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Correlates of depression among runaway adolescents in Korea
Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
Brief Communication
Correlates of depression among runaway adolescents in Korea JongSerl Chun a,∗ , David W. Springer b a
University of California, San Francisco, Department of Psychiatry, San Francisco Treatment Research Center, San Francisco, CA, USA b The University of Texas at Austin, School of Social Work, Austin, TX, USA Received 9 August 2003; received in revised form 18 April 2005; accepted 17 June 2005
Introduction In 2001, the number of runaways in South Korea reached 61,319 youths (23,577 males and 37,742 females) (The Commission of Youth Protection, 2002a). In a national survey of Korean high school students by the Seoul YMCA, 11.7% of the subjects had a history of running away (Seoul YMCA, 1998). Of even greater concern is the finding that 74.2% of Korean high school students considered running away as a choice (The Commission of Youth Protection, 2002b). Researchers found that runaway youths have a greater rate of depression than their non-runaway counterparts (De Man, 2000; Mundy, Robertson, Robertson, & Greenblatt, 1990). A survey by the National Network of Runaway and Youth Services (NNRYS) (1991) found that 61% of about 51,000 runaway youths suffered from depression, although prevalence rates vary across studies. In studies involving runaway/homeless youths, approximately 26–75% of these youths were diagnosed with major depression according to DSM-III or DSM-III-R criteria; by contrast, only 4–9% of non-runaway youths met the criteria for major depression (Russell, 1998; Unger, Kipke, Simon, Montgomery, & Johnson, 1997). There are increasing efforts to identify risk factors for depressive symptoms in children and adolescents (e.g., Brown, Cohen, Johnson, & Smailes, 1999; Garber & Flynn, 2001). Self-esteem has an inverse relationship to depression, and it has been identified as a risk factor for depression (Haines, Scalise, & Ginter, 1993). A study by Maxwell (1992) demonstrated that hostility and depression of homeless youths have a positive relationship that is inversely related to self-esteem. The literature consistently confirms that runaway adolescents have low self-esteem (Unger et al., 1997). Smart and Walsh (1993) researched ∗
Corresponding author address: 3333 California St., Suite 265, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA.
0145-2134/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.06.008
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predictors of depression in street youths (n = 145) in Toronto and found that low self-esteem is a significant factor related to depression in this population. One of the most frequently studied risk factors for depression is a history of childhood abuse. Runaway adolescents are more likely to be neglected and physically or sexually abused (Kaufman & Widom, 1999). Parents of this population often have difficulty nurturing their children due to their own histories involving separation, divorce, substance abuse, or legal trouble (Kurtz, Jarvis, & Kurtz, 1991). Runaway youths may feel unloved, unwanted or neglected by their parents (Kurtz et al., 1991). In a study of 329 homeless youths in Seattle by Ryan-Wenger et al. (2000), youths who experienced physical and sexual abuse were more likely to be diagnosed as clinically depressed than those who had not experienced abuse. Despite the recognition that runaway adolescents are frequently depressed, few studies have examined risk factors for depression in runaway adolescents. Moreover, although Korea has one of the fastest growing runaway populations in the world, only a handful of studies have dealt with this problem. Accordingly, this study examines depression among runaway adolescents in Korea, exploring the relationship between depression, self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships. The hypotheses for this study are as follows: (1) runaway adolescents who experience lower levels of self-esteem will report greater levels of depression; (2) runaway adolescents who experience a greater frequency of parental abuse will report greater levels of depression; and (3) runaway adolescents who experience more frequent negative family relationships will report greater levels of depression.
Methodology Participants This study was limited to runaway youths who (1) were between the ages of 12–18 years; (2) left their homes without permission for more than 24 hours; and (3) lived in a runaway shelter at the time of the study. The following demographic characteristics were collected: gender, age, marital status of parents, and length of time away from home. The age of the subjects ranged from 12 to 18 years (average was 14.8 years, SD = 1.49). Approximately 80% of the runaways were male. About 80% came from families with both parents still married, and 17.3% came from single-parent families. In terms of the length of time away from home, 17.3% of the adolescents reported that they had left home within the last week, 50.0% had left home for 1 week to 1 year, and 32.7% reported that they had been gone from home for over 1 year. Procedure Data were collected over a period of 1 month (January, 2000) from 10 different shelters. Seoul was divided into 10 different districts by the researchers. The researchers had a complete listing of the runaway shelters in each district. Using the list, the researchers randomly selected one shelter from each of the 10 different districts in Seoul. The 10 shelters were emergency shelters, with approximately 10–15 adolescents staying in each shelter. All youths staying in one of the 10 shelters were potential participants, and all adolescent residents at these shelters were invited to participate in this study.
J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
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A total of 140 measurement packages were distributed, and 108 were returned with signed consent forms (a response rate of 77%). Of the 108, 10 were not complete, leaving 98 for use in the final analysis. This study was approved by Ewha Women’s University in Seoul, Korea. Measurement packages Variables were measured using scales from standardized measures that assess depression, self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships. The instruments were created or translated in Korean and had previously been used with runaway adolescents in Korea. Depression was measured with 10 items using the depression sub-scale from Oh and Lee’s (1990) Child Maladjusted Behavior Checklist. Response categories ranged from 1 (never) to 3 (many times). The scale inquires about how the respondent has been within the past 6 months (e.g., “I often experience changes in mood or feelings,” and “I feel like crying”). Oh and Lee (1990) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .76, and this scale has received extensive support regarding its validity. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in the present study was .76. Self-esteem was measured with Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) (Rosenberg, 1979). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The SES has established good reliability and validity (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in this study was .62. Family relationships were measured using 18 items from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1986). The FES includes three dimensions: relationship, personal growth and system maintenance. The present study used only the relationship dimension. Item responses ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always). A high score indicated positive family relationships. The reliability and validity of FES were shown to be adequate. In addition, the FES was translated into Korean. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in this study was .81. Abuse by parents was examined across three forms of maltreatment: emotional, physical, and sexual. The items query abusive behaviors of parents over the past year. First, emotional and physical abuse were measured using 20 items from Yun’s Child Abuse Scale (CAS) (1998), which is based on a revised version of Straus et al.’s Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) (1996). CAS modifies items from the CTS so that the items are more relevant to Korean culture. This scale included items measuring parents’ verbal and physical aggression (e.g., “Yelled or insulted,” and “Threw something or smashed something”). The frequency of sexual abuse experiences were measured using Park’s Childhood Sexual Abuse Scale (1995) which is an 8-item scale. Participants were asked about instances of sexual contact with their parents (e.g., “My parents had used physical threat to have sex with me,” and “There had been physical contact between my genitals and theirs”). Item responses ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (more than once a month). The items were coded so that a high score indicated greater levels of parental sexual abuse. Park (1995) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .83 for children. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was .96. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were computed to examine the frequency of demographic variables. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were computed and tested for the significance of the relationship between depression and other independent variables. A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to identify risk factors of depression among runaway youths. All analyses used two-tailed significance tests.
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Table 1 The effect of independent variables on depression Independent variables
Depression Standardized coefficients
Block 1 Age Male Length of time away from home R2 Block 2 Age Male Length of time away from home Self-esteem Parental abuse Family relationships Change in R2 R2 ** ***
R2
.055 −.130 .005 .019 .026 −.066 .018 −.392*** .236** −.094 .280*** .299***
p < .05. p < .001.
Results When examining the correlations among the variables, each risk factor variable had a significant correlation to depression. Self-esteem had the strongest inverse correlation (r = −.49; p < .001); thus, the lower the self-esteem, the more serious the depression. Depression also had a negative correlation (r = −.34; p < .05) with family relationships, indicating that more frequent negative family relationships were associated with more serious depression. Depression had a positive correlation with parental abuse (r = .38; p < .001). In contrast, the length of time away from home and age were not significantly correlated with depression. According to the results of the hierarchical regression (Table 1), the first block in the analysis revealed that the background variables (age, gender-each dummy coded as 0 or 1, and length of time away from home) were not significantly associated with depression, accounting for only 2% of the variance in depression. However, at block 2 where the primary variables of self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships were added, the variance in depression increased 29.9%, after controlling for background variables (p < .001). Only two of the independent variables (self-esteem and parental abuse) were valid risk factors for depression after controlling for background variables.
Discussion In this sample of runaways in Korea, we found that lower levels of self-esteem and higher levels of parental abuse were related to higher levels of depression. This supports the findings of previous research with runaway and homeless youths (Smart & Walsh, 1993; Whitbeck, Hoyt, & Yoder, 1999). In contrast
J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
1437
to the results of previous studies (Zima et al., 1999), the length of time away from home was not found to be related to depression among runaway youths. To survive in an unprotected environment, runaway adolescents tend to become involved in prostitution, gangs, and drug dealings that continually reinforce depression (Goodman, Saxes, & Harvey, 1991). In our study, the overwhelmingly larger number of males in the sample precluded a comparison of different experiences by gender. The limitations of the present study warrant mention. The data were obtained using self-report measures. Thus, the results may have the general weaknesses associated with all self-report measurements. In addition, this study examined only family relationships, abuse experiences, and self-esteem. Other potential correlates such as social support, victimization on the street, and substance abuse were not examined. This study contributes to the literature and practical implications of depression among runaway adolescents in three key ways. It provides information that self-esteem and abuse by parents can be risk factors for depression among Korean runaways, who are understudied and at high-risk. Second, this study moves beyond a theoretical or descriptive examination of depression, and examines risk factors for depression among Korean runaway youths using multivariate analysis. The fact that the overall model explains about 30% of the variance in depression is remarkable. Finally, the information about risk factors of depression in runaway adolescents needs to be translated into practical assessment and treatment strategies for mental health professionals to inform the treatment of depression.
References Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., & Smailes, E. M. (1999). Childhood abuse and neglect: Specificity of effects on adolescent and young adult depression and suicidality. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1490–1496. Commission of Youth Protection. (2002a). Youth protection white paper. Seoul, Korea: Author. Commission of Youth Protection. (2002b). A manual development for agencies of runaway adolescents. Seoul, Korea: Du-Rae. De Man, A. F. (2000). Predictors of adolescent running away behavior. Social Behavior and Personality, 28, 261–268. Fleming, J. S., & Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 404–421. Garber, J., & Flynn, C. (2001). Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 353–376. Goodman, L., Saxes, L., & Harvey, M. (1991). Homelessness as psychological trauma. American Psychologist, 46, 1219–1225. Haines, D. A., Scalise, J. J., & Ginter, E. J. (1993). Relationship of loneliness and its affective elements to self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 73, 479–482. Kaufman, J. G., & Widom, C. S. (1999). Childhood victimization, running away, and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 36, 347–370. Kurtz, P. D., Jarvis, S. V., & Kurtz, G. L. (1991). Problems of homeless youth: Empirical findings and human services issues. Social Work, 36, 309–314. Maxwell, B. M. (1992). Hostility, depression, and self-esteem among troubled and homeless adolescents in crisis. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 21, 139–150. Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (1986). Family environment scale manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Mundy, P., Robertson, M., Robertson, J., & Greenblatt, M. (1990). The prevalence of psychotic symptoms in homeless adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 724–731. National Network of Runaway and Youth Services, Inc. (1991). To whom do they belong? Washington, DC: Author. Oh, K., & Lee, H. (1990). The research about Korean children and adolescents’ behavior syndrome: The analysis of boys CBLC in 4–6, 6–11, 12–16 years old. Clinical Psychology, 9, 33–35. Park, H. (1995). The effect of child abuse on children’s personality. Unpublished master’s thesis, Won-Kang University.
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Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books. Russell, L. A. (1998). Child maltreatment and psychological distress among urban homeless youth. New York: Garland Publishing. Ryan-Wenger, N. A., Sharrer, V. W., & Wynd, C. A. (2000). Stress, coping, and health in children. In V. H. Rice (Ed.), Handbook of stress, coping and health: Implications for nursing research, theory and practice (pp. 265–293). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Seoul YMCA. (1998). A report on runaway youths. Seoul, Korea: YMCA. Smart, R., & Walsh, G. W. (1993). Predictors of depression in street youth. Adolescence, 28, 41–53. Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., & Bony-McCoy, S. (1996). The Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issue, 17, 283–316. Unger, J. B., Kipke, M. D., Simon, T. R., Montgomery, S. B., & Johnson, C. J. (1997). Homeless youths and young adults in Los Angeles: Prevalence of mental health problems and the relationship between mental health and substance abuse disorders. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 371–393. Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Yoder, K. A. (1999). A risk-amplification model of victimization and depressive symptoms among runaway and homeless adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 273–296. Yun, L. (1998). Social and psychological adjustment to violence and characteristics of social information process. Unpublished master’s thesis, Yonsei University, Seoul. Zima, B. T., Bussing, R., Bystritsky, M., Widawski, M. H., Belin, T. R., & Benjamin, B. (1999). Psychosocial stressors among sheltered homeless children: Relationship to behavior problems and depressive symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 127–133.
Brief Communication
Correlates of depression among runaway adolescents in Korea JongSerl Chun a,∗ , David W. Springer b a
University of California, San Francisco, Department of Psychiatry, San Francisco Treatment Research Center, San Francisco, CA, USA b The University of Texas at Austin, School of Social Work, Austin, TX, USA Received 9 August 2003; received in revised form 18 April 2005; accepted 17 June 2005
Introduction In 2001, the number of runaways in South Korea reached 61,319 youths (23,577 males and 37,742 females) (The Commission of Youth Protection, 2002a). In a national survey of Korean high school students by the Seoul YMCA, 11.7% of the subjects had a history of running away (Seoul YMCA, 1998). Of even greater concern is the finding that 74.2% of Korean high school students considered running away as a choice (The Commission of Youth Protection, 2002b). Researchers found that runaway youths have a greater rate of depression than their non-runaway counterparts (De Man, 2000; Mundy, Robertson, Robertson, & Greenblatt, 1990). A survey by the National Network of Runaway and Youth Services (NNRYS) (1991) found that 61% of about 51,000 runaway youths suffered from depression, although prevalence rates vary across studies. In studies involving runaway/homeless youths, approximately 26–75% of these youths were diagnosed with major depression according to DSM-III or DSM-III-R criteria; by contrast, only 4–9% of non-runaway youths met the criteria for major depression (Russell, 1998; Unger, Kipke, Simon, Montgomery, & Johnson, 1997). There are increasing efforts to identify risk factors for depressive symptoms in children and adolescents (e.g., Brown, Cohen, Johnson, & Smailes, 1999; Garber & Flynn, 2001). Self-esteem has an inverse relationship to depression, and it has been identified as a risk factor for depression (Haines, Scalise, & Ginter, 1993). A study by Maxwell (1992) demonstrated that hostility and depression of homeless youths have a positive relationship that is inversely related to self-esteem. The literature consistently confirms that runaway adolescents have low self-esteem (Unger et al., 1997). Smart and Walsh (1993) researched ∗
Corresponding author address: 3333 California St., Suite 265, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA.
0145-2134/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.06.008
1434
J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
predictors of depression in street youths (n = 145) in Toronto and found that low self-esteem is a significant factor related to depression in this population. One of the most frequently studied risk factors for depression is a history of childhood abuse. Runaway adolescents are more likely to be neglected and physically or sexually abused (Kaufman & Widom, 1999). Parents of this population often have difficulty nurturing their children due to their own histories involving separation, divorce, substance abuse, or legal trouble (Kurtz, Jarvis, & Kurtz, 1991). Runaway youths may feel unloved, unwanted or neglected by their parents (Kurtz et al., 1991). In a study of 329 homeless youths in Seattle by Ryan-Wenger et al. (2000), youths who experienced physical and sexual abuse were more likely to be diagnosed as clinically depressed than those who had not experienced abuse. Despite the recognition that runaway adolescents are frequently depressed, few studies have examined risk factors for depression in runaway adolescents. Moreover, although Korea has one of the fastest growing runaway populations in the world, only a handful of studies have dealt with this problem. Accordingly, this study examines depression among runaway adolescents in Korea, exploring the relationship between depression, self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships. The hypotheses for this study are as follows: (1) runaway adolescents who experience lower levels of self-esteem will report greater levels of depression; (2) runaway adolescents who experience a greater frequency of parental abuse will report greater levels of depression; and (3) runaway adolescents who experience more frequent negative family relationships will report greater levels of depression.
Methodology Participants This study was limited to runaway youths who (1) were between the ages of 12–18 years; (2) left their homes without permission for more than 24 hours; and (3) lived in a runaway shelter at the time of the study. The following demographic characteristics were collected: gender, age, marital status of parents, and length of time away from home. The age of the subjects ranged from 12 to 18 years (average was 14.8 years, SD = 1.49). Approximately 80% of the runaways were male. About 80% came from families with both parents still married, and 17.3% came from single-parent families. In terms of the length of time away from home, 17.3% of the adolescents reported that they had left home within the last week, 50.0% had left home for 1 week to 1 year, and 32.7% reported that they had been gone from home for over 1 year. Procedure Data were collected over a period of 1 month (January, 2000) from 10 different shelters. Seoul was divided into 10 different districts by the researchers. The researchers had a complete listing of the runaway shelters in each district. Using the list, the researchers randomly selected one shelter from each of the 10 different districts in Seoul. The 10 shelters were emergency shelters, with approximately 10–15 adolescents staying in each shelter. All youths staying in one of the 10 shelters were potential participants, and all adolescent residents at these shelters were invited to participate in this study.
J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
1435
A total of 140 measurement packages were distributed, and 108 were returned with signed consent forms (a response rate of 77%). Of the 108, 10 were not complete, leaving 98 for use in the final analysis. This study was approved by Ewha Women’s University in Seoul, Korea. Measurement packages Variables were measured using scales from standardized measures that assess depression, self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships. The instruments were created or translated in Korean and had previously been used with runaway adolescents in Korea. Depression was measured with 10 items using the depression sub-scale from Oh and Lee’s (1990) Child Maladjusted Behavior Checklist. Response categories ranged from 1 (never) to 3 (many times). The scale inquires about how the respondent has been within the past 6 months (e.g., “I often experience changes in mood or feelings,” and “I feel like crying”). Oh and Lee (1990) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .76, and this scale has received extensive support regarding its validity. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in the present study was .76. Self-esteem was measured with Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) (Rosenberg, 1979). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The SES has established good reliability and validity (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in this study was .62. Family relationships were measured using 18 items from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1986). The FES includes three dimensions: relationship, personal growth and system maintenance. The present study used only the relationship dimension. Item responses ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always). A high score indicated positive family relationships. The reliability and validity of FES were shown to be adequate. In addition, the FES was translated into Korean. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in this study was .81. Abuse by parents was examined across three forms of maltreatment: emotional, physical, and sexual. The items query abusive behaviors of parents over the past year. First, emotional and physical abuse were measured using 20 items from Yun’s Child Abuse Scale (CAS) (1998), which is based on a revised version of Straus et al.’s Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) (1996). CAS modifies items from the CTS so that the items are more relevant to Korean culture. This scale included items measuring parents’ verbal and physical aggression (e.g., “Yelled or insulted,” and “Threw something or smashed something”). The frequency of sexual abuse experiences were measured using Park’s Childhood Sexual Abuse Scale (1995) which is an 8-item scale. Participants were asked about instances of sexual contact with their parents (e.g., “My parents had used physical threat to have sex with me,” and “There had been physical contact between my genitals and theirs”). Item responses ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (more than once a month). The items were coded so that a high score indicated greater levels of parental sexual abuse. Park (1995) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .83 for children. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was .96. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were computed to examine the frequency of demographic variables. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were computed and tested for the significance of the relationship between depression and other independent variables. A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to identify risk factors of depression among runaway youths. All analyses used two-tailed significance tests.
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J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
Table 1 The effect of independent variables on depression Independent variables
Depression Standardized coefficients
Block 1 Age Male Length of time away from home R2 Block 2 Age Male Length of time away from home Self-esteem Parental abuse Family relationships Change in R2 R2 ** ***
R2
.055 −.130 .005 .019 .026 −.066 .018 −.392*** .236** −.094 .280*** .299***
p < .05. p < .001.
Results When examining the correlations among the variables, each risk factor variable had a significant correlation to depression. Self-esteem had the strongest inverse correlation (r = −.49; p < .001); thus, the lower the self-esteem, the more serious the depression. Depression also had a negative correlation (r = −.34; p < .05) with family relationships, indicating that more frequent negative family relationships were associated with more serious depression. Depression had a positive correlation with parental abuse (r = .38; p < .001). In contrast, the length of time away from home and age were not significantly correlated with depression. According to the results of the hierarchical regression (Table 1), the first block in the analysis revealed that the background variables (age, gender-each dummy coded as 0 or 1, and length of time away from home) were not significantly associated with depression, accounting for only 2% of the variance in depression. However, at block 2 where the primary variables of self-esteem, parental abuse, and family relationships were added, the variance in depression increased 29.9%, after controlling for background variables (p < .001). Only two of the independent variables (self-esteem and parental abuse) were valid risk factors for depression after controlling for background variables.
Discussion In this sample of runaways in Korea, we found that lower levels of self-esteem and higher levels of parental abuse were related to higher levels of depression. This supports the findings of previous research with runaway and homeless youths (Smart & Walsh, 1993; Whitbeck, Hoyt, & Yoder, 1999). In contrast
J. Chun, D.W. Springer / Child Abuse & Neglect 29 (2005) 1433–1438
1437
to the results of previous studies (Zima et al., 1999), the length of time away from home was not found to be related to depression among runaway youths. To survive in an unprotected environment, runaway adolescents tend to become involved in prostitution, gangs, and drug dealings that continually reinforce depression (Goodman, Saxes, & Harvey, 1991). In our study, the overwhelmingly larger number of males in the sample precluded a comparison of different experiences by gender. The limitations of the present study warrant mention. The data were obtained using self-report measures. Thus, the results may have the general weaknesses associated with all self-report measurements. In addition, this study examined only family relationships, abuse experiences, and self-esteem. Other potential correlates such as social support, victimization on the street, and substance abuse were not examined. This study contributes to the literature and practical implications of depression among runaway adolescents in three key ways. It provides information that self-esteem and abuse by parents can be risk factors for depression among Korean runaways, who are understudied and at high-risk. Second, this study moves beyond a theoretical or descriptive examination of depression, and examines risk factors for depression among Korean runaway youths using multivariate analysis. The fact that the overall model explains about 30% of the variance in depression is remarkable. Finally, the information about risk factors of depression in runaway adolescents needs to be translated into practical assessment and treatment strategies for mental health professionals to inform the treatment of depression.
References Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., & Smailes, E. M. (1999). Childhood abuse and neglect: Specificity of effects on adolescent and young adult depression and suicidality. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1490–1496. Commission of Youth Protection. (2002a). Youth protection white paper. Seoul, Korea: Author. Commission of Youth Protection. (2002b). A manual development for agencies of runaway adolescents. Seoul, Korea: Du-Rae. De Man, A. F. (2000). Predictors of adolescent running away behavior. Social Behavior and Personality, 28, 261–268. Fleming, J. S., & Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 404–421. Garber, J., & Flynn, C. (2001). Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 353–376. Goodman, L., Saxes, L., & Harvey, M. (1991). Homelessness as psychological trauma. American Psychologist, 46, 1219–1225. Haines, D. A., Scalise, J. J., & Ginter, E. J. (1993). Relationship of loneliness and its affective elements to self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 73, 479–482. Kaufman, J. G., & Widom, C. S. (1999). Childhood victimization, running away, and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 36, 347–370. Kurtz, P. D., Jarvis, S. V., & Kurtz, G. L. (1991). Problems of homeless youth: Empirical findings and human services issues. Social Work, 36, 309–314. Maxwell, B. M. (1992). Hostility, depression, and self-esteem among troubled and homeless adolescents in crisis. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 21, 139–150. Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (1986). Family environment scale manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Mundy, P., Robertson, M., Robertson, J., & Greenblatt, M. (1990). The prevalence of psychotic symptoms in homeless adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 724–731. National Network of Runaway and Youth Services, Inc. (1991). To whom do they belong? Washington, DC: Author. Oh, K., & Lee, H. (1990). The research about Korean children and adolescents’ behavior syndrome: The analysis of boys CBLC in 4–6, 6–11, 12–16 years old. Clinical Psychology, 9, 33–35. Park, H. (1995). The effect of child abuse on children’s personality. Unpublished master’s thesis, Won-Kang University.
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Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books. Russell, L. A. (1998). Child maltreatment and psychological distress among urban homeless youth. New York: Garland Publishing. Ryan-Wenger, N. A., Sharrer, V. W., & Wynd, C. A. (2000). Stress, coping, and health in children. In V. H. Rice (Ed.), Handbook of stress, coping and health: Implications for nursing research, theory and practice (pp. 265–293). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Seoul YMCA. (1998). A report on runaway youths. Seoul, Korea: YMCA. Smart, R., & Walsh, G. W. (1993). Predictors of depression in street youth. Adolescence, 28, 41–53. Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., & Bony-McCoy, S. (1996). The Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issue, 17, 283–316. Unger, J. B., Kipke, M. D., Simon, T. R., Montgomery, S. B., & Johnson, C. J. (1997). Homeless youths and young adults in Los Angeles: Prevalence of mental health problems and the relationship between mental health and substance abuse disorders. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 371–393. Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Yoder, K. A. (1999). A risk-amplification model of victimization and depressive symptoms among runaway and homeless adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 273–296. Yun, L. (1998). Social and psychological adjustment to violence and characteristics of social information process. Unpublished master’s thesis, Yonsei University, Seoul. Zima, B. T., Bussing, R., Bystritsky, M., Widawski, M. H., Belin, T. R., & Benjamin, B. (1999). Psychosocial stressors among sheltered homeless children: Relationship to behavior problems and depressive symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 127–133.