double from 2005 to 2015 with annual revenue
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT hitting $75 billion. Generally, ethnic food is commonly linked with the past as it represents stability in sustainable living. Hence, the unique identity of ethnic Dayak food in Sarawak is fascinating as it has particular traditional food preparation techniques which are practiced and
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is inherited from one generation to another.
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Food Choice and its Determinants
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Human behaviour can be affected my various ways due to the complex nature when it comes to selecting food. The criteria in which consumers are able to choose the varieties of food offered is an embodiment of several factors which influences sensory and non-sensory functions [24]. In addition, earlier works by Babicz-Zielińska [25] have implicitly accentuated personal factors, such as motives and emotions, to be precursors towards food
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consumption choices. One example is how one’s desire to be slim and healthy can become a motive to perform certain dietary practices into believing that certain food may have its
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perfunctory role in achieving the desired results.
A number of recent studies have found that the following eight factors, namely health, mood, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, price, weight control, familiarity, are common indicators in many countries when eliciting consumers’ eating habits [24]. One of the objectives of past research has been to predetermine its reliability and validity in diverse populations. Since its pioneer research by Steptoe and Pollard [26], Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) has been applied in both Western and Asian societies to assess
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT underlying motives for food choice [27]. Albeit its popularity amongst many consumer food choice studies, consumption intention towards Dayak ethnic food have not been included in the past, hence the purpose of the present study in understanding the determinants of
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consumers’ choice of Dayak food and its effect on consumption intention.
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Consumption Intention
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The emphasis of gastronomy combines the eating into a new cultural world from both a mental and physiological point of view. There are studies which reveal Malaysians are increasing their knowledge of consuming foods which are nutritious, wholesome, safe and friendly to the environment [28]. These pertinent changes in their routine may be the reason for them to have the intention to consume Dayak food that is prepared with natural
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ingredients. Using the theory of reasoned action as the underpinning basis [29], it is believed that determinants of Dayak food choice would have significant effect on consumption
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intention.
Research Model and Hypotheses
Figure 10: Research Model of the Study
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 10 shows the research model. In light of the underpinning theory and past literature on ethnic food and food choice, the following hypotheses are formulated. All hypotheses are postulated to have positive relationship except for price and weight control due to their
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inverse effect on consumption intention towards food in general.
H1 Health factor is positively related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H2 Mood condition is positively related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H3 Convenience to consume Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention. H4 The sensory appeal of Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention. H5 The natural content of Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention.
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H6 The price of Dayak food is inversely related to consumption intention. H7 The consideration of weight control is inversely related to intention to consume Dayak food.
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H8 The familiarity with Dayak food is positively related to consumption intention.
METHODOLOGY
Since the present study is relatively new in terms of its context, non-Dayak Malaysians are the target population. A priori power analysis is adopted to determine minimum sample size
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT which holds sufficient statistical power to explain the effect of food choice determinants on consumption intention towards Dayak food. A quantitative approach using self-administered questionnaire was appropriated. All statements were adapted from FCQ [24, 26, 27]. Aside from demographic variables, all variables were measured using multiple statements to cater
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for adjustment of measurement error, thus ensuring reliability and predictive validity [30]. A seven-point Likert scale where 1 denoting strongly disagree to 7 denoting strongly agree was used to measure these variables. A post hoc Harman single-factor analysis was later executed
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to ensure that common method bias was not an issue in the data [31, 32]. Besides, a pretest
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was conducted to check the comprehensibility of all the statements in the questionnaire [33].
Questionnaire was distributed at universities, colleges and public places in Malaysia using purposive sampling technique. Only non-Dayak Malaysians who have tried Dayak food
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before were targeted. 300 copies were distributed, and 195 completed and usable copies were collected in a month’s time in May 2016, accounting for an effective response rate of 65 percent. Data entry was done using SPSS but analysis was carried out using SmartPLS [34].
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As structural equation modeling of partial least squares (PLS-SEM) is becoming increasingly useful in explaining complex consumer behaviour in marketing research [35], it is used to
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enhance explanatory capacity of key target variables and their relationships [30, 36].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Measurement Model Assessment
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Table 1 shows all the constructs in this study demonstrate good convergent validity. As the loadings of all items are above 0.708, all average variance extracted (AVE) values are thus
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above the minimum threshold of 0.5. Instead of using Cronbach alpha and Composite Reliability, Dijkstra-Henseler’s rho (rhoA), which provides more accurate estimation of data consistency, is used and the values indicate the items loaded on each construct are reliable
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[34].
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Table 1: Convergent Validity Assessment
Table 2 demonstrates that the correlation values corresponding to the respective constructs do
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not violate the most conservative Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT)0.85 criterion for assessing discriminant validity [36]. As such, there is no issue with multi-collinearity in the outer model. Moreover, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and other fit indices,
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namely the squared Euclidean distance (d_ULS), the geodesic distance (d_G), normed fit index (NFI) and the root mean squared residual covariance matrix (rms theta), are used to test
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the model fit of the research model [36]. Apart from NFI which is slightly lower than 0.9, all the results of the saturated model indicate that the model has a good fit [35, 37-38].
Table 2: Discriminant Validity Assessment
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Structural Model Assessment
Prior to assessing the structural model, collinearity test on the inner model is carried out.
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denotes that there is no issue with collinearity in the model.
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Since the VIF values of each construct is lower than the offending value of 3.3 [39], it
Table 3 shows the results of relationships between constructs which are in accordance to the
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hypotheses of the study. A bootstrapping procedure is performed using 1000 bootstrap sample. As a result, only sensory appeal and health consideration are found to have positive effect on intention to consume Dayak food. Although the relationship between price and consumption intention is also significant, the result does not support the postulated inverse relationship. As such, only the first and fourth hypotheses in the study are supported.
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Moreover, these two factors carry small to medium effect on consumption intention as shown in f 2 values. This could well explain why variance explained (R2) in the model is 21.3
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percent. Finally, a blindfolding procedure is administered, and the result of CV redundancy (Q2) at 0.147 implies the model has predictive relevance, suggesting that the exogenous
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constructs possess predictive ability over the endogenous construct [30].
Table 3: Beta Coefficient between Constructs
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT It is necessary to note that the non-Dayak Malaysians in the study are slightly inclined to consuming Dayak food. Although most of them know Dayaks, they might not know Dayak food well. Similarly, although all of them have tried Dayak food before, they know no more than three Dayak dishes in general. This could well explain why only health consideration
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and sensory appeal are found to be positively related to intention to consume Dayak food, despite the widespread use of FCQ in determining food choice. Dayak food is known but not well-known. Moreover, it is not intensively distributed, like the Malay and Chinese food in
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Sarawak, let alone Malaysia. By the same token, despite of Dayak food being distributed widely, consumers may be faced with multiple options in choosing which food products may
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pique their interest, hence having to make new decisions that may involve new identifications, knowledge and even food preparation practices seen as a arduous process
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[42].
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IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Food is often regarded as being expressive identity, and integral component of cultural riches
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and heritage [43, 44]. It is also well documented that food when produced, prepared and eaten is inherently part of the culture of a particular country and that it does not solely depend on its quality, but also infused with human culture which includes religion [45]. The multi-ethnic and cultural communities in Sarawak and Malaysia provide an ideal place for recognition and growth of interest in ethnic cuisine [46]. Since food tastes can be acquired and transmitted more easily than other cultural products, such as language and belief systems, ethnic food is the perfect medium for reinforcing ethnic identity and country heritage [47]. As such, 15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Sarawak has every potential to be well known with gastronomic tourism, in addition to ecotourism, cultural tourism, and wildlife tourism [48]. In light of the aforementioned, it is imperative that Dayak food be promoted more intensely in Sarawak and Malaysia. If nonDayak Malaysians are unfamiliar with Dayak food, and they take only certain food
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occasionally, the chances of visitors and tourists from neighbouring and distant countries trying Dayak food would be low. Promotion and distribution activities need to come from all quarters in a collaborative manner. Dayak food eateries and local events to promote the food
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need to be encouraged and supported by various means. When the concept of Malaysian consumers towards Dayak food changes, and their acceptance increases, it would have a
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positive ripple effect on food businesses and tourism industry.
The present study is however delimited to non-Dayak Malaysians who have tried Dayak food
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before. There is no comparison between different ethnic groups in the country nor perceptions from international communities. Moreover, the results of the study infer there are other important variables which would contribute to consumption intention of Dayak food.
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Factors such as awareness, subjective norm and desire to try unfamiliar food could provide more additional explanation to consumption intention of Dayak food. Moreover, the halalness
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of Dayak food also becomes a major hindrance to consumption to the Malays and Muslims. As such, treating all non-Dayak Malaysians as homogenous might have limited more insights into the intention to consume Dayak food.
The input and the quest of this research could also be further investigated to position ethnic food as an important component in consumer’s preference when selecting food options. The 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT promotion of ethnic food is an effective way of preserving culinary heritage as consumers are becoming more discerning in their tastebuds and are willing to experience new flavours and food products. Moreover “authentic” ethnic food can also be used as a branding tool to attract visitors and tourists to that destination, something which is not well-studied but potential in
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Sarawak and Malaysia. Furthermore, since Dayak food is relatively unfamiliar to non-
Malaysians, qualitative studies, experiments and action research could be carried out to not only gain more insights into behaviours related to consuming Dayak food, but also make the
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studies practically meaningful to the food and beverage, and tourism industries, as well as the
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local communities.
Appendix Health
The food that I consume contains a lot of vitamin and minerals. (HEA1)
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The food that I consume is good for my skin/teeth/nails, etc. (HEA2)
Mood
EP
The food that I consume is high in fibre and roughage. (HEA3)
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The food that I consume makes me feel good. (MOD1) The food that I consume cheers me up. (MOD2) The food that I consume helps me cope with stress. (MOD3)
Convenience The food that I consume is easy to prepare. (CON1) The food that I consume can be cooked very simply. (CON2)
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The food that I consume can be bought in shops close to where I live or work. (CON3)
Sensory Appeal The food that I consume smells nice. (APP1)
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The food that I consume looks nice. (APP2) The food that I consume tastes good. (APP3)
The food that I consume contains no additives. (NAT1)
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Natural Content
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The food that I consume contains natural ingredients. (NAT2)
The food that I consume contains no artificial ingredients. (NAT3)
Price
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The food that I consume is not expensive. (PRC1) The food that I consume is cheap. (PRC2)
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Weight Control
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The food that I consume is good value for money. (PRC3)
The food that I consume is low in calories. (WCT1) The food that I consume helps me control my weight. (WCT2) The food that I consume is low in fat. (WCT3)
Familiarity The food that I consume is what I usually eat. (FAM1)
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The food that I consume is something that I am familiar with. (FAM2) The food that I consume is like food I ate when I was a kid. (FAM3)
I plan to consume Dayak food. (INT1) I expect to consume Dayak food in near future. (INT2)
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I will try to consume Dayak food in coming days. (INT3)
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Intention
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
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The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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This research project was supported by the Institute of Borneo Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) under the Special Funding for Research Institutes (Grant number: 105/SpFRI/1428/16/5). The assistance of Sarawak Tourism Board (STB) in providing
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pictures of Dayak food and relevant information is also appreciated.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 1: Convergent Validity Assessment Item
Loading
rhoA
AVE
Health
HEA1
0.931
0.938
0.871
HEA2
0.930
HEA3
0.939
MOD1
0.948
MOD2
0.942
MOD3
0.921
CON1
0.867
CON2
0.882
Sensory Appeal
0.893
APP1
0.900
APP2
0.901
APP3
0.897
NAT1
0.927
NAT2
0.924
NAT3
0.892
PRC1
0.905
PRC2
0.906
PRC3
0.873
WCT1
0.938
WCT2
0.964
WCT3
0.945
FAM1
0.926
FAM2
0.945
FAM3
0.867
INT1
0.920
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Natural Content
CON3
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Price
Weight Control
Familiarity
Intention
0.878
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Convenience
0.939
0.945
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Mood
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Construct
0.776
0.902
0.809
0.922
0.836
0.877
0.801
0.955
0.900
0.937
0.834
0.899
0.800
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0.899
INT3
0.863
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Note: See Appendix for the items
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2: Discriminant Validity Assessment APP
CON
FAM
HEA
INT
MOD
NAT
PRC
WCT
FAM
0.498
0.596
HEA
0.262
0.372
0.272
INT
0.398
0.155
0.272
0.303
MOD
0.688
0.567
0.603
0.418
0.332
NAT
0.179
0.231
0.251
0.575
0.266
PRC
0.507
0.487
0.658
0.296
0.379
WCT
0.148
0.379
0.324
0.733
0.184
SC
0.327
0.199 0.423
0.350
0.234
0.595
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CON
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APP
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Note: Criteria: discriminant validity is established at HTMT0.85
0.376
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 3: Beta Coefficient between Constructs S.E.
f2
APP INT
0.182*
0.102
0.023
CON INT
-0.086
0.085
0.005
FAM INT
0.011
0.099
0.000
HEA INT
0.206*
0.110
MOD INT
0.078
0.109
NAT INT
0.111
0.090
PRC INT
0.209*
0.099
0.031
WCT INT
-0.122
0.097
0.008
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0.023 0.003 0.010
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*p <0.05
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Beta