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Contemporary use of bark for medicine by two salishan native elders of Southeast Vancouver Island, Canada
Journal Elsevier
of Ethnopharmacology, Scientific Publishers
59
29 (1990) 59-72 Ireland Ltd.
CONTEMPORARY USE OF BARK FOR MEDICINE BY TWO SALISHAN NATIVE ELDERS OF SOUTHEAST VANCOUVER ISLAND, CANADA
NANCY Botany (Accepted
J. TURNER Unit, Royal November
and RICHARD British
Columbia
J. HEBDA Museum,
Victoria,
B.C. MV
1X4 (Canada)
10, 1989)
Summary
Elders of the Saanich and Cowichan Coast Salish people of southern Vancouver Island treat, or have treated in the recent past, many ailments with bark preparations. Interviews with two elder Salishan women revealed that: respiratory ailments were treated with bark of Abies grandis, Arbutus menziesii, Cornus nuttallii, Prunus emarginata, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Quercus garryana; digestive tract ailments with the bark of Abies grandis, Alnus rubra, Arbutus menxiesii, Malus fusca, Oemleria cerasiformis, Populus tremuloides, Pseudotsuga menziesii Rhamnus purshianus and Rubus spectabilis; gynaecological problems with bark of Abies grandis, Arbutus menxiesii, Populus tremuloides, Prunus emarginata, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Sambucus racemosa; and dermatological complaints with the bark of Mahonia spp., Rubus spectabilis, and Symphoricarpos albus. Tree barks have also been used to treat fevers, diabetes, kidney
problems, sore eyes, and haemorrhaging, and also as general tonics. Two recipes for general-purpose multi-bark medicines are provided. In most cases, infusions or decoctions of barks are used. The medicines are drunk or applied externally as a wash.
Introduction
Bark preparations have provided medicines for many centuries in Europe and Asia. For example, John Gerarde (1633, p. 13921 wrote concerning willow bark (Salix spp.1, “The bark hath like vertues: Dioscorides writeth, that this being burnt to ashes, and steeped in vinegar, takes away comes and other like risings in the feet and toes.. .” Of black alder (Alnus nigra), he reported (p. 14671, “The inner barke hereof is used of divers country men, who drink the infusion thereof when they would be purged: it purgeth
60
thicke phlegmaticke humors, and also cholericke.. . the same barke being boiled in wine or vinegar made a lotion for the tooth ache and is commended against scabs and filthinesse of the skin.” North American native peoples also used bark medicine widely (Arnason et al., 1981; Moerman, 19861. Peoples of northwestern North America relied heavily on barks of trees and shrubs to treat a wide variety of ailments (Gunther, 1945; Turner and Bell, 1971, 1973; Turner et al., 1980; Turner, 1982; Turner and Efrat 1982; Turner et al., 1983; Turner, 1988, Turner et al., 1990). In this paper, we describe several traditional native bark medicines used by or known to two elder Salishan women, Violet Williams (VW) and Elsie Claxton (EC), the former Cowichan, the latter Saanich, from the Saanich Peninsula of southeast Vancouver Island. “Bark” refers to the portion of the woody exogenous stem or root that lies outside the cambium ring of a tree or shrub. The character of the bark - texture, colour, thickness - varies with the species, and with the age of the individual plant. Barks are widely used as drugs, even in the modern pharmaceutical industry (Claus et al., 19701. They are also well represented in Chinese herbal medicine. For example, in a study of about 260 dried herbal medicines from a Chinese herbal shop in Victoria, B.C., it was found that about 17% of the medicines consisted of bark and/or wood. The percentage would have been higher if woody roots and their barks had been included in the total (Turner et al., 19831. Bark is collected in various ways for medicine. Sometimes the outermost layer of bark, the periderm, is removed before the bark is used. As medicines, barks are applied externally, as poultices, salves, or washes, or internally, in the form of infusions (bark is steeped in hot or cold water) or decoctions (bark is boiled in water). Sometimes medicinal concoctions are used, composed of a mixture of barks or barks combined with other parts from different plant species. Barks contain a variety of pharmacologically active constituents (e.g., alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins, gums, and resins), as well as inert constituents (e.g. cellulose, lignin, suberin, and cutinl (Claus et al., 19701. The Saanich and Cowichan Indians of southeast Vancouver Island, British Columbia belong to two distinct but related language groups of the Salish Language Family, Straits Salish and Halkomelem (Fig. 11. Their populations are centered in several communities on the Saanich Peninsula, north of Victoria, and around the town of Duncan, respectively. There are many economic and cultural ties between Saanich and Cowichan, and many people speak both Straits Salish and Halkomelem. Saanich, together with Sooke, Lummi and Songish dialects, compose a northern Straits language subgroup, closely related to Clallam. Cowichan, Nanaimo and Chemainus dialects, in the Island Halkomelem language subgroup, are related to Upriver Halkomelem and Downriver Halkomelem subgroups of the Fraser Valley on the Mainland (Van Eijk, 19851. At least for older members of these groups, English was learned as a second, or even third language.
61
VANCOUVER ISLAND
Fig. 1. Map of study area.
Both Straits and Halkomelem language groups are classed within the Northwest Coast Culture Area, characterized by a traditional hunting-fishing-gathering economy, heavy dependence on the marine environment, and use of western red-cedar (Thuja plicata) as a major source of wood and fiber in technology (Turner, 1979). Plant foods - berries, roots and underground parts, and green vegetables - formed a significant part of their diet (Turner, 1975). Methodology
Beginning in the fall of 1987, we undertook a study of Saanich and Cowithan ethnobotany with Violet Williams (VW) of the Cole Bay Band (born and raised at Westholme near Duncan, and hence originally a Halkomelem speaker), and Elsie Claxton (EC), a lifelong member of the East Saanich Band. These women (Fig. 2) have known each other for many years. Both are familiar with and use many plants in traditional ways. Both speak English, but EC prefers to speak in her native Saanich dialect of Straits Salish and VW, who speaks both Straits and Cowichan Halkomelem,
62
Fig. 2. Violet Williams (right) and Elsie Claxton Saanich (Tsawout) Reserve, Vancouver Island.
(left), photographed
spring
of 1988 on the East
generally translates for her when speaking to us. They acquired their knowledge of native medicinal herbs mainly from their parents and grandparents, and although neither would regard herself as an herbal specialist, both have a good general knowledge of plant medicines and use them from time to time to treat their own ailments and those of family members. In the past, many medicinal preparations were regarded as the property of a family. Although prepared medicines might be sold or shared with others in the community, the actual ingredients and methods of preparation were often kept secret. Some people still feel that knowledge of traditional medicines should be restricted, but VW and EC feel that if it is not more widely shared it will be lost forever. We recorded information on tree bark medicines, together with other ethnobotanical information, during a series of interviews with EC and VW. We showed fresh plants or observed plants growing in the vicinity during our sessions to confirm the identity of the species being discussed. Voucher specimens as appropriate are deposited at the Royal British Columbia Museum Herbariim (VI. Results Barks the two
of at least 23 species from a variety of plant families are known Salishan elders we consulted, Elsie Claxton and Violet Williams,
to as
TABLE
63
1
TREES AND SHRUBS WHOSE BARK AND/OR COWICHAN NATIVE PEOPLE Species/voucher
No.
Trees: Gymnospermae Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. (Pinaceae) (Grand Fir) (V 141760) Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franc0 (Pinaceae) (Douglas-fir) (V 141740) Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae)
Nutt.
HAS
BEEN
USED
MEDICINALLY
BY SAANICH
Medicinal use and references”
inf of bk oleoresin drunk for venereal disease (VW); inf of bk drunk for colds, tuberculosis, stomach ailments, ulcers (can be sweetened with sugar) (VW, EC) bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine (Table 2)
inf or dec of bk oleoresin drunk for colds, tuberculosis, stomach ailments, ulcers, venereal disease (EC)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks”
medicine (Table 2)
(Western Yew) (V 141756) Tsuga heterophylla (Bong.) Carr. (Pinaceae) (Western Hemlock) (V 141745) Trees: Angiospermae Acer glabrum Torr. (Aceraceae) (Rocky Mountain Maple;
inf of bk drunk for any disease (EC); possible ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
dec of bk mixed with Oplopanax drunk for diabetes; dec of bk drunk for any kind of poisoning (VW)
called “vine Maple” by VW, EC) (V 141761) Acer macrophyllum Pursh (Aceraceae) (Broadleaf Maple) (V 141754)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks”
medicine;
imparted medicinal properties to Polypodium glycyrrhiza growing on it (EC)
Alnus rubra Bong. (Betulaceae) (Red Alder) (V 141753)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks” medicine: inf of bk said to be “good for the blood’ (EC); inner bk eaten raw as tonic, blood purifier, and stomach medicine, as well as food (VW)
Arbutus menziesii Pursh (Ericaceae) (Arbutus or Madrone) (V 141755)
inf of bk drunk for birth control, to “space” children (VW; EC); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; inf of bk drunk for colds (EC): inf of bk drunk for stomach problems and internal ailments (EC)
Cornus nuttallii Aud. ex T. & G. (Cornaceae) (Western Flowering Dogwood)
bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; dec of bk drunk for loss of appetite, coughing, tuberculosis (EC)
(V 141765)
64
TABLE
1 (Continued)
Species/voucher
No.
Medicinal
Malus fusca (Raf.)
use and references”
inf of bk drunk for kidney troubles, and digestive problems associated with heavy drinking (VW; EC); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; dec of bk drunk for poor appetite (EC)
Schneider (Rosaceae) (Pacific Crab Apple) (V 141737) Pop&s tremuloides A. Michx. (Salicaceae) (Trembling Aspen) (V 141748)
inf of bk drunk for “any” internal ailment (e.g., stomachache, “rotten insides”), and as contraceptive (EC; VW); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
Prunus emarginata (D. Dougl. ex Hook.) Walpers (Rosaceae) (Bitter Cherry)
bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine: inf t? dec) of bk drunk as contraceptive bk drunk for sore throat (EC)
(VW); inf of
(V 141746) bk an ingredient in “four-barks” medicine; inf of bk drunk for tuberculosis (EC; VW); bk taken for haemorrhaging (EC); imparted medicinal properties to Polypodium glycyrrhiza growing on it (EC)
Quercus garryana D. Doug. ex Hook. (Fagaceae) (Garry Oak) (V 141744) Rhamnus purshianus (Rhamnaceae) (Cascara) (V 141735)
inf of bk drunk as laxative (“cleans your stomach”) (EC, VW); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
DC.
Salix spp. (Saiicaceae) (Willows) (V 141742-S. lasiandra Benth.; V 141750-S. Barratt) Shrubs:
inf of bk drunk an ingredient
for fever (VW; EC); bk (S. lasiandra) in “ten-barks” medicine
scouleriana
Angiospermae
Amelanchier alnifolia (Nutt.) Nutt. (Rosaceae) (Saskatoon) (V 141749) Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. (V 141751) and M. nervosa (Pursh) Nutt. (V 141759)
bk an ingredient
in “ten-barks”
medicine
(EC)
(EC)
dec of br (with bk) drunk sterility (VW)
for acne,
but said to cause
(Berberidaceae) (Oregon-grapes) Oemleria cerasiformis (H. & A.) Landon (Rosaceae) (Indian-plum) (V 141743)
inf of bk drunk for diarrhoea (VW; EC); bk an ingredient
and as purgative in “ten-barks” medicine
65
TABLE
1 (Continued)
Species/voucher
No.
Medicinal
use and references”
Oplopanax horridus (J.E. Smith) Miq. (Araliaceae) (Devil’sclub) (V 141764)
dec of bk with Acer (VW)
Rosa nutkana Presl (Rosaceae)
dec of br bk used as eyewash
globrum
bk drunk
to clear
for diabetes
the eyes (VW; EC)
(Nootka Rose) (V 141734) Rubus spectabilis
dec of br bk drunk for diarrhoeab as poultice for cuts and wounds
Pursh (Rosaceae) (Salmonberry) (V 141758) Sambucus racemosa (Caprifoliaceae) (Red Elderberry) (V 141741)
L.
Symphoricarpos albus CL.1 Blake (Caprifoliaceae) (Snowberry or Waxberry) (V 141736)
inf of bk drunk
inf of bk used
during
labour
as external
wash
(VW; EC); bk used (VW)
to bring
on birth
(VW)
for bad itching
(VW)
“Botanical nomenclature follows Taylor and MacBryde (1977). All vouchers were verified by EC and/or VW. Abbreviations used in table are as follows: bk, bark; br branchtes); inf, infusion; dec, decoction. “Inf of flowers and fruits of Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Maxim. (Oceanspray; V 141738) also used for diarrhoea.
having medicinal uses (Table 1). All are common, well known trees or shrubs of northwestern North America. The barks are used as medicine either singly or in mixtures with other barks and plant parts. Recipes for special “four-barks” and “ten-barks” medicines (our names for them) belonging to VW and EC are provided in Table 2. Ailments treated with bark medicines range from skin and eye complaints to internal problems involving the respiratory, circulatory, gastrointestinal, and urinary systems. The medicines also include gynaecological aids, for labour and childbirth, abortive agents (abortifacients), tonics for the maintenance of health, and antidotes to poisons. Four of a possible 10 locally available conifer species were found to be used: Abies grandis, Pseudotsuga menxiesii, Taxus brevifolia and Tsuga heterophylla Of these, A. grandis (Fig. 3) was widely employed, being applied in at least six individual treatments. Pseudotsuga bark and oleoresin was said
66 TABLE
2
RECIPES
FOR SPECIAL
A. ‘%our-barks”
“MANY
BARKS”
MEDICINES
medicine for internal ailments
lprovided by Violet Williams):
Gather in the early morning, from the sunrise side of the tree: Barks (several strips each) of: Acer macrophyllum, Quercus garryana, Alnus rubra and Taxus brevifolia Mix together in a large pot with: Rhizomes of Polypodium glycyrrhiza D.C. Eat. (Licorice Fern; V 141739) (washed clean) and/ or leaves of Rubus ursinus Cham. & Schlect. (Trailing Wild Blackberry; V 1417471 (these are added to “sweeten” the medicine). Pour boiling water brownish colour.
over the mixture and simmer on the stove until the solution Strain and pour into sterilized jars. Cool to room temperature.
Drink about 250 ml (1 cup) per day until ration and use as required. Use for the following ailments: - anything wrong with stomach
medicine
or digestive
is used
tract,
up. If ailment
such
as ulcer
persists,
or liver
becomes
continue
prepa-
deterioration
from
a
excessive drinking _ tuberculosis - kidney problems. B. “Ten-barks” Gather the morning;
medicine for tuberculosis
following ingredients best in spring):
(barks
and scrofula sores (provided by Elsie Claxtonl: from
the
sunrise
side
of the
Abies grandis (long strip of bark); Amelanchier alnifolia (strip of bark); Arbutus menziesii (long strip of bark, about 60 cm); Cornus nuttallii (strip of bark); Malus fusca (strip of bark); Oemleria cerasifonnis (stick about 30 cm long; said to work on your Populus tremuloides (long strip of bark); Prunus emarginata (strip of bark from bottom part of tree); Rham.nus purshiana (strip of bark); Salix lasiandra (“Pussy Willow”; long strip of bark); Tsuga heterophylla (strip of bark; suggested during
and (possibly) one interview
tree,
taken
early
in the
blood);
as an ingredient
by EC)
Cut barks and sticks into pieces, and boil together with a piece of rhizome of Polypodium glycyrrhiza about 20 cm long, preferably growing on a trunk or branch of Acer macrophyllum. (The rhizome was considered a sweetener, but also to have some medicinal properties.1 Boil the materials for a long time, until the liquid is black and “really strong”. Pour into sterilized jars. Cool to room temperature. Have patient drink about 250 ml (1 cup) per day until medicine is used up. Continue preparation and use as required, until affliction is healed. Use for the following ailments: - tuberculosis - spitting up blood - sores from scrofula and other (This medicine came originally from husband passed it on to her.)
venereal
diseases.
EC’s father-in-law.
Note: These medicines should not be taken scribed by a physician - VW.
with
any
He passed
other
it on t.o EC’s husband,
medicines,
such
and her
as antibiotics,
pre-
67
Fig. 3. Bark
of Abies
grundis,
showing
prominent
pitch
blisters.
to have been similarly effective for these treatments (EC). Notably unused was the bark of Thuja plicata, a widely available species which was extremely important as a material in Northwest Coast traditional technology (Turner, 1979). All but one major deciduous tree of the region (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) provided bark for one medicinal purpose or another. Possibly P. balsamifera was used by some Saanich or Cowichan people, as it was by some other Northwest Coast groups, but neither EC nor VW knew of any medicinal application for the bark. Arbutus menziesii (Fig. 4) and Alnus rubra barks each served in several, diverse treatments, and barks of Malus fusca, Pop&s tremuloides and Quercus garryana were also prominent. Ten of the 11 deciduous tree species were used in one or both bark mixtures (Table 2). A further eight deciduous shrub taxa supplied bark or branches with bark for medicinal purposes, and two were ingredients in the “ten-barks” mixture.
Fig. 4. Arbutus
menziesii
bark,
the outer
layer
of which
sheds
annually.
Six of 23 - over 25 per cent - of the species or taxa used as bark medicines by EC and VW belong to the Rosaceae (including Malus fusca, Prunus emarginata, Amelanchier alnifolia, Oemleria cerasiformis, Rosa nutkana and Rubus spectabilis). This seems a relatively high proportion of the total available bark-bearing plants. Northwest Coast Native people generally believe that the “real medicine” is contained in the softer, moister, lighter coloured inner portion of the bark, rather than in the hard, usually darker outer bark (VW; EC). Like other Northwest Coast groups, the Saanich and Cowichan respect medicinal plants and their curative powers. Herbal medicines were and are harvested and prepared with care and with a certain degree of ritual. The secrecy surrounding the preparation of some medicines is a reflection of their special status; some people feel that they will lose their curative powers if too many people try to use them (Turner et al., 1983). For maximum effectiveness, tree bark medicines are usually harvested in the early morning, before the harvester has eaten, and the bark is cut from
69
the side of the tree on which the first rays of the morning sun shine. This is a practice common to many Northwest Coast groups (Turner et al., 19831. Some people say that the bark grows faster and heals over more quickly on the sunny side of the tree, and hence this practice is important from a conservation standpoint (EC, VW; T. Sampson, Tsartlip Reserve, personal communication, 19891. Furthermore, only a small strip is harvested from each tree; this also speeds up the tree’s healing. VW and EC commented that a patient’s sore, wound, or other ailment will heal just as the tree itself heals (VW, EC). Medicinal barks are used fresh, or can be dried for later use. Sometimes, especially if more than one ingredient is involved in a preparation or if it is to be prepared by a non-specialist, pre-measured quantities of the dried ingredients are placed together in packages or bundles, to be made up to a given quantity in an infusion or deco&ion. When VW’s son was sick with a liver ailment recently, VW prepared nine pre-measured packages of special “four-barks” medicine for him (see Table 21. With each, he could make up about 5 1 (1 gal.), lasting him nearly three weeks at a dose of about 250 ml (1 cup) per day. The same medicine, pre-measured to make up eight batches of 5 1 each, was given by VW to her sister to take to Seattle in order to treat her sister’s son’s bleeding ulcer. He drank four batches of the medicine, and his non-Indian friend, who also suffered from a bleeding ulcer, drank the other four. Both were cured, according to VW. VW’s son, unfortunately, died from his liver condition despite the medicine.
Fig. 5. Oemleria
cerasiformis
branches
with flowers.
70
VW and EC have either taken themselves, or had seen administered to someone in their family, virtually all the bark medicines listed in Table 1. For example, VW was given an infusion of Sambucus racemosa bark by her sister as a childbirth medicine. VW had been in Burlington, Washington picking berries, when she went into labour. Her labour went on “for days”, and she was haemorrhaging badly, but still the baby would not come. (She was not able to consult a medical doctor because of the cost.) Her sister arrived, and asked VW’s husband to collect elderberry bark, which she used to make a “tea”. She made up about a quart (i.e., just over 1 1) and gave it to VW to drink while it was still warm. VW drank it all, and within half an hour a healthy baby girl was born. The multi-bark medicines in Table 2 have been used repeatedly by VW or EC and their families. The “four-barks” medicine was used by VW’s father and later by herself to treat several types of internal ailments: stomach and digestive tract, tuberculosis, and kidney problems. The “ten-barks” medicine, for tuberculosis and venereal disease sores, came originally from EC’s husband’s father, who passed it on to her husband, and he in turn passed it on to her. VW recalled that her father used to treat people, one young man in particular, with his “four-barks” medicine, but he insisted that the actual ingredients and recipe be kept secret, because it was a family medicine. He was always willing to make it up for those who needed it. Finally, VW gave the recipe to the young patient’s wife, because she felt it would be much easier for them if they could make it themselves. EC knew a man who had really ugly sores and lumps all around his mouth and face, from venereal disease. He took her father-in-law’s “tenbarks” medicine, and was healed. She also recalled a woman who had tuberculosis many years ago, when she was young. The disease was so bad the girl could not walk. She took the “ten-barks” medicine and recovered completely. She died only recently, having survived to her senior years. EC took the “ten-barks” medicine once herself, and said it was very strong tasting. She vomited the first dose, then was able to keep down the second dose; it cured her from spitting up blood. Discussion A comparison of the Saanich and Cowichan bark medicines known to EC and VW with those of other Saanich and Halkomelem peoples, and of Northwest Coast peoples in general, will be presented in a subsequent paper. Preliminary observation shows that several are, or were, widely used. Furthermore, barks of all 23 species listed in Table 1, except Oemleria, are used medicinally by one or more Native groups elsewhere in North America (Moerman, 1986). Current use of traditional medicines by the two Salishan elders we consulted, and as reported in other recent work done elsewhere in British Col-
71
umbia (Turner et al., 1980; Turner and Efrat, 1982; Turner et al., 1983; Turner, 19881, indicates that traditional medicine using native plants is still being practiced to a significant extent in the region. Although the use of native medicines has diminished within the lifetimes of the present grandparent generation, medicinal knowledge has not disappeared. In some cases, there has been a revival of the use of native herbal medicines among younger people. The role of traditional medicine should not be overlooked by health care workers (Bannerman et al., 19831. Even in western Canada, where scientific medicine is well developed and “western” health care widely available, there are many people who prefer alternate, traditional healing for some types of ailments, or for the maintenance of health. This fact alone should be enough to make health care administrators and practitioners alert to the important and continuing role of traditional medicine, including the bark medicines reported here. These medicines are not necessarily incompatible with “western” scientific healing methods. Health care systems that recognize and utilize traditional healing together with scientific healing are not only possible, but may sometimes be more successful than scientific healing alone. Conclusions Barks of trees and shrubs have been, and still are, a prominent raw material in Native folk medicine. Two elders of Saanich and Cowichan Coast Salish language groups of southern Vancouver Island provided information on use of barks to treat respiratory ailments, digestive tract ailments, diabetes, fevers, gynaecological problems, sore eyes and dermatological complaints. Barks have also served as general tonics and “strengthening” medicines. A general medicine made from a concoction of four barks (Acer macrophyllum, Quercus garryana, Alnus rub-a and Taxus brevifolia) is still used to treat ailments of the digestive tract, lungs and kidneys, and another, composed of barks of ten different species, has been used recently to treat spitting of blood and other complaints. Commonly, infusions or decoctions of the barks are prepared, and drunk or used as an external wash. Knowledge of traditional medicines such as the bark medicines reported here has diminished but not disappeared in contemporary Native cultures. There is a general lack of information on the chemical and pharmacological properties of most of the barks reported here as being used medicinally. Further studies are required before an evaluation of their pharmacological activity could be made, but Native people who use them have a high degree of confidence in their effectiveness. Acknowledgements We are grateful
to Violet Williams of Cole Bay (Paquachinl
and Elsie Clax-
72
ton of East Saanich (Tsawout) for sharing their knowledge and expertise so generously. Tom Sampson is thanked for his comment on the healing of tree bark. Our thanks also go to Randy Bouchard of Victoria, and Dr. Robin Marles and Dr. Thor Arnason, both of the University of Ottawa, Ontario, for their helpful comments on the manuscript. Funding for this project was provided in part by the Royal British Columbia Museum. References Arnason, T., Hebda, R.J. and Johns, T. (1981) Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples of eastern Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany 59, 2189-2325. Bannerman, R.H., Burton, J. and Wen-Chieh, C. (1983) Traditional Medicine and Health Care Coverage. World Health Organization, Geneva. Claus, E.P., Tyler, V.E. and Brady, L.R. (1970) Pharmacognosy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Gerarde, J. (1633) The Herbal1 or General1 Historic of Plantes. (Enlarged by T. Johnson). Original printed by Adam Islip Joice Norton and Richard Whitakers, London (Facsimile reprod. 1975 by Dover Publications, Inc., New York.), pp. 1392, 1467. Gunther, E. (1945; revised 1973) Ethnobotany of Western Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle. Moerman, D.E. (1986) Medicinal Plants of Native America (2 Vol.) University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology Technical Report No. 19, Ann Arbor, MI. Taylor, R.L. and MacBryde, B. (1977) Vascular Plants of British Columbia University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. Turner, N.J. (1975) Food Plants of British Columbia Indians. Part 1. Coastal Peoples. British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria. Turner, N.J. (1979) Plants in British Columbia Indian Technology. British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook No. 38, Victoria. Turner, N.J. (1982) Traditional use of devil’s_club (Oplopanaz horridus; Araliaceae) by native peoples in western North America. Journal of Ethnobiology 2, 17-38. Turner, N.J. 0988) Ethnobotany of coniferous trees in Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish of British Columbia. Economic Botany 42, 177- 194. Turner, N.J. and Bell, M.A.M. (1971) The ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver Island. Economic Botany 25, 63- 104. Turner, N.J. and Bell, M.A.M. (1973) The ethnobotany of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia. Economic Botany 27, 257-310. Turner, N.J., Bouchard, R. and Kennedy, D.I.D. (1980) Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 21. Turner, N.J.. Chapman, J. and Marchand, J. (1983) Identification of Chinese Herbs from a Contemporary Herbalist Shop at Victoria, British Columbia Report to History Division, British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria. Turner, N.J. and Efrat, B.S. (1982) Ethnobotany of the Hesquiat People of the West Coast of Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial Museum Cuitural Recovery Paper No. 2. Turner, N.J. Thomas, J., Carlson, B.F. and Ogilvie, R.T. (198.1) Ethntibotany of the h’itinaht Indians of Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 24. Turner, N.J., Thompson, L.C., Thompson, M.T. and York, A.Z. (1990) Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum Memoir, No. 3. Van Eijk, J.P. (1985) The Lillooet Language. Phonology - Morphology - Syntax. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Linguistics, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
of Ethnopharmacology, Scientific Publishers
59
29 (1990) 59-72 Ireland Ltd.
CONTEMPORARY USE OF BARK FOR MEDICINE BY TWO SALISHAN NATIVE ELDERS OF SOUTHEAST VANCOUVER ISLAND, CANADA
NANCY Botany (Accepted
J. TURNER Unit, Royal November
and RICHARD British
Columbia
J. HEBDA Museum,
Victoria,
B.C. MV
1X4 (Canada)
10, 1989)
Summary
Elders of the Saanich and Cowichan Coast Salish people of southern Vancouver Island treat, or have treated in the recent past, many ailments with bark preparations. Interviews with two elder Salishan women revealed that: respiratory ailments were treated with bark of Abies grandis, Arbutus menziesii, Cornus nuttallii, Prunus emarginata, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Quercus garryana; digestive tract ailments with the bark of Abies grandis, Alnus rubra, Arbutus menxiesii, Malus fusca, Oemleria cerasiformis, Populus tremuloides, Pseudotsuga menziesii Rhamnus purshianus and Rubus spectabilis; gynaecological problems with bark of Abies grandis, Arbutus menxiesii, Populus tremuloides, Prunus emarginata, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Sambucus racemosa; and dermatological complaints with the bark of Mahonia spp., Rubus spectabilis, and Symphoricarpos albus. Tree barks have also been used to treat fevers, diabetes, kidney
problems, sore eyes, and haemorrhaging, and also as general tonics. Two recipes for general-purpose multi-bark medicines are provided. In most cases, infusions or decoctions of barks are used. The medicines are drunk or applied externally as a wash.
Introduction
Bark preparations have provided medicines for many centuries in Europe and Asia. For example, John Gerarde (1633, p. 13921 wrote concerning willow bark (Salix spp.1, “The bark hath like vertues: Dioscorides writeth, that this being burnt to ashes, and steeped in vinegar, takes away comes and other like risings in the feet and toes.. .” Of black alder (Alnus nigra), he reported (p. 14671, “The inner barke hereof is used of divers country men, who drink the infusion thereof when they would be purged: it purgeth
60
thicke phlegmaticke humors, and also cholericke.. . the same barke being boiled in wine or vinegar made a lotion for the tooth ache and is commended against scabs and filthinesse of the skin.” North American native peoples also used bark medicine widely (Arnason et al., 1981; Moerman, 19861. Peoples of northwestern North America relied heavily on barks of trees and shrubs to treat a wide variety of ailments (Gunther, 1945; Turner and Bell, 1971, 1973; Turner et al., 1980; Turner, 1982; Turner and Efrat 1982; Turner et al., 1983; Turner, 1988, Turner et al., 1990). In this paper, we describe several traditional native bark medicines used by or known to two elder Salishan women, Violet Williams (VW) and Elsie Claxton (EC), the former Cowichan, the latter Saanich, from the Saanich Peninsula of southeast Vancouver Island. “Bark” refers to the portion of the woody exogenous stem or root that lies outside the cambium ring of a tree or shrub. The character of the bark - texture, colour, thickness - varies with the species, and with the age of the individual plant. Barks are widely used as drugs, even in the modern pharmaceutical industry (Claus et al., 19701. They are also well represented in Chinese herbal medicine. For example, in a study of about 260 dried herbal medicines from a Chinese herbal shop in Victoria, B.C., it was found that about 17% of the medicines consisted of bark and/or wood. The percentage would have been higher if woody roots and their barks had been included in the total (Turner et al., 19831. Bark is collected in various ways for medicine. Sometimes the outermost layer of bark, the periderm, is removed before the bark is used. As medicines, barks are applied externally, as poultices, salves, or washes, or internally, in the form of infusions (bark is steeped in hot or cold water) or decoctions (bark is boiled in water). Sometimes medicinal concoctions are used, composed of a mixture of barks or barks combined with other parts from different plant species. Barks contain a variety of pharmacologically active constituents (e.g., alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins, gums, and resins), as well as inert constituents (e.g. cellulose, lignin, suberin, and cutinl (Claus et al., 19701. The Saanich and Cowichan Indians of southeast Vancouver Island, British Columbia belong to two distinct but related language groups of the Salish Language Family, Straits Salish and Halkomelem (Fig. 11. Their populations are centered in several communities on the Saanich Peninsula, north of Victoria, and around the town of Duncan, respectively. There are many economic and cultural ties between Saanich and Cowichan, and many people speak both Straits Salish and Halkomelem. Saanich, together with Sooke, Lummi and Songish dialects, compose a northern Straits language subgroup, closely related to Clallam. Cowichan, Nanaimo and Chemainus dialects, in the Island Halkomelem language subgroup, are related to Upriver Halkomelem and Downriver Halkomelem subgroups of the Fraser Valley on the Mainland (Van Eijk, 19851. At least for older members of these groups, English was learned as a second, or even third language.
61
VANCOUVER ISLAND
Fig. 1. Map of study area.
Both Straits and Halkomelem language groups are classed within the Northwest Coast Culture Area, characterized by a traditional hunting-fishing-gathering economy, heavy dependence on the marine environment, and use of western red-cedar (Thuja plicata) as a major source of wood and fiber in technology (Turner, 1979). Plant foods - berries, roots and underground parts, and green vegetables - formed a significant part of their diet (Turner, 1975). Methodology
Beginning in the fall of 1987, we undertook a study of Saanich and Cowithan ethnobotany with Violet Williams (VW) of the Cole Bay Band (born and raised at Westholme near Duncan, and hence originally a Halkomelem speaker), and Elsie Claxton (EC), a lifelong member of the East Saanich Band. These women (Fig. 2) have known each other for many years. Both are familiar with and use many plants in traditional ways. Both speak English, but EC prefers to speak in her native Saanich dialect of Straits Salish and VW, who speaks both Straits and Cowichan Halkomelem,
62
Fig. 2. Violet Williams (right) and Elsie Claxton Saanich (Tsawout) Reserve, Vancouver Island.
(left), photographed
spring
of 1988 on the East
generally translates for her when speaking to us. They acquired their knowledge of native medicinal herbs mainly from their parents and grandparents, and although neither would regard herself as an herbal specialist, both have a good general knowledge of plant medicines and use them from time to time to treat their own ailments and those of family members. In the past, many medicinal preparations were regarded as the property of a family. Although prepared medicines might be sold or shared with others in the community, the actual ingredients and methods of preparation were often kept secret. Some people still feel that knowledge of traditional medicines should be restricted, but VW and EC feel that if it is not more widely shared it will be lost forever. We recorded information on tree bark medicines, together with other ethnobotanical information, during a series of interviews with EC and VW. We showed fresh plants or observed plants growing in the vicinity during our sessions to confirm the identity of the species being discussed. Voucher specimens as appropriate are deposited at the Royal British Columbia Museum Herbariim (VI. Results Barks the two
of at least 23 species from a variety of plant families are known Salishan elders we consulted, Elsie Claxton and Violet Williams,
to as
TABLE
63
1
TREES AND SHRUBS WHOSE BARK AND/OR COWICHAN NATIVE PEOPLE Species/voucher
No.
Trees: Gymnospermae Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. (Pinaceae) (Grand Fir) (V 141760) Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franc0 (Pinaceae) (Douglas-fir) (V 141740) Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae)
Nutt.
HAS
BEEN
USED
MEDICINALLY
BY SAANICH
Medicinal use and references”
inf of bk oleoresin drunk for venereal disease (VW); inf of bk drunk for colds, tuberculosis, stomach ailments, ulcers (can be sweetened with sugar) (VW, EC) bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine (Table 2)
inf or dec of bk oleoresin drunk for colds, tuberculosis, stomach ailments, ulcers, venereal disease (EC)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks”
medicine (Table 2)
(Western Yew) (V 141756) Tsuga heterophylla (Bong.) Carr. (Pinaceae) (Western Hemlock) (V 141745) Trees: Angiospermae Acer glabrum Torr. (Aceraceae) (Rocky Mountain Maple;
inf of bk drunk for any disease (EC); possible ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
dec of bk mixed with Oplopanax drunk for diabetes; dec of bk drunk for any kind of poisoning (VW)
called “vine Maple” by VW, EC) (V 141761) Acer macrophyllum Pursh (Aceraceae) (Broadleaf Maple) (V 141754)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks”
medicine;
imparted medicinal properties to Polypodium glycyrrhiza growing on it (EC)
Alnus rubra Bong. (Betulaceae) (Red Alder) (V 141753)
bk an ingredient in “four-barks” medicine: inf of bk said to be “good for the blood’ (EC); inner bk eaten raw as tonic, blood purifier, and stomach medicine, as well as food (VW)
Arbutus menziesii Pursh (Ericaceae) (Arbutus or Madrone) (V 141755)
inf of bk drunk for birth control, to “space” children (VW; EC); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; inf of bk drunk for colds (EC): inf of bk drunk for stomach problems and internal ailments (EC)
Cornus nuttallii Aud. ex T. & G. (Cornaceae) (Western Flowering Dogwood)
bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; dec of bk drunk for loss of appetite, coughing, tuberculosis (EC)
(V 141765)
64
TABLE
1 (Continued)
Species/voucher
No.
Medicinal
Malus fusca (Raf.)
use and references”
inf of bk drunk for kidney troubles, and digestive problems associated with heavy drinking (VW; EC); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine; dec of bk drunk for poor appetite (EC)
Schneider (Rosaceae) (Pacific Crab Apple) (V 141737) Pop&s tremuloides A. Michx. (Salicaceae) (Trembling Aspen) (V 141748)
inf of bk drunk for “any” internal ailment (e.g., stomachache, “rotten insides”), and as contraceptive (EC; VW); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
Prunus emarginata (D. Dougl. ex Hook.) Walpers (Rosaceae) (Bitter Cherry)
bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine: inf t? dec) of bk drunk as contraceptive bk drunk for sore throat (EC)
(VW); inf of
(V 141746) bk an ingredient in “four-barks” medicine; inf of bk drunk for tuberculosis (EC; VW); bk taken for haemorrhaging (EC); imparted medicinal properties to Polypodium glycyrrhiza growing on it (EC)
Quercus garryana D. Doug. ex Hook. (Fagaceae) (Garry Oak) (V 141744) Rhamnus purshianus (Rhamnaceae) (Cascara) (V 141735)
inf of bk drunk as laxative (“cleans your stomach”) (EC, VW); bk an ingredient in “ten-barks” medicine
DC.
Salix spp. (Saiicaceae) (Willows) (V 141742-S. lasiandra Benth.; V 141750-S. Barratt) Shrubs:
inf of bk drunk an ingredient
for fever (VW; EC); bk (S. lasiandra) in “ten-barks” medicine
scouleriana
Angiospermae
Amelanchier alnifolia (Nutt.) Nutt. (Rosaceae) (Saskatoon) (V 141749) Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. (V 141751) and M. nervosa (Pursh) Nutt. (V 141759)
bk an ingredient
in “ten-barks”
medicine
(EC)
(EC)
dec of br (with bk) drunk sterility (VW)
for acne,
but said to cause
(Berberidaceae) (Oregon-grapes) Oemleria cerasiformis (H. & A.) Landon (Rosaceae) (Indian-plum) (V 141743)
inf of bk drunk for diarrhoea (VW; EC); bk an ingredient
and as purgative in “ten-barks” medicine
65
TABLE
1 (Continued)
Species/voucher
No.
Medicinal
use and references”
Oplopanax horridus (J.E. Smith) Miq. (Araliaceae) (Devil’sclub) (V 141764)
dec of bk with Acer (VW)
Rosa nutkana Presl (Rosaceae)
dec of br bk used as eyewash
globrum
bk drunk
to clear
for diabetes
the eyes (VW; EC)
(Nootka Rose) (V 141734) Rubus spectabilis
dec of br bk drunk for diarrhoeab as poultice for cuts and wounds
Pursh (Rosaceae) (Salmonberry) (V 141758) Sambucus racemosa (Caprifoliaceae) (Red Elderberry) (V 141741)
L.
Symphoricarpos albus CL.1 Blake (Caprifoliaceae) (Snowberry or Waxberry) (V 141736)
inf of bk drunk
inf of bk used
during
labour
as external
wash
(VW; EC); bk used (VW)
to bring
on birth
(VW)
for bad itching
(VW)
“Botanical nomenclature follows Taylor and MacBryde (1977). All vouchers were verified by EC and/or VW. Abbreviations used in table are as follows: bk, bark; br branchtes); inf, infusion; dec, decoction. “Inf of flowers and fruits of Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Maxim. (Oceanspray; V 141738) also used for diarrhoea.
having medicinal uses (Table 1). All are common, well known trees or shrubs of northwestern North America. The barks are used as medicine either singly or in mixtures with other barks and plant parts. Recipes for special “four-barks” and “ten-barks” medicines (our names for them) belonging to VW and EC are provided in Table 2. Ailments treated with bark medicines range from skin and eye complaints to internal problems involving the respiratory, circulatory, gastrointestinal, and urinary systems. The medicines also include gynaecological aids, for labour and childbirth, abortive agents (abortifacients), tonics for the maintenance of health, and antidotes to poisons. Four of a possible 10 locally available conifer species were found to be used: Abies grandis, Pseudotsuga menxiesii, Taxus brevifolia and Tsuga heterophylla Of these, A. grandis (Fig. 3) was widely employed, being applied in at least six individual treatments. Pseudotsuga bark and oleoresin was said
66 TABLE
2
RECIPES
FOR SPECIAL
A. ‘%our-barks”
“MANY
BARKS”
MEDICINES
medicine for internal ailments
lprovided by Violet Williams):
Gather in the early morning, from the sunrise side of the tree: Barks (several strips each) of: Acer macrophyllum, Quercus garryana, Alnus rubra and Taxus brevifolia Mix together in a large pot with: Rhizomes of Polypodium glycyrrhiza D.C. Eat. (Licorice Fern; V 141739) (washed clean) and/ or leaves of Rubus ursinus Cham. & Schlect. (Trailing Wild Blackberry; V 1417471 (these are added to “sweeten” the medicine). Pour boiling water brownish colour.
over the mixture and simmer on the stove until the solution Strain and pour into sterilized jars. Cool to room temperature.
Drink about 250 ml (1 cup) per day until ration and use as required. Use for the following ailments: - anything wrong with stomach
medicine
or digestive
is used
tract,
up. If ailment
such
as ulcer
persists,
or liver
becomes
continue
prepa-
deterioration
from
a
excessive drinking _ tuberculosis - kidney problems. B. “Ten-barks” Gather the morning;
medicine for tuberculosis
following ingredients best in spring):
(barks
and scrofula sores (provided by Elsie Claxtonl: from
the
sunrise
side
of the
Abies grandis (long strip of bark); Amelanchier alnifolia (strip of bark); Arbutus menziesii (long strip of bark, about 60 cm); Cornus nuttallii (strip of bark); Malus fusca (strip of bark); Oemleria cerasifonnis (stick about 30 cm long; said to work on your Populus tremuloides (long strip of bark); Prunus emarginata (strip of bark from bottom part of tree); Rham.nus purshiana (strip of bark); Salix lasiandra (“Pussy Willow”; long strip of bark); Tsuga heterophylla (strip of bark; suggested during
and (possibly) one interview
tree,
taken
early
in the
blood);
as an ingredient
by EC)
Cut barks and sticks into pieces, and boil together with a piece of rhizome of Polypodium glycyrrhiza about 20 cm long, preferably growing on a trunk or branch of Acer macrophyllum. (The rhizome was considered a sweetener, but also to have some medicinal properties.1 Boil the materials for a long time, until the liquid is black and “really strong”. Pour into sterilized jars. Cool to room temperature. Have patient drink about 250 ml (1 cup) per day until medicine is used up. Continue preparation and use as required, until affliction is healed. Use for the following ailments: - tuberculosis - spitting up blood - sores from scrofula and other (This medicine came originally from husband passed it on to her.)
venereal
diseases.
EC’s father-in-law.
Note: These medicines should not be taken scribed by a physician - VW.
with
any
He passed
other
it on t.o EC’s husband,
medicines,
such
and her
as antibiotics,
pre-
67
Fig. 3. Bark
of Abies
grundis,
showing
prominent
pitch
blisters.
to have been similarly effective for these treatments (EC). Notably unused was the bark of Thuja plicata, a widely available species which was extremely important as a material in Northwest Coast traditional technology (Turner, 1979). All but one major deciduous tree of the region (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) provided bark for one medicinal purpose or another. Possibly P. balsamifera was used by some Saanich or Cowichan people, as it was by some other Northwest Coast groups, but neither EC nor VW knew of any medicinal application for the bark. Arbutus menziesii (Fig. 4) and Alnus rubra barks each served in several, diverse treatments, and barks of Malus fusca, Pop&s tremuloides and Quercus garryana were also prominent. Ten of the 11 deciduous tree species were used in one or both bark mixtures (Table 2). A further eight deciduous shrub taxa supplied bark or branches with bark for medicinal purposes, and two were ingredients in the “ten-barks” mixture.
Fig. 4. Arbutus
menziesii
bark,
the outer
layer
of which
sheds
annually.
Six of 23 - over 25 per cent - of the species or taxa used as bark medicines by EC and VW belong to the Rosaceae (including Malus fusca, Prunus emarginata, Amelanchier alnifolia, Oemleria cerasiformis, Rosa nutkana and Rubus spectabilis). This seems a relatively high proportion of the total available bark-bearing plants. Northwest Coast Native people generally believe that the “real medicine” is contained in the softer, moister, lighter coloured inner portion of the bark, rather than in the hard, usually darker outer bark (VW; EC). Like other Northwest Coast groups, the Saanich and Cowichan respect medicinal plants and their curative powers. Herbal medicines were and are harvested and prepared with care and with a certain degree of ritual. The secrecy surrounding the preparation of some medicines is a reflection of their special status; some people feel that they will lose their curative powers if too many people try to use them (Turner et al., 1983). For maximum effectiveness, tree bark medicines are usually harvested in the early morning, before the harvester has eaten, and the bark is cut from
69
the side of the tree on which the first rays of the morning sun shine. This is a practice common to many Northwest Coast groups (Turner et al., 19831. Some people say that the bark grows faster and heals over more quickly on the sunny side of the tree, and hence this practice is important from a conservation standpoint (EC, VW; T. Sampson, Tsartlip Reserve, personal communication, 19891. Furthermore, only a small strip is harvested from each tree; this also speeds up the tree’s healing. VW and EC commented that a patient’s sore, wound, or other ailment will heal just as the tree itself heals (VW, EC). Medicinal barks are used fresh, or can be dried for later use. Sometimes, especially if more than one ingredient is involved in a preparation or if it is to be prepared by a non-specialist, pre-measured quantities of the dried ingredients are placed together in packages or bundles, to be made up to a given quantity in an infusion or deco&ion. When VW’s son was sick with a liver ailment recently, VW prepared nine pre-measured packages of special “four-barks” medicine for him (see Table 21. With each, he could make up about 5 1 (1 gal.), lasting him nearly three weeks at a dose of about 250 ml (1 cup) per day. The same medicine, pre-measured to make up eight batches of 5 1 each, was given by VW to her sister to take to Seattle in order to treat her sister’s son’s bleeding ulcer. He drank four batches of the medicine, and his non-Indian friend, who also suffered from a bleeding ulcer, drank the other four. Both were cured, according to VW. VW’s son, unfortunately, died from his liver condition despite the medicine.
Fig. 5. Oemleria
cerasiformis
branches
with flowers.
70
VW and EC have either taken themselves, or had seen administered to someone in their family, virtually all the bark medicines listed in Table 1. For example, VW was given an infusion of Sambucus racemosa bark by her sister as a childbirth medicine. VW had been in Burlington, Washington picking berries, when she went into labour. Her labour went on “for days”, and she was haemorrhaging badly, but still the baby would not come. (She was not able to consult a medical doctor because of the cost.) Her sister arrived, and asked VW’s husband to collect elderberry bark, which she used to make a “tea”. She made up about a quart (i.e., just over 1 1) and gave it to VW to drink while it was still warm. VW drank it all, and within half an hour a healthy baby girl was born. The multi-bark medicines in Table 2 have been used repeatedly by VW or EC and their families. The “four-barks” medicine was used by VW’s father and later by herself to treat several types of internal ailments: stomach and digestive tract, tuberculosis, and kidney problems. The “ten-barks” medicine, for tuberculosis and venereal disease sores, came originally from EC’s husband’s father, who passed it on to her husband, and he in turn passed it on to her. VW recalled that her father used to treat people, one young man in particular, with his “four-barks” medicine, but he insisted that the actual ingredients and recipe be kept secret, because it was a family medicine. He was always willing to make it up for those who needed it. Finally, VW gave the recipe to the young patient’s wife, because she felt it would be much easier for them if they could make it themselves. EC knew a man who had really ugly sores and lumps all around his mouth and face, from venereal disease. He took her father-in-law’s “tenbarks” medicine, and was healed. She also recalled a woman who had tuberculosis many years ago, when she was young. The disease was so bad the girl could not walk. She took the “ten-barks” medicine and recovered completely. She died only recently, having survived to her senior years. EC took the “ten-barks” medicine once herself, and said it was very strong tasting. She vomited the first dose, then was able to keep down the second dose; it cured her from spitting up blood. Discussion A comparison of the Saanich and Cowichan bark medicines known to EC and VW with those of other Saanich and Halkomelem peoples, and of Northwest Coast peoples in general, will be presented in a subsequent paper. Preliminary observation shows that several are, or were, widely used. Furthermore, barks of all 23 species listed in Table 1, except Oemleria, are used medicinally by one or more Native groups elsewhere in North America (Moerman, 1986). Current use of traditional medicines by the two Salishan elders we consulted, and as reported in other recent work done elsewhere in British Col-
71
umbia (Turner et al., 1980; Turner and Efrat, 1982; Turner et al., 1983; Turner, 19881, indicates that traditional medicine using native plants is still being practiced to a significant extent in the region. Although the use of native medicines has diminished within the lifetimes of the present grandparent generation, medicinal knowledge has not disappeared. In some cases, there has been a revival of the use of native herbal medicines among younger people. The role of traditional medicine should not be overlooked by health care workers (Bannerman et al., 19831. Even in western Canada, where scientific medicine is well developed and “western” health care widely available, there are many people who prefer alternate, traditional healing for some types of ailments, or for the maintenance of health. This fact alone should be enough to make health care administrators and practitioners alert to the important and continuing role of traditional medicine, including the bark medicines reported here. These medicines are not necessarily incompatible with “western” scientific healing methods. Health care systems that recognize and utilize traditional healing together with scientific healing are not only possible, but may sometimes be more successful than scientific healing alone. Conclusions Barks of trees and shrubs have been, and still are, a prominent raw material in Native folk medicine. Two elders of Saanich and Cowichan Coast Salish language groups of southern Vancouver Island provided information on use of barks to treat respiratory ailments, digestive tract ailments, diabetes, fevers, gynaecological problems, sore eyes and dermatological complaints. Barks have also served as general tonics and “strengthening” medicines. A general medicine made from a concoction of four barks (Acer macrophyllum, Quercus garryana, Alnus rub-a and Taxus brevifolia) is still used to treat ailments of the digestive tract, lungs and kidneys, and another, composed of barks of ten different species, has been used recently to treat spitting of blood and other complaints. Commonly, infusions or decoctions of the barks are prepared, and drunk or used as an external wash. Knowledge of traditional medicines such as the bark medicines reported here has diminished but not disappeared in contemporary Native cultures. There is a general lack of information on the chemical and pharmacological properties of most of the barks reported here as being used medicinally. Further studies are required before an evaluation of their pharmacological activity could be made, but Native people who use them have a high degree of confidence in their effectiveness. Acknowledgements We are grateful
to Violet Williams of Cole Bay (Paquachinl
and Elsie Clax-
72
ton of East Saanich (Tsawout) for sharing their knowledge and expertise so generously. Tom Sampson is thanked for his comment on the healing of tree bark. Our thanks also go to Randy Bouchard of Victoria, and Dr. Robin Marles and Dr. Thor Arnason, both of the University of Ottawa, Ontario, for their helpful comments on the manuscript. Funding for this project was provided in part by the Royal British Columbia Museum. References Arnason, T., Hebda, R.J. and Johns, T. (1981) Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples of eastern Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany 59, 2189-2325. Bannerman, R.H., Burton, J. and Wen-Chieh, C. (1983) Traditional Medicine and Health Care Coverage. World Health Organization, Geneva. Claus, E.P., Tyler, V.E. and Brady, L.R. (1970) Pharmacognosy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. Gerarde, J. (1633) The Herbal1 or General1 Historic of Plantes. (Enlarged by T. Johnson). Original printed by Adam Islip Joice Norton and Richard Whitakers, London (Facsimile reprod. 1975 by Dover Publications, Inc., New York.), pp. 1392, 1467. Gunther, E. (1945; revised 1973) Ethnobotany of Western Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle. Moerman, D.E. (1986) Medicinal Plants of Native America (2 Vol.) University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology Technical Report No. 19, Ann Arbor, MI. Taylor, R.L. and MacBryde, B. (1977) Vascular Plants of British Columbia University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. Turner, N.J. (1975) Food Plants of British Columbia Indians. Part 1. Coastal Peoples. British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria. Turner, N.J. (1979) Plants in British Columbia Indian Technology. British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook No. 38, Victoria. Turner, N.J. (1982) Traditional use of devil’s_club (Oplopanaz horridus; Araliaceae) by native peoples in western North America. Journal of Ethnobiology 2, 17-38. Turner, N.J. 0988) Ethnobotany of coniferous trees in Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish of British Columbia. Economic Botany 42, 177- 194. Turner, N.J. and Bell, M.A.M. (1971) The ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver Island. Economic Botany 25, 63- 104. Turner, N.J. and Bell, M.A.M. (1973) The ethnobotany of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia. Economic Botany 27, 257-310. Turner, N.J., Bouchard, R. and Kennedy, D.I.D. (1980) Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 21. Turner, N.J.. Chapman, J. and Marchand, J. (1983) Identification of Chinese Herbs from a Contemporary Herbalist Shop at Victoria, British Columbia Report to History Division, British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria. Turner, N.J. and Efrat, B.S. (1982) Ethnobotany of the Hesquiat People of the West Coast of Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial Museum Cuitural Recovery Paper No. 2. Turner, N.J. Thomas, J., Carlson, B.F. and Ogilvie, R.T. (198.1) Ethntibotany of the h’itinaht Indians of Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper No. 24. Turner, N.J., Thompson, L.C., Thompson, M.T. and York, A.Z. (1990) Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum Memoir, No. 3. Van Eijk, J.P. (1985) The Lillooet Language. Phonology - Morphology - Syntax. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Linguistics, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.