Corruption in the oil sector: A systematic review and critique of the literature

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Review article

Corruption in the oil sector: A systematic review and critique of the literature Gian Marco Moisé Dublin City University, Collins Avenue, Glasnevin Campus, Henry Grattan Building, Dublin 9, Dublin, Ireland

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Corruption Oil sector Systematic review Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Resource curse

Despite a growing interest in the study of corruption, comprehensive definitions offered in literature are often too general to recognize its specific manifestations in particular sectors of the economy. On the other hand, quantitative analyses rely too often on perception-based indexes to describe the phenomenon. This paper is a systematic study of the literature on corruption in the oil sector of world economies. In addition, it provides literature-based evidence in support of the above-mentioned theses by analyzing 184 studies indexed in the Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar and presenting both their bibliometric indicators and methodological choices. Through the comparison of the different streams of literature of which it is composed, the review suggests that the study of corruption would benefit from increased coordination of qualitative and quantitative research and a closer look at specific sectors of the economy. In particular, it finds that future research should rely on deeper qualitative analyses to provide a comprehensive taxonomy of corruption in the oil sector. Capitalizing on such taxonomy, the quantitative analysis would be guided to measure the identified manifestations of corruption exploiting fact-based indexes.

1. Introduction In research, the understanding of corruption has slowly evolved from criminal behaviour characterizing the outset of developing economies, to widespread governance methods alternative to formal practices. Resting on a set of social relationships, corruption can manifest as bribing, embezzlement, clientelism, patronage, patrimonialism (Granovetter, 2007; Rothstein and Varraich, 2017). However, how corruption is portrayed largely depends on the specific contexts in which it occurs (Gaal and McKee, 2004). As demonstrated by the cases of Petrobras in Brazil in 2014, JPMorgan Chase in Nigeria in 2011, or ‘Kazakhgate’ in Kazakhstan in 2003, corruption in the context of oil can easily become a significant scandal involving the highest political ranks. As it will be clear in the course of this paper, from the 1980s onward, research started to produce an increasing number of studies that focused mainly on the extractive industries. More recently, however, inquiries on corruption have included studies on land, wildlife, forestries and fisheries (Williams and Le Billon, 2017). The permeability of corruption makes a synthesis of all its studies both impractical and useless. Interpretations of corruption are contextual, and based on a specific time, place and set of conditions. Nevertheless, after years of studies based on the oil sector, a systematic

review is beneficial for those who approach the topic for the first time or need updating on the research direction of the literature. This rationale has guided the completion of this systematic literature review of studies on corruption in the oil sector. In doing this, the analysis offers a broader comprehension of the evolution of research than the one granted by individual streams of literature. Furthermore, incurring in some of the shortcomings of the scholarship, this choice was able to highlight the correct approach to address the topic most efficiently. The paper is structured as follows. The next section will present two major problems of research on corruption that the systematic review revealed. Then will be the discussion of the method used to conduct the review. The fourth section of the paper will give a short outline of the history of corruption in the oil industry and will present the analyzed literature as divided into four different streams: resource curse, transparency, accountability and oil management. Finally, the conclusion will be informed by the analysis of the literature in its main bibliometric indicators, theoretical choices, methodologies, and scope. 2. Two problems of research on corruption Discussing corruption is complicated. Even though the last three decades have brought increasing academic interest in the subject, its understanding remains fuzzy (Cintra et al., 2018). As shown in Fig. A1

E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.01.002 Received 2 October 2019; Received in revised form 6 January 2020; Accepted 6 January 2020 2214-790X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Gian Marco Moisé, The Extractive Industries and Society, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.01.002

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in the appendix, a simple search of the term ‘corruption’ on the Scopus database produces 16,859 results.1 A thorough analysis of all these entries would risk being too general and time-consuming, while discussions of the literature on corruption in specific sectors of the economy would deliver more focused analyses. While corruption has been acknowledged as an autonomous form of governance rather than a deviation from standard practices (Gaal and McKee, 2004), one of the flaws ascribed to the literature on the resource curse is that it, “does not pay sufficient attention to the particular contexts and incentives shaping corruption in a broad range of settings” (Williams and Le Billon, 2017, 2). At the theoretical level, debates on corruption revolve around the issue of definition and the indexes with which to measure it. Earlier attempts to comprehensively define corruption afflicted social scientists to the extent that Heidenheimer (1978) could distinguish them in different groups: public-centred; market-centred and public-interest centred. However, as clarified by Abel Polese (2016), similar attempts have often dispersed the initiatives of national and international actors in fighting a too-vast number of practices. Still, the most employed definition of corruption describes it as abuse of public office for private gain (Shleifer and Vishny, 1993, 599), but such interpretation can become problematic when applied to specific country’s contexts (Polese, 2016). Scepticism extends to the efficiency of tools used for its observation. Presently, the most common measurements of corruption rely on indexes that give an overall score to its perception in a country. The most famous is the Corruption Perception Index of Transparency International, but there are also the corruption measurement in the International Country Risk Guide of the PRS Group and the control of corruption in the Worldwide Governance Indicators of the World Bank. However, the validity of these measures has been questioned by authors who have noted how the aggregation of subjective opinions produces neither an objective measurement, nor a historical evolution of the phenomenon (Thompson and Shah, 2005; Pelizzo et al., 2017). Thus, these indexes are useful for advocacy and econometric models aiming to understand the opinions of experts, but cannot be convincingly exploited to understand corruption itself. On the one hand, the presence of comprehensive definitions of corruption does not help to address the problem in detail, while on the other hand, indirect measures are not useful in describing evolutions of the phenomenon. This systematic literature review provides literaturebased evidence in support of both these theses. In fact, despite several comprehensive definitions of corruption, none of them seems to be used to distinguish among concrete cases of corruption in the oil sector, with the risk to acknowledge the presence of endemic corruption even when it is not real (Polese, 2016). Indeed, as remarked by Van Schendel and Abraham (2005), what society perceives as licit can differ considerably from what the state understands as legal. Similarly, despite recent attempts to develop fact-based corruption indexes, the literature analysed here often resorted to perception-based indexes. By comparing different streams of literature, the analysis suggests that better coordination of quantitative and qualitative studies would produce results more efficiently. In particular, it suggests that qualitative research should categorize corrupt behaviours in the sector by guiding quantitative research in their measurement through factbased indexes. Given its scope, this systematic review is critical for researchers working on the topic.

3. Method The systematic literature review was conducted in December 2018 through three databases: the Web of Science of the Institute for Scientific Information, Scopus and Google, both general and Scholar. As discussed by Mahood et al., 2014, ‘grey literature’ can broaden the scope of the search to include relevant studies neglected by academic databases. Therefore, the use of the general Google search had the objective to compile more grey literature than what was offered by its academic counterpart. For the first two databases, the search included all studies without time limitations, while the last search was limited to the first 20 pages of results from Google and Google Scholar. The keywords used to conduct the research were “corruption” and “oil”. The records identified were 599, but following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews of the PRISMA Group (Moher et al., 2009), the analysis was narrowed to 184 publications.2 The criteria used to limit3 the scope of the research were three: a) The literature should remain in the realm of social sciences.4 b) Both keywords representing the two topics should be included in the study, and at least one should be the primary focus of the research.5 c) Studies should be in English.6 The main limitations of the analysis are two: the choice to review only studies in English, and the impossibility to access 4 studies included in the eligibility phase. Overall, a total of 10 studies deemed relevant are not present in the final count of this review. The search did not reveal systematic literature reviews of corruption in the oil sector, but the most similar analyses were Corruption and emerging markets: Systematic review of the most cited (Cintra et al., 2018) and What have we learned about the resource curse? (Ross, 2015). These studies were different in scope and methodology. Still, following the example of Cintra, Cassol, Ribeiro and Oliveira de Carvalho (2018), this paper focused its analysis on relevant bibliometric indicators: year of publication, authors who published the highest number of studies, and the journals in which these articles were published. This approach was taken to satisfy Bradford’s Law on the productivity of journals and Lotka’s Law on the efficiency of authors (Murphy, 1973). The analysis of the literature followed a qualitative content procedure because the mix of studies

2 The elements necessary for this systematic review and ther location in the article are shown in Table A1. A complete explanation of the review process has been visually shown in Fig. A2 in the appendix. Finally, the full list of studies included in the review is available at Table A2. 3 Further limitations had the objective to avoid studies irrelevant to the purpose of the review. 4 The subjects included in the WoS were: anthropology; area study; business; business finance; criminology penology; demography; economics; education educational research; energy fuels; engineering petroleum; environmental sciences; environmental studies; ethics; ethnic studies; geography; green sustainable science technology; health policy services; history; history philosophy of science; history of social sciences; hospitality leisure sport tourism; humanities multidisciplinary; industrial relations labour; international relations; law; management; multidisciplinary sciences; planning development; political science; psychology applied; psychology clinical; public administration; public environmental occupation; social issues; social sciences interdisciplinary; social sciences mathematical methods; social work; sociology; urban studies. The subjects included in Scopus were: business, management and accounting; economics, econometrics and finance; energy; environmental science; multidisciplinary; psychology; social sciences. 5 Table A3 in the appendix shows the studies whose exclusion required a deeper reflection. Still, most of these studies were excluded because they did not respect this criterion. 6 A total of 29 studies were excluded based on their language. Out of them, 4 were retrieved in the WoS, 17 on Scopus, 8 in both databases. A full list of the studies excluded through this last requirement is given in Table A4 of the appendix.

1 The search was conducted on May 6, 2019. To avoid the most obvious ambiguities such as “corruption of digital images”, the search has been limited to the following fields: arts and humanities; business, management and accounting; decision sciences; economics, econometrics and finance; energy; environmental science; multidisciplinary; psychology; social sciences. The figure on the frequency of studies published on corruption is in the appendix.

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adopting a quantitative and qualitative approach prevented the use of meta-analysis. Nevertheless, through the analysis of theoretical choices, research methods, and approaches, this review identified inconsistencies in the literature and indicated future research directions.

Collaborations are established both via formal channels (e.g., through the signature of contracts), and informal ones (e.g., through under-thetable agreements). Countries can nationalize the sector but do so rarely because private companies can employ the most recent technology and bear the costs of exploration. Still, even a fully-nationalized oil sector is not immune to corruption. Authoritarian governments of oil-producing countries often mismanage the profits resulting from oil production, creating stark inequalities through uneven distribution. For this reason, research has frequently interpreted the oil sector through the lenses of the principal-agent theory. In this perspective, the population of a country, considered the rightful owner of the resource, is the principal while the government is the agent entrusted to manage it (Neill and Morris, 2012). As shown by Angus Lyall (2018), this interpretation has limitations. Through an analysis of the political discourses in Ecuador, the author observed how the word ‘corruption’ was misused to refer to every circumstance in which the oil sector did not prove to be profitable. In fact, in those years the government did not have power on the profitability of the sector, unable to change the then low price of a barrel of oil. Even today, corruption scandals in the oil sector remain common and not limited to developing countries (Andvig, 1995; Ladd, 2012; Neill and Morris, 2012). Nevertheless, as discussed by Kartick Gupta (2017), corruption does not result from an oil-related mechanism but rather from scarce competition between its market actors. As shown by Benjamin K. Sovacool (2016) through the case of São Tomé e Príncipe, one of the best solutions through which to avoid corruption is to limit the exploitation of the resource over time. Nevertheless, these measures are taken rarely. Given its relevance for the functioning of world economies, oil remains a strategic resource both at the national and international level. As clarified by the judges in the sentence of the trial of James Giffen, a key figure in the Kazakhgate scandal, corruption remains a small price to pay to ensure energy security (Yeager, 2012). As foreseen, the section will continue expanding the literature review divided into four different macro-topics: the resource curse; transparency; accountability; oil management and energy strategies.

4. Oil and corruption: meeting point or new stream of literature? Petroleum has been known since ancient Mesopotamia, and has long been used as asphalt to build roads, and insulating material for ships, hydraulic structures, material employed in wars. Nevertheless, it was not until the 1850s that the specific characteristics of this resource could be exploited at an industrial scale. The turning point came in 1854 when Abraham Gesner patented kerosene, which soon became the main fuel for public lighting in the US, and provided the motivation for industrial development of oil extraction and refinement. Five years later in Pensylvania, Edwin Drake managed to extract oil by adding a pipe to a drilling system that had been employed in 1847 in Azerbaijan. The first oil refinery was created in 1861 and as soon as 1865, the first oil was exported to London, thus beginning the “Black Gold Rush” (Maugeri, 2006, 5). It was only under John D. Rockefeller, however, that the oil industry became a profitable business. As of 1880, Rockefeller had almost the entirety of the American oil industry in his hands, and the only serious competition was represented by the tsarist oil industry in Baku through the enterprises of the Nobel brothers and the French family of the Rothschilds. In those years, the oil industry operated in unexplored territory, which resulted in the rules of the game being dictated by unscrupulous oilmen rather than by laws. Indeed, Rockefeller built his empire by eliminating competition through illegal means and bribery. In 1911, after years of investigation and trials, the American Supreme Court dismantled his company, Standard Oil, creating some of the companies that would later be known as the Seven Sisters (Maugeri, 2006, 18). The crimes of Rockefeller were far from being unique. In the 1920s, in the attempt to conquer any new possible source of oil, the thirsty oil companies started to make deals with corrupt governments in Latin America (Maugeri, 2006, 31). Since oil was becoming a vital resource for the growth of Western countries, governments helped their flagship companies increase shares in newly discovered oilfields worldwide. Nevertheless, companies remained dedicated only to profits. The first oil cartel was formed in 1928 at the Scottish castle of Achnacarry by the predecessors of Exxon, BP and Royal Dutch Shell. It was ineffective, however, due to the world economic crisis of 1929. It was only in 1947 when investigations of US agencies revealed a cartel through which Chevron and Texaco had excessively charged the US Navy during the war, that a scandal erupted. A criminal proceeding was avoided only through a political decision of President Harry S.Truman (Maugeri, 2006, 73–74). On the other hand, in 1938, the relationship between oil companies and exporting countries, which was initially based on complicity, turned into a struggle for the control of the resource. After unfruitful negotiations with the companies, that year the Mexican President, Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, announced the nationalization of the sector through the creation of the national oil company, Petróleos Mexicanos. Over the decades, the same battle between companies and governments took place in virtually every oil-producing country (Kalyuzhnova and Nygaard, 2008). The apex of this confrontation was well exemplified in the rivalry between the Seven Sisters and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), in the 1970s (Parra, 2004). To some extent, it is the nature of the oil sector to create such tension. While it is true that oil investments can lead to immense profits, it is also clear that the oil market is unreliable. This instability increases the risk of investments causing companies to fail and governments to fall. Companies and governments, which through national oil companies become market actors, establish collaborations with the intent to mitigate such risks (Kaiser and Pulsipher, 2007).

4.1. The resource curse (59 out of 184 studies) The expression “Dutch disease” was employed for the first time in an article of The Economist7 to indicate the complicated economic situation experienced by the Netherlands after the boom of its natural gas sector (Aoun, 2013). Nevertheless, the phenomenon had already been experienced by Venezuela in the 1920s, due to that country’s over-reliance on oil (Maugeri, 2006, 32). The expression became popular in the academic papers of the 1980s, used to identify the difficult economic conjuncture resulting from the over-exploitation of natural resources. Similarly, from the 1990s, academics started to use the expression “resource curse” to indicate that, despite their wealth, resource-rich countries grew at a slower pace than countries without such endowments (Ross, 2015). In 1984, Warner Max Corden was among the first academics to attempt to explain the Dutch disease, while the first discussion of the resource curse started in 1988 when Alan Gelb reflected on oil as a possible source of socio-economic problems, rather than an actual blessing (Corden, 1984; Gelb, 1988). The relationship between the topics became tighter once the Dutch disease was accounted for as one of the possible causes behind the occurrence of the resource curse. A few years later, Richard Auty (1993) chased the lead, concluding that it was not only oil that provoked negative consequences, but that such an argument was valid for natural resources in general. The thesis was finally asserted in 1995 when Sachs and Warner (1995) showed convincing statistical associations between slow economic growth and 7 See: https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2014/11/05/ what-dutch-disease-is-and-why-its-bad

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significative presence of natural resources. The idea of a ‘curse of resources’ continued throughout the 1990s with an increasing number of observational studies (Sachs and Warner, 1995, 1999, 2001). The explanations given to the phenomenon were ascribable to two different models: the Dutch and the Nigerian disease. The former associated the effects of excessive rent dependency and price volatility to de-industrialization (Davis and Tilton, 2005; Moradbeigi and Law, 2016; Devlin and Lewin, 2005; Eisgruber, 2013). The latter focused on corruption and rent-capture as a symptom of the bad management of natural resources (Vicente, 2010; Al-Kasim et al., 2013; Neudorfer, 2018). The growth of this stream of literature started to include other negative consequences deriving from the bad management of natural resources, such as civil and inter-ethnic conflicts, and brain drains provoked by migrations (Basedau and Jann, 2009; Fjelde, 2009; Steinberg, 2017; Billon, 2014). Nonetheless, over time the robustness of the methodology of studies on the resource curse was contested: these papers relied on static estimation processes which neglected intertemporal dynamics and spatial effects such as trade and financial integration, while in terms of modelling, they overlooked labour, financial capital and trade openness (Mamun et al., 2017, 238–39; Brunnschweiler and Bulte, 2008; Ross, 2015). Besides, the very name of this stream of literature is misleading because these papers suggest that there is no curse, but simply good or bad management of natural resources.

For example, only 14% of studies consider the third operational goal of increasing the public understanding of the extractive sector as achieved (2017, 155). In this sense, Ofori and Lujala (2015) showed that a limitation of the EITI lies in an implicit overlapping of the concepts of information disclosure and transparency. Even if countries and companies disclose information, doing so does not mean that the process is transparent. Real transparency takes place only if citizens and civil society can understand the content of the information disclosed. Still, as shown by the authors through the case of Ghana (2015), by Öge, 2017, or by Nwapi, 2015, EITI reports are mostly very technical and the general public is either faced with information overload or an inability to understand them (Kolstad and Wiig, 2009). Similarly, the first developmental goal of increasing revenues for the society through reduced corruption was considered achieved by only 15% of the studies under analysis (Rustad et al., 2017, 155). Indeed, Caitlin Corrigan (2017) found that membership in the EITI favoured economic development but did not improve the control of corruption. In their study of Zambia, Villar et al., 2017found that the EITI produced positive effects in reducing corruption in the early stages of its implementation, but only insignificant or small effects in later phases. Other than revenue disclosure, a series of other measures are necessary to effectively decrease corruption, including political competition in free elections, strengthening of civil society institutions and sufficient education of the electorate (Montinola and Jackman, 2002; Kolstad and Wiig, 2009; Sovacool et al., 2016). Another major weakness of EITI is that it is voluntary. Countries comply to change their reputations, aware that the EITI membership is correlated with higher inflows of foreign direct investments (Öge, 2016; Magno and Gatmaytan, 2017). This is confirmed by the systematic review of Rustad, Le Billon and Lujala (2017, 155), in which the second developmental goal of improving the investment climate, was considered achieved by 71% of the studies. For example, Öge (2015) showed that Azerbaijan decided to become a candidate to diversify the inflow of investments, while Turkmenistan, reliant on Russian and Chinese pipelines, did not have the interest to commit to the EITI. Similarly, Sturesson and Zobel (2015) showed how Uganda did not make any progress in its EITI candidacy in seven years because authorities were already satisfied with its resource revenues. According to Pleines and Wöstheinrich (2016), the strategy of each country is revealed by different degrees of commitment towards international treaties on transparency, defined as instrumental, tactical or durable. Therefore, it is this commitment, rather than simple adherence to treaties, that leads to decreased levels of corruption (Mouan, 2010). All studies analysed in the systematic review of Rustad, Le Billon and Lujala (2017, 155) deemed the third developmental goal of the promotion of sustainable development and improvement of living standards, as not achieved. For instance, Sovacool, Walter, Vand de Graaf and Andrews (2016) did not find any significant difference in the governance indicators of EITI compliant and non-compliant countries. They justified the results by explaining that when companies and governments know they are monitored, they tend to change their behaviours, and being busy in reporting what they do, they do not do much (Kolstad and Wiig, 2009). Furthermore, the transparency promoted by the EITI is limited to revenues, but neglects expenditures, awarding of contracts, public procurement, ownerships interests of public officials and illicit financial flows (Sovacool and Andrews, 2015; Kolstad and Wiig, 2009).

4.2. Transparency in the oil sector (74 out of 184 studies) From the mid-1990s, following a growing body of academic literature on the resource curse, journalists and activists from Human Rights Watch, Global Witness and Oxfam, focused on the topic of transparency in the oil sector by asking companies to publish their revenues. The civil society slogan, “Publish What You Pay”, which characterised the anticorruption activism at the end of the millennium, originated from a 1999 report from Global Witness on the opaque management of oil in Angola (Obeng-Odoom, 2014; Öge, 2016). As a response to the campaign, in February 2001, BP revealed a signature bonus payment of 111 million dollars to the Angolan government for an offshore license.8 Nonetheless, the disclosure provoked a backlash and threats on part of the government. The then Chief Executive Officer of BP, Lord John Browne, judged the disclosure a mistake. From that moment, oil companies started asking for a mechanism for information disclosure that would require companies and host governments to participate as peers. This chain of events led to the conception of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). The idea of more transparent mechanisms that would allow citizens to monitor the activities of companies and governments became the driving force for other actions, such as the United Nations Convention Against Corruption and the Council of Europe’s Group of States against Corruption (Pleines and Wöstheinrich, 2016). Nonetheless, the expectations raised by the EITI gave the impression that the fight against corruption in the extractive industries depended on its success (Kerr, 2011; Magno and Gatmaytan, 2017). Research managed to show strengths and weaknesses of the EITI, but judgements on its successes and failures are often based on different standards. In their systematic review of the literature on the EITI, Rustad, Le Billon and Lujala (2017) clarified that the success of the initiative should be evaluated based on 11 different goals, which can be distinguished as institutional, operational and developmental. While most of the studies agreed in recognizing the success of the institutional goals of the EITI, consisting in establishing the initiative as a worldwide recognized brand, results over operational and developmental goals were more discordant.

4.3. Accountability in the oil sector (12 out of 184 studies) Transparency is not enough to decrease corruption, but transparency and accountability together may be able to increase considerably the quality of governance of any country. This reasoning guided the creation of the Transparency and Accountability Initiative, a group of funders specialized in the promotion of programmes aimed at strengthening transparency and accountability worldwide. Among

8 For more details: EITI, History of the EITI: How It All Started, Where We Went and Where We Are Now https://eiti.org/history

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some of the funders, there are the Ford Foundation, Omidyar Network, the Open Society Foundations, the UK’s Department for International Development and the William & Flora Hewlett Foundation.9 So far, however, the impact of these initiatives has been ambiguous (Gaventa and Mcgee, 2013). The conviction that enhanced transparency may automatically lead to accountability is a myth. In authoritarian countries, the public exposure of shameless political leaders does not lead to any form of accountability. As discussed by Jonathan Fox (2007), transparency, intended as a bottom-up process where citizens monitor the actions of the government, can be either opaque or clear. Opaque transparency is what the EITI delivers today: an information disclosure that does not lead to a real understanding of what had been disclosed. Clear transparency is what the EITI aimed to become: a system empowering citizens to control the acts of extractive companies and governments. On the other hand, accountability can be either soft or strong. Soft accountability corresponds to a form of “answerability” (Fox, 2007, 665) that is not followed by punishment or political consequences, while strong accountability entails repercussions. As argued by Christopher Hood (2010), transparency and accountability are often portrayed as Siamese twins, but the reality is that the presence of one is more often accompanied by the absence of the other. Still, Fox (2007) noted that there is an overlap between the terms because clear transparency corresponds to soft accountability. Initiatives of Corporate Social Responsibility result from this culture and represent a good example of soft accountability. These deeds are meant to repay the social cost of indiscriminate development. If companies find cheaper bribing public officials than facing the costs of regular procedures, such initiatives can also be understood as a way to make amends for the damages provoked by corruption. The academic interest for a social responsibility of big corporations in counteracting the negative externalities resulting from their actions started in the 1950s (Bowen, 1953). However, the concept of accountability found renewed strength at the end of the 1990s in the fight for transparency. The whole process of advocacy promoted by NGOs rested on the assumption that transparency would have eventually led to accountability (Fox, 2007; Hood, 2010). Nevertheless, the analysis of the oil sector proves that this is not necessarily the case. Indeed, similarly to compliance with the EITI, companies decided to strengthen initiatives of Corporate Social Responsibility to improve their reputation (Uldam and Hansen, 2017; Amujo et al., 2012; Wiig and Kolstad, 2010). The projects promoted are often scattered and do not address the problems at their core (Gulbrandsen and Arild, 2007; Wiig and Kolstad, 2010). A more systematic and coordinated approach would enhance the benefits for the overall society, but at the present stage, Corporate Social Responsibility is neither working as originally envisioned nor helping societies to fight corruption (Engen et al., 2010; Gonzalez, 2016). These initiatives are used either as a facade or seen as a box to tick to continue doing business with corrupt governments (Gulbrandsen and Arild, 2007; Wiig and Kolstad, 2010).

growth of the country, Russia frequently becomes the case study (Dellecker and Gomart, 2011; Cerami, 2009; Rutland, 2015). Finally, many studies concern schemes for concrete management of oil resources, such as contracts, taxation and ownership, listing the pros and cons of every alternative presented (Mazaheri, 2014; Chang et al., 2018; Daniel et al., 2010). It could be argued that analysing these topics independently would have offered a deeper understanding of each. Nevertheless, as the exposition of the studies clarified, this systematic review is a meeting point of different streams of literature, which creates a narrative of the evolution of research on the oil sector. Hence, the topics are highly interconnected and illustrate different aspects of a unique story. Literature is fluid, and each study is a bridge between different topics. 5. Analysis As anticipated in the introduction, the analysis has been distinguished in bibliometric indicators, theoretical choices and methods employed. 5.1. Bibliometric indicators The premises discussed in the introduction showed the difficulty of measuring corruption in general. The hypothesis was that limiting the inquiry to specific sectors of the economy would increase the precision of results, particularly if these studies did not rely on perception-based indicators but rather on fact-based observations. In this sense, many authors focused on the study of corruption in the oil sector of resourcerich countries, as can be observed in Fig. 1. The figure above shows that the study of corruption in the oil sector of world economies largely started at the beginning of the millennium. Even if this topic is the meeting point between the literature on corruption and natural resources, this acceleration is decisively determined by the general growth of interest in corruption. In fact, in this systematic literature review, the studies on transparency in the oil sector represent 40.22% of the total, while studies on the resource curse compose 32.06%.10 Moreover, corruption, accounted as a cause for the occurrence of the resource curse, is also affecting the stream of the literature of the same name. Out of 184 studies analyzed, 83.69% were articles published in journals. Despite very similar topics, the 154 articles appeared in 108 different outlets, which indicates a high dispersion of knowledge through different sources. As expected, the journals in which articles appeared most frequently were those with a focus on energy and economic development: Energy Policy and Resources Policy published 9 articles each, followed by World Development with 8, and The Extractive Industries and Society and Crime, Law and Social Change with 7 articles. Politics & Policy, Third World Quarterly and International Affairs, also deserve mention, as they had 3 publications each. Finally, only 24.07% of journals had a focus on specific geopolitical areas. The authors that focused more on the topic were also those who delivered the most significant contributions in the field. The most productive researchers were Kerem Öge and the duo constituted by Ivar Kolstad and Arne Wiig, with 3 articles published. Benjamin K. Sovacool, Franklin Obeng-Odoom, Natascha S. Neudorfer, Yelena Kalyuzhova, Mohammad Reza Farzanegan, Ibaba S. Ibaba and the network of Appiah, Passumah, Ahmat and Sanusi authored 2. The average number of studies published by each of these authors is relatively low, but this depends on the perspective adopted to conduct this systematic review. Using the keyword search, “resource curse”, on the database of Scopus, the highest number of contributions are by Kolstad with 12, followed by

4.4. Oil management and energy strategies (39 out of 184 studies) The remaining studies are not part of an acknowledged stream of literature, but entail the analysis of different aspects of the management of oil or specific energy strategies. Many studies focus on oil as a geopolitical weapon necessary to achieve energy security. In this sense, the majority of studies are on China and its policies directed to ensure a sufficient inflow of energy supplies for its growing internal demand (Mommen, 2007; Vermeer, 2015; Smith Stegen, 2015; Chalmers and Mocker, 2017). Nevertheless, when the focus moves towards the analysis of successful management policies that ensured the economic 9

10 The systematic literature review is composed of 40.22% of studies on transparency, 32.06% on the resource curse, 21.19% on oil management and energy strategies and 6.53% on accountability.

See more: https://www.transparency-initiative.org/ 5

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Fig. 1. Total frequency of studies published every year on corruption in the oil sector.

Fig. 2. Total frequency of countries studied.

Wiig with 10, Obeng-Odoom with 9 and Sovacool with 8 publications.11 Still, the average number of authors per article is 2, which is not particularly high. Nonetheless, with the notable exception of Öge, most of the authors mentioned above took part in multi-authored publications. Kolstad and Wiig were particularly efficient, and their partnership allowed them to become two of the most productive authors in the field. Öge is an exception: he did not deliver a great number of publications but found his niche in the study of transparency, and as a result of both his flexibility and the similarities among post-Soviet countries, he was able to refocus his theoretical framework on different case studies. Finally, the remaining authors cited are country or regional specialists. The contributions of Kalyuzhova were both on Central Asia, the network of Appiah, Passumah, Ahmat and Sanusi focused on Ghana, while Ibaba specialized on the Niger delta. Despite their usefulness, these studies were not innovative, but rather empirical verifications of pre-discussed theories.

definition and the indexes used to measure it. As already mentioned, the general discussion over a comprehensive interpretation of corruption has been settled with the universally accepted definition as an abuse of public office for private gain (Shleifer and Vishny, 1993, 599).12 Still, this expression does not tell much about the concrete manifestations of corruption in specific sectors of the economy. In the literature analyzed, each author seems to give a different interpretation of what should be considered as corruption in the oil sector. For example, Abdullah et al., ((2018) define it as clientelism and patronage, while Jean C. Andvig (1995) distinguishes corruption from embezzlement. In acknowledging that each of the 184 studies incorporates the concept of corruption differently, it is important to note that 86.95% of them never clarify what they intend by corruption, giving the meaning for granted.13 In dealing with concrete cases, readers do not expect authors to digress on the issue of definition, but only 9.23% of the

5.2. Theoretical choices

12 Shleifer and Vishny refer specifically to the sale of public property by public officials for private gain. In the oil sector, this is also known as embezzlement. However, this universally accepted definition has different shades. 13 9.23% of studies referred to the definition of abuse of public office for private gain, while the remaining 3.82% gave alternative definitions, including purely legal ones.

The ongoing theoretical debates on corruption revolve around its 11

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studies referenced the problem, sketched categorizations or offered examples. Similarly, despite a growing criticism towards the perception-based indexes (Thompson and Shah, 2005; Pelizzo et al., 2017), the texts under scrutiny insist on privileging their use. In fact, out of 72 studies that employed indexes to measure corruption, 93% utilized perceptionbased indexes, while only 7% used alternative methods to deduct the overall amount of corruption from measurable phenomena. The increasing credibility of Transparency International has certainly contributed to this trend, as almost half of the studies relying on perception-based measurements resorted to the Corruption Perception Index. Nonetheless, only one study out of 67 used the index with the intent to measure the perception of corruption. The others simply conflated the real phenomenon with its perception.

superficiality in the use of research methods. On the contrary, the stream of literature on transparency started with repeated in-depth qualitative analyses, which suggested generalisations that were later tested with quantitative methods. The nature of the systematic review shifted the focus in favour of studies involving oil producers. The frequencies of countries researched have been illustrated in Fig. 2. The most interesting aspect highlighted by the figure is that the number of studies focusing on Nigeria is very close to the overall number of countries that were addressed only by one study in the review. This is indicative of bias of the literature with Nigeria, and more generally Africa. This is understandable, given that the discussion of the Dutch disease was already an independent topic before the advent of the literature on the resource curse (Corden, 1984). In this sense, corruption in Nigeria is central to this group of studies. On the contrary, studies on Post-Soviet countries stressed how these states escaped the curse, even if mechanisms of transparency and accountability were ineffective. Finally, publications on Iraq mostly addressed the effects of corruption on the emergence of political violence.

5.3. Methods employed This systematic review has clarified the streams of literature in which the analyzed studies belong. However, it is relevant to check methodologies and case study countries chosen to understand fully the extent to which these studies were incisive in delivering results. In terms of case selection, most of the research was conducted through case studies. 42.94% of the publications involved only one case against, 33.70% of cross-case analyses and 11.41% of comparisons.14 This suggests there may be a preference for qualitative methods. The prediction is confirmed by the fact that the qualitative approach was chosen in 43.48% of the cases against 34.78% of quantitative studies.15 Nevertheless, it is important to note that only 39% of the studies relying on quantitative methods were focusing on the stream of the literature of the resource curse. This means that authors relying on quantitative methods did not overexploit the topic, but balanced their analyses throughout different streams of literature. On the contrary, authors that opted for qualitative methods over-relied on document analysis, as 52.5% of them used it as their sole analytical tool. This methodological imbalance disrupts the equilibrium between approaches. Using only document analysis does not allow for the triangulation necessary to test the reliability of the sources. Eventually, this can compromise the very purpose of the qualitative approach, whose principal aim is not generalization, but depth . This pattern of methodological underutilization is reinforced in the comparison between the two main streams of literature selected by this systematic review. Another major difference between qualitative and quantitative approach lies in the type of reasoning entailed. Qualitative approaches are normally associated with inductive reasoning, while quantitative ones are associated with deductive. In this sense, the biggest mistake of the stream of literature on the resource curse is that it originated from deductive reasoning, which elevated an association between variables to the general rule. As previously discussed, this theory has a misleading name and a contested methodology. Nonetheless, since most of the papers adopting a qualitative approach relied simply on document and content analysis, the theory was not efficiently tested. As discussed in the previous section, the only real debate on the resource curse emerged among quantitative researchers, while deeper qualitative research should have offered suggestions for improvements. The research direction from deductive to inductive reasoning is functional in hard sciences, where theories can be verified via trial and error with repeated tests in laboratories, but social sciences have limited possibilities to conduct experiments. Therefore, the problem arose from the direction of the reasoning associated with a diffused

6. Conclusions and implications This systematic literature review aimed to analyze the literature on corruption in the oil sector of world economies. Through the exposition of the main bibliometric indicators, the study satisfied Bradford’s Law on the productivity of journals and Lotka’s Law on the efficiency of authors. The analysis was also able to assess the evolution of research on this particular topic by comparing the approach adopted by different streams of literature. Acknowledging the difference in results, the analysis was able to suggest the most efficient way to research corruption in specific sectors of the economy. The introduction started with the assessment that, despite many comprehensive definitions of corruption, most of them seem too general to yield understanding on whether concrete cases fit their interpretation, while quantitative approaches rely too often on perception-based indexes to measure corruption. The review revealed that these shortcomings also apply to the literature analysed in this paper. On the one hand, corruption is associated with acts performed in the shadow, but on the other, there is conviction for those who observe it an act of corruption is clear as the daylight. As a confirmation of this, Rothstein and Varraich (2017) showed that the understanding of corruption is shared throughout the world. Still, interpretations and terms vary. From embezzlement to bribing, from clientelism to patronage, corruption involves a series of phenomena that do apply neither in every sector nor every country. The review revealed that more than half of the qualitative literature analysed resorted to document and content analysis as a unique method for their study. If corruption can be recognised when seen, qualitative studies should rely on a wider range of methods to observe and triangulate its different manifestations. Such an approach would help to create a shared taxonomy of cases of corruption that apply to specific sectors of the economy, thereby limiting the scope of studies on the topic. As shown by the taxonomy on Nigeria, developed by Matthew Page for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, taxonomies of corruption are still too broad to be used as a starting point for quantitative analyses.16 This taxonomy found more than 500 types of corruption focusing solely on Nigeria. This systematic review suggests that, by focusing on specific sectors of the economy, qualitative researchers could limit the number of categories. Based on such taxonomies, quantitative research could apply fact-based indexes of corruption to different sectors of the economy. Although the World Bank has developed audit results, public procurement analyses and firm-level surveys

14 The other 9.78% of studies were theoretical, while the remaining 2.17% was grey literature. 15 Mixed methods are not a preferred choice and entail only 19.57% of studies, while grey literature is 2.17% of the total.

16 See the complete report at A New Taxonomy for Corruption in Nigeria: https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/07/17/new-taxonomy-for-corruptionin-nigeria-pub-76811 (accessed May 21st, 2019).

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on the study of corruption (The World Bank, 2009), these analyses did not rely on taxonomies developed through qualitative research, but instead targeted all countries and a different range of sectors. Such a choice risks acknowledging endemic corruption without considering the local perception of illegality (Polese, 2016). Corruption can be properly addressed only through the coordinated use of different methodological approaches from different actors, including academia, civil society and policymakers. A real multidisciplinary perspective on the problem would require the coordination of research and advocacy. The scattered attempts to photograph corruption through individual analyses revealed unpreparedness. Indeed,

to reconstruct the image of a fleeting object like corruption, researchers must coordinate the angles of the shots of the different photographers. Funding This work was supported by the Research and Innovation Staff Exchange project SHADOW: An exploration of the nature of informal economies and shadow practices in the former USSR region, financed by the EU Commission [grant agreement ID: 778188].

Appendix A

Fig. A1. Records of studies on corruption by year, 1975-2018. Source: Scopus database

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Fig. A2. Systematic Literature Review Process, PRISMA flow-diagram.

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Table A1 Checklist of items to include when reporting a systematic review or meta-analysis. Selection topic

#

Checklist item

Reported on page #

TITLE Title ABSTRACT Structured summary

1

Identify the report as a systematic review, meta-analysis, or both.

1

2

1

INTRODUCTION Rationale Objectives

Provide a structured summary including, as applicable: background; objectives; data sources; study eligibility criteria; participants, and interventions; study appraisal and synthesis methods; results; limitations; conclusions and implications of key findings; systematic review registration number.

3 4

1 –

METHODS Protocol and registration

Describe the rationale for the review in the context of what is already known. Provide an explicit statement of questions being addressed with reference to participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design (PICOS).

5

–

Eligibility criteria

6

Information sources

7

Search

8

Study selection

9

Data collection process

10

Data items

11

Risk of bias in individual studies

12

Summary measures Synthesis of results

13 14

Risk of bias across studies

15

Additional analyses

16

RESULTS Study selection

Indicate if a review protocol exists, if and where it can be accessed (e.g., Web address), and, if available, provide registration information including registration number. Specify study characteristics (e.g., PICOS, length of follow-up) and report characteristics (e.g., years considered, language, publication status) used as criteria for eligibility, giving rationale. Describe all information sources (e.g., databases with dates of coverage, contact with study authors to identify additional studies) in the search and date last searched. Present full electronic search strategy for at least one database, including any limits used, such that it could be repeated. State the process for selecting studies (e.g., screening, eligibility, included in the systematic review, and, if applicable, included in the meta-analysis). Describe the method of data extraction from reports (e.g., piloted forms, independently, in duplicate) and any processes for obtaining and confirming data from investigators. List and define all variables for which data were sought (e.g., PICOS, funding sources) and any assumptions and simplifications made. Describe methods used for assessing the risk of bias of individual studies (including specification of whether this was done at the study or outcome level), and how this information is to be used in any data synthesis. State the principal summary measures (e.g., risk ratio, difference in means). Describe the methods of handling data and combining results of studies, if done, including measures of consistency (e.g., I2) for each meta-analysis. Specify any assessment of risk of bias that may affect the cumulative evidence (e.g., publication bias, selective reporting within studies). Describe methods of additional analyses (e.g., sensitivity or subgroup analyses, meta-regression), if done, indicating which were pre-specified.

17

Study characteristics

18

Risk of bias within studies Results of individual studies

19 20

Synthesis of results Risk of bias across studies Additional analysis DISCUSSION Summary of evidence

21 22 23

Limitations

25

Conclusions

26

FUNDING Funding

27

24

Give numbers of studies screened, assessed for eligibility, and included in the review, with reasons for exclusion at each stage, ideally with a flow-diagram. For each study, present characteristics for which data were extracted (e.g., study size, PICOS, follow-up period) and provide the citations. Present data on the risk of bias of each study and, if available, any outcome-level assessment (see item 12). For all outcomes considered (benefits or harms), present, for each study: (a) simple summary data for each intervention group and (b) effect estimates and confidence intervals, ideally with a forest plot. Present results of each meta-analysis done, including confidence intervals and measures of consistency. Present results of any assessment of the risk of bias across studies (see item 15). Give results of additional analyses, if done (e.g., sensitivity or subgroup analyses, meta-regression [see item 16]). Summarize the main findings including the strength of evidence for each main outcome; consider their relevance to key groups (e.g., health care providers, users, and policymakers). Discuss limitation at study and outcome level (e.g., risk of bias) and at review level (e.g., incomplete retrieval of identified research, reporting bias). Provide a general interpretation of the results in the context of other evidence, and implications for future research. Describe sources of funding for the systematic review and other support (e.g., supply of data); role of funders for the systematic review.

Adapted from Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman and the PRISMA Group (Moher et al., 2009).

10

2 2 2 2 – 2 – – – 2 2 9 11–19 – 2–5 2–7 5–7 5–7 5-7 2 and 22–23 7 7

11

Case study

Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative

Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative

Quantitative

Neill K. A. & Morris, J. C. Omoteso, K. & Yusuf, H. Chanis, J. Omitted Appiah, M. K. et al. Gupta, K. Rasizade, A. Koyama, S. K. Gulbrandsen, L. & Moe, A. Ikeanyibe O. M. Kaiser, M. J. & Pulsipher, A. G. Qualitative

Quantitative

Kyj, M. J. & Kyj, L. S.

Fjelde, H. Neudorfer, N. S. & Theuerkauf, U. G. Puppim de Oliveira, J. A. Ahrend, R. Hosuego, D. Nichol, J. Taylor, I. Lee, C. Wehner, J. & De Renzio, P.

A Relational Framework for Analyzing Ventures in Cognitive Environments: Illustrations from the TNK-BP Experience A Tangled Web of Principal and Agents: Examining the Deep-Water Horizon Oil Spill through a Principal-Agent Lens Accountability of Transnational Corporations in the Developing World: The Case for an Enforceable International Mechanism An Agenda for U.S.–China Oil and Gas Dialogue and Cooperation

Angola's Uncertain Transition Applicability of Theory of Constraint in Predicting Ghanaian SMEs Investment Decision

Are Oil and Gas Firms More Likely to Engage in Unethical Practices than Other Firms?

Azerbaijan, the U.S., and Oil Prospects on the Caspian Sea

Black Gold or Excrement of the Devil? The Externalities of Oil Production in Papua New Guinea BP in Azerbaijan: A Test Case of the Potential and Limits of the CSR Agenda? Bureaucratic Politics and the Implementation of Liberalization Reforms in Nigeria: A Study of the Unbundling and Reorganization of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation Business Environment Still Seen as Risky in Kazakhstan

Buying Peace? Oil Wealth, Corruption and Civil War, 1985–99

Buying War Not Peace: The Influence of Corruption on the Risk of Ethnic War

Central Asia's Security: Issues and Implications for U.S. Interests

China’s Oil Diplomacy in Africa

Chinese Outward Investment in Oil and Its Economic and Political Impact in Developing Countries Citizens, Legislators, and Executive Disclosure: The Political Determinants of Fiscal Transparency Clientelism: Factionalism in the Allocation of Public Resources in Iraq After 2003

Qualitative

Qualitative

Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Qualitative Quantitative

Mixed

Corruption and Civic Space: Contextual Factors Influencing EITI Compliance

Magno, C. & Gatmaytan, D.

Quantitative

Abdullah, S., Gray, T. & Clough, Qualitative E. Commodities and Corruption – How the Middle Class and Democratic Institutions Lead to Less Neudorfer, N. S. Quantitative Corruption in Resource-Rich Countries Corporate Anti-Corruption Disclosure: An Examination of the Impact of Media Exposure and Blanc, R. et al. Quantitative Country-Level Press Freedom Corporate Governments: Government Connections of Public Oil and Gas Companies Kogan, T. B. & SalganikQuantitative Shoshan, G. Corporate Responses to Stakeholder Activism: Partnerships and Surveillance Uldam, J. & Hansen, H. K. Qualitative Corporate Social Responsibility in the Oil and Gas Industry in Qatar Perceptions and Practices Kirat, K. Qualitative

Can Corporate Power Positively Transform Angola and Equatorial Guinea? Can Russia Break the "Resource Curse"? Central Asia: The Implications of Domestic Change

Case study Case study

Quantitative

Boyd, M. et al.

Time-series crosscountry analysis

Comparison Case study

Cross-country analysis

Cross-country analysis

Cross-country analysis

Case study

Cross-country analysis

Comparison

Case study

Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Comparison Case study Theoretical

Case study

Case study

Cross-country analysis

Case study Cross-case analysis

Comparison

Case study

Case study

Case study

Case study

Case study

A Note on Policies for the Oil and Gas Sector

Qualitative

Lyall, A.

Case selection

A Moral Economy of Oil: Corruption Narratives of Oil Elites in Ecuador

Approach

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 Studies included in the systematic review.

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and logistic regression) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Ethnography and document analysis Interviews, critical discourse analysis and document analysis Statistical analysis (logistic regression model)

(continued on next page)

Transparency

Accountability Accountability

Transparency

Accountability

Resource curse

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil man./ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Accountability

Accountability

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Accountability

Transparency

Topic

Oil management/ strategy Critical discourse analysis and document Oil management/ analysis strategy Critical discourse analysis and interviews Accountability Critical discourse analysis and document Oil management/ analysis strategy Document analysis Oil management/ strategy Statistical analysis (logistic regression Resource curse model) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics Resource curse and multivariate regression) Ethnography Accountability Document analysis Resource curse Document analysis Oil management/ strategy Document analysis Oil management/ strategy Document analysis Oil management/ strategy Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics Transparency and multivariate regression) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics Transparency and OLS multivariate regression) Ethnography Transparency

Document analysis Statistical analysis (binary logistic regression model) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and logistic regression) Document analysis

Document analysis

Ethnography, critical discourse analysis and interviews Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (relationship matrix and multivariate regression) Critical discourse analysis and document analysis Document analysis

Methods

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12

Qualitative Mixed Qualitative

Le Billon, P. Sovacool, B. K. Engen, O. A., Mikkelsen, A. & Grønhaug, K. Patey, L. A. Yannikaya, H. & Turan, T.

Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Comparison

Quantitative Quantitative

Ishiyama, J., Martinez, M. & Ozsut, M. Teixeira, A. A. C., Forte, R. & Assunção, S. Vadlamannati, K. C. & De Soysa, I. Vicente, P. C.

Mixed

Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Mixed

Kalyuzhnova, Y. Anthonsen, M. et al. Öge, K. Sovacool, B. K. et al. Obydenkova, A. Nwapi, C. Daniel, P. et al.

Effects of Rent Dependency on Quality of Government

Elite Preferences and Transparency Promotion in Kazakhstan Energy Governance, Transnational Rules, and the Resource Curse: Exploring the Effectiveness of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) Energy Issues in the Context of the Regime Transition of Post-Soviet Eurasia: National and International Dimension Enhancing the Effectiveness of Transparency in Extractive Resource Governance: A Nigerian Case Study Evaluating Fiscal Regimes for Resource Projects an Example from Oil Development

Quantitative

Mixed

Sovacool, B. K. & Andrews, N.

Mixed

Quantitative

Cross-country analysis

Qualitative

Haufler, V.

Theoretical

Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Comparison

Comparison

Theoretical

Case study

Mixed

Limam, M. H.

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Qualitative

Quantitative

Case study Cross-country analysis

Case study

Case study Case study

Case study

Comparison

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study Times-series crosscountry analysis Comparison

Cross-country analysis Theoretical

Case study

Case selection

Bjorvatn, K. & Farzanegan, M. R. Gberevbie, D. E. et al.

Qualitative Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Andvig, J. C. Nwapi, C.

Mixed

Frahm, O.

Qualitative Quantitative

Does Transparency Matter? Evaluating the Governance Impacts of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Azerbaijan and Liberia Economics of the Caspian Oil and Gas Wealth

Does Oil Corrupt? Evidence from a Natural Experiment in West Africa

Deregulation Policy and Development in Nigeria: The Petroleum Sector Experience, 19992014 Detailed Analysis of the Phenomenon of Political Corruption in Algeria: Causes, Repercussions and Reform Disclosure as Governance: The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and Resource Management in the Developing World Do “Resource-Cursed States” Have Lower Levels of Social and Institutional Trust? Evidence from Africa and Latin America Do Countries' Endowments of Non-Renewable Energy Resources Matter for FDI Attraction? A Panel Data Analysis of 125 countries Over the Period 1995–2012 Do Resource-Wealthy Rulers Adopt Transparency-Promoting Laws?

Demographic Transition in Resource Rich Countries: A Blessing or a Curse?

Crude Days Ahead? Oil and The Resource Curse in Sudan Curse or Blessing? An Empirical Reexamination of Natural Resource-Growth Nexus

Corruption Vulnerabilities in Local Content Policies in the Extractive Sector: An Examination of the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development Act, 2010 Corruption, Reconstruction and Oil Governance in Iraq Countering a Corrupt Oil Boom: Energy justice, Natural Resource Funds, and Saõ Tomé e Príncipe’s Oil Revenue Management Law Critical Incidents and Social Construction of Corporate Social Responsibility

Corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa’s Established and Simulated Democracies: The Cases of Ghana, Nigeria and South Sudan Corruption in the North Sea Oil Industry: Issues and Assessments

Corruption and the Securitisation of Nature Corruption and the Shadow Economy: Like Oil and Vinegar, Like Water and Fire?

Quantitative

Quantitative Qualitative

Okada, K. & Samreth, S. Al-Kasim, F., Søreide, T. & Williams, A. AljazaerliI, M. A., Sirop, R. & Mouselli, S. White, R. Buehn, A. & Schneider, F.

Corruption and Stock Market Development: New Evidence from GCC countries

Mixed

Nwabuzor, A.

Corruption and Development: New Initiatives in Economic Openness and Strengthened Rule of Law Corruption and Natural Resource Rents: Evidence from Quantile Regression Corruption and Reduced Oil Production: An Additional Resource Curse Factor?

Approach

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 (continued)

Resource curse

Transparency Transparency

Transparency

Transparency Resource curse

Transparency

Topic

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Descriptive statistics and document analysis

Interviews and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and Wilcoxon test) Document analysis

Statistical analysis (logistic regression model) Statistical analysis (OLS and GLS regressions) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Experiment, descriptive statistics and multivariate regressions Descriptive statistics and document analysis Interviews, descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (GLS regressions)

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis

Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Document analysis

Document analysis Descriptive statistics and document analysis Interviews and document analysis

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Oil management/ Energy strategy

Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Transparency Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Transparency

Resource curse

Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Resource curse

Resource curse Resource curse

Accountability

Resource curse Transparency

Interviews, critical discourse analysis and Transparency document analysis Document analysis Transparency

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and Structural Equation Model) Survey data and ethnography

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (quantile regression) Interviews

Methods

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Quantitative

Mixed Qualitative

Kaitibie, S., Ai Jaidah, M. I. & Haq M. M. Appiah, M. K. et al. OECD Wenar, L. Ashby, N. J. & Ramos, M. A. Williams Jr., R. E. Akanle, O., Adebayo, K. & Adetayo, O. Öge, K.

Fighting Corruption and Promoting Integrity in Public Procurement Fighting the Resource Curse Foreign Direct Investment and Industry Response to Organized Crime: The Mexican Case

From Malabo to Malibu: Addressing Corruption and Human Rights Abuse in an African Petrostate Fuel Subsidy in Nigeria: Contexts of Governance and Social Protest

Quantitative

Mehanna, R., Yazbeck, Y. & Sarieddine, L. Mamun, M. A., Sohag, K. & Hassan, M. K. Strønen, I. A.

13 Mixed Quantitative Quantitative

Silvestre, H. C. et al. Yaduma, N. Chang, C. et al.

Kolstad, I., Wiig, A. & Williams, Mixed A. Wiig, A. & Kolstad, I. Mixed

Mission Improbable: Does Petroleum-Related Aid Address the Resource Curse?

Multinational Corporations and Host Country Institutions: A Case Study of CSR Activities in Angola

Obeng-Odoom, F.

Measuring What? “Success” and “Failure” in Ghana's Oil Industry

Mixed

Gray literature Gray literature Qualitative Theoretical Mixed Case study

EY Devlin, J. & Lewin, M. Simon, G.

Case study

Case study

Case study

Case study

Qualitative

Aloise de Seabra, A. et al.

Comparison

Qualitative

Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Case study

Olawuyi, D. S.

Al Rawashdeh, R. & Maxwell, P. Mixed

Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative

Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Comparison Case study Case study

Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-country analysis

Case study

Comparison

Case study

Cross-sectional time series Time-series cross-case analysis Case study Theoretical Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Case study

Cross-case analysis

Case selection

Legal Strategies and Tools for Mitigating Legal Risks Associated with Oil and Gas Investments in Africa Management of Pre-Salt Oil Royalties: Wealth or Poverty for Brazilian Coastal Zones as a Result? Managing Bribery and Corruption Risks in the Oil and Gas Industry Managing Oil Booms and Busts in Developing Countries Market Reforms and “Economic Miracle” in Kazakhstan

Illicit Markets, Weak States and Violence: Iraq and Mexico Illusionary Transparency? Oil Revenues, Information Disclosure, and Transparency Impact of Corporate Social Irresponsibility on the Corporate Image and Reputation of Multinational Oil Corporations in Nigeria Implementation of Brazil's Energy Policy through the National Oil Company: From Institutional Chaos to Strategic Order Investigating the Oil Curse in OECD and Non-OECD Oil-Exporting Economies Using Green Measures of Income Is Higher Government Efficiency Conducive to Improving Energy Use Efficiency? Evidence from OECD Countries Jordan, Minerals Extraction and the Resource Curse

Quantitative

Identifying the Factors Affecting the Economic Growth of Oil-Producing Countries

Bozkurt, O. G., Erdem, C. & Eroğlu, I. Williams, P. Yaw Ofori, J. J. & Lujala, P. Amujo, O. C. et al.

Quantitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Obeng-Odoom, F.

Mixed

Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative

Growth Volatility and Resource Curse: Does Financial Development Dampen the Oil Shocks? Moradbeigi, M. & Law, S. H.

Grassroots Politics and Oil Culture in Venezuela The Revolutionary Petro-State

Global Political Economy and Frontier Economies in Africa: Implications from the Oil and Gas Industry in Ghana Governance and Economic Development in MENA Countries: Does Oil Affect the Presence of a Virtuous Circle? Governance, Resources and Growth

Geopolitics and Revenue Transparency in Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan

Qualitative

Mouan, L. C.

Quantitative

Quantitative

Villar, P. F. & Papyrakis, E.

Evaluating the Impact of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) on Corruption in Zambia Exploring the Potential Benefits of Asian Participation in the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: The Case of China Export Market Concentration and the Potential for Export Market Diversification in the Oil and Gas Sector in a Small Open Economy External Environment and SMEs Investment in the Ghanaian Oil and Gas Sector

Approach

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 (continued)

Gray literature Document analysis Descriptive statistics analysis Descriptive statistics analysis Descriptive statistics analysis Descriptive statistics analysis

and document

and document

and document

and document

Legal analysis and document analysis

Interviews, descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (Arellano–Bond difference GMM method) Statistical analysis (DCCE regression, Vector Error Correction Model) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Legal analysis

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and GMM) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and CD test) Ethnography, interviews and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and GMM) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics, panel unit root and cointegration) Ethnography and document analysis Interviews and document analysis Interviews and document analysis

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and gravity model) Statistical analysis (binary logistic regression model) Document analysis Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and Synthetic Control Method) Document analysis

Methods

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Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Transparency Resource curse Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Transparency Transparency Accountability

Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Resource curse

Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse

Transparency

Transparency

Resource curse

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency Resource curse Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Topic

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The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Mixed Quantitative

Oil and Gas Journal Majbouri, M. Aoun, M. Piazza, J. A. Heilbrunn, J. R. Obi, C. Blanco, L. R., Nugent, J. B. & O’Connor, K. J. Mähler, A. Arezki, R. & Brückner, M. Mazaheri, N. Smith, D. J. Shaxson, N. Colgan, J. D. García-Rodríguez, J. L. et al. Ladd, A. E. Nakhle, C. Rutland, P.

Oil and Gas Resources of the Middle East and North Africa: A Curse or a Blessing?

Oil and Terrorism: An Investigation of Mediators

Oil and Water? Elite Politicians and Corruption in France Oil as the ‘Curse’ of Conflict in Africa: Peering through the Smoke & Mirrors Oil Curse and Institutional Changes: Which Institutions Are Most Vulnerable to the Curse and Under What Circumstances? Oil in Venezuela: Triggering Conflicts or Ensuring Stability? A Historical Comparative Analysis Oil Rents, Corruption, and State Stability: Evidence from Panel Data Regressions

Oil Wealth, Colonial Legacies, and the Challenges of Economic Liberalization

Oil, Blood and Money: Culture and Power in Nigeria

Oil, Corruption and the Resource Curse Oil, Domestic Politics, and International Conflict

Oil, Power, and Poverty in Angola

Pandora’s Well: Hubris, Deregulation, Fossil Fuels, and the BP Oil Disaster in the Gulf Petroleum Fiscal Regimes Evolution and Challenges

Petronation? Oil, Gas, and National Identity in Russia

Case study Theoretical

Qualitative Mixed

Oil and Corruption Oil and Entrepreneurship

Time-series crosscountry analysis Theoretical Theoretical

14 Qualitative

Mixed Quantitative Qualitative Mixed

Sepehri, M. & Qadiri, M. Haass, F. & Ottmann, M. Transparency International Transparency International Boutilier, R. G. Ahmed, F. Z.

Professional Resistance against Competitive Public Procurement in Iran

Profits from Peace: The Political Economy of Power-Sharing and Corruption

Promoting Revenue Transparency 2008 Report on Revenue Transparency of Oil and Gas Companies Promoting Revenue Transparency 2008 Report on Revenue Transparency of Oil and Gas Companies Raiding the Honey Pot: The Resource Curse and Weak Institutions at the Project Level Remittances Deteriorate Governance

Quantitative

Case study

Qualitative

Time-series cross-case analysis Case study Time-series crosscountry analysis

Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-case analysis

Case study

Case study

Qualitative

Case study

Case study Theoretical

Case study

Theoretical Cross-country analysis

Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study Theoretical Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Poverty, Oil and Corruption: The Need for a Quad-Sector Development Partnership (QSDP) in Gonzalez, A. Nigeria’s Niger Delta Privatisation and Accountability in a “Crony Capitalist” Nigerian State Bakre, O. M. & Lauwo, S.

Mixed

Qualitative Qualitative

Mixed

Qualitative Quantitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative

Quantitative

Gray literature Gray literature Quantitative Time-series crosscountry analysis Mixed Comparison

Qualitative Qualitative

Quantitative Quantitative

Natural Resources and Corruption in Post-War Transitions: Matters of Trust Natural Resources, Conflict, and Sustainable Development Lessons from the Niger Delta (Introduction) New Wine in New Wine Skins: The Anti-Corruption Framework of Ghana Oil Abundance and Violent Political Conflict: A Critical Assessment

Natural Resource Rents and Internal Conflicts: Can Decentralization Lift the Curse?

Dadasov, R., Hefeker, C. & Lorz, O. Farzanegan, M. R., Lessmann, C. & Markwardt, G. Le Billon, P. Ukaga, O., Ukiwo, U. O. & and Ibaba, I. S. Adadevoh, E. A. Di John, J.

Natural Resource Extraction, Corruption, and Expropriation

Cross-sectional timeseries analysis Theoretical

Case selection

Quantitative

Ogunleye, E. K.

Natural Resource Abundance in Nigeria: From Dependence to Development

Approach

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 (continued)

Resource curse

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse Resource curse

Transparency

Resource curse

Transparency Resource curse Resource curse

Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency Transparency

Resource curse Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency Resource curse

Resource curse

Transparency

Resource curse

Topic

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Legal analysis, descriptive statistics and document analysis Legal analysis, descriptive statistics and document analysis Interviews and document analysis Natural experiment and Statistical analysis (OLS regressions)

Interviews and document analysis

Interviews and document analysis

(continued on next page)

Resource curse Resource curse

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Transparency Oil management/ Energy strategy Interviews, surveys and critical discourse Oil management/ Energy analysis strategy Document analysis Accountability

Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis Document analysis

Legal analysis and document analysis Descriptive statistics and document analysis Gray literature Statistical analysis (Arellano–Bond difference GMM method) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and Structural Equation Model) Document analysis Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and GMM) Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Document analysis

Statistical analysis (cointegration and error-correction mechanism) Statistical analysis (3 stage Least Square Method) Statistical analysis (OLS and GLS regression analyses) Document analysis Document analysis

Methods

G.M. Moisé

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Qualitative Quantitative

Steinberg, D. Ogwumike, F. O. & Ogunleye, E. K. James, H. Timmons, J. F. & Garfias, F. Rees, P. J. Khanna, A. A. Treisman, D. Aleksashenko, S.

Resource Shocks and Human Capital Stocks – Brain Drain or Brain Gain?

Resource-led Development: An Illustrative Example from Nigeria

Resources, Rent-Seeking, and Reform in Thailand and Myanmar (Burma): The EconomicsPolitics Nexus Revealed Corruption, Taxation, and Fiscal Accountability: Evidence from Brazil

Revenue Transparency: Global, not Local Solutions Revisiting the Oil Curse: Does Ownership Matter?

Russia Renewed?

Russia’s Economic Agenda to 2020

15 Qualitative Quantitative

Sharing Resource Wealth for Peace: A Chinese Strategy to Cope with the Resource Curse Shining a Light on the Resource Curse: An Empirical Analysis of the Relationship Between Natural Resources, Transparency, and Economic Growth Sources of Corruption: A Cross-Country Study

Kolstad, I. & Wiig, A.

Idemudia, U., Cragga, W. & Best, B. Yeager, M. G. Langsted, P. D. & Langsted, L. B. Pitlik, H., Frank, B. & Firchow, M. The Effect of Trust and Corruption on Public Preferences for Cash Transfers from Oil Revenues Sulemana, I. in Ghana The Effects of Increased Revenue Transparency in the Extractives Sector: The Case of the Corrigan, C. C. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative The Effects of Institutions and Natural Resources in Heterogeneous Growth Regimes Belarbi, Y., Sami, L. & Souam, S. The Effects of Majority State Ownership of Significant Economic Sectors on Corruption: A Quinn, J. J. Cross-Regional Comparison

The Challenges and Opportunities of Implementing the Integrity Pact as a Strategy for Combating Corruption in Nigeria's Oil Rich Niger Delta Region The CIA Made Me Do It: Understanding the Political Economy of Corruption in Kazakhstan The Civil Law Consequences of Corruption According to the Laws of the Least Corrupt Country in the World – Denmark The Demand for Transparency: An Empirical Note

Testing the Pearl Hypothesis: Natural resources and trust

Case study Case study Cross-country analysis Cross-case analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-country analysis

Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-country analysis

Theoretical Comparison

Case study Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-country analysis

Case study Case study Case study

Case study

Cross-sectional timeseries analysis Theoretical Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Time-series crosscountry analysis Cross-sectional timeseries analysis Comparison

Comparison

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Case study

Case study

Case selection

Qualitative

Quantitative

Montinola, G. R. & Jackman, R. Quantitative W. Stabilize, Rebuild, Prevent? An Overview of Post-Conflict Resource Management Tools Roy, V. Qualitative State Governance Evolution in Resource-Rich Transition Economies: An Application to Russia Kalyuzhnova, Y. & Nygaard, C. Qualitative and Kazakhstan Supply Response, Economic Diversification and Recovery Strategy in the Oil Sector Adelaja, A. O. & Akaeze, H. O. Quantitative

Zeng, M. & Zhan, J. V. Williams, A.

Qualitative Qualitative Mixed

Russian Direct Investments in Poland: A Case of Lukoil Runiewicz, M. Saving Ghana from Its Oil: A Critical Assessment of Preparations so Far Made Van Gyampo, R. E. Scale, Local Content and the Challenges of Ghanaians Employment in the Oil and Gas Industry Ablo, A. D.

Mixed

Qualitative

Qualitative Quantitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Mixed

Pomfret, R.

Quantitative

Mixed

Resource Management and Transition in Central Asia, Azerbaijan and Mongolia

Ansari, D.

Resource Curse Contagion in the Case of Yemen

Qualitative

Mixed

Patey, L. A.

Requiem for a Dream?

Approach

Resource Curse or Rentier Peace? The Ambiguous Effects of Oil Wealth and Oil Dependence on Basedau, M. & Lay, J. Violent Conflict Resource Curse: Case Study of Nigeria Zubikova, A.

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 (continued)

Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Transparency Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Resource curse Transparency

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency Resource curse Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse Resource curse

Transparency Resource curse

Transparency

Resource curse

Resource curse

Resource curse

Resource curse

Resource curse

Resource curse

Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse

Topic

Statistical analysis (OLS and Tobit regressions)

(continued on next page)

Transparency

Statistical analysis (threshold regression) Resource curse

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and logistic regression) Statistical analysis (OLS regressions)

Statistical analysis (probit regression)

Legal analysis Legal analysis

Document analysis Legal analysis, descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (random effects model and regressions) Statistical analysis (multivariate regression) Legal analysis and document analysis

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis Legal analysis and document analysis Legal analysis, descriptive statistics, interviews and document analysis Interviews and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and GMM) Statistical analysis (OLS regressions)

Statistical analysis (multivariate regression) Legal analysis Statistical analysis (multivariate regression) Document analysis

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and multivariate regression) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression) Statistical analysis (vector error correction model ECM) Document analysis

Document analysis

Methods

G.M. Moisé

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

16

Mixed Quantitative Gray literature Qualitative Quantitative

Hickey, W. Brollo, F. et al. Oil Change International Asadov, F. Kaghazian, S., Naghdi, Y. & Pourshian, N. Hammond, J. L.

Under-Development in Practice: Nigeria and the Enduring Problem of Corruption Welfare State Developments in the Russian Federation: Oil-led Social Policy and ‘The Russian Miracle’ What Have We Learned about the Resource Curse? Who Bribes? Evidence from the United Nations’ Oil-For-Food Program

Turbulent Oil: Conflict and Insecurity in the Niger Delta Uncertainty Challenge Operators in Promising Kazakhstan

To Disclose or Not to Disclose: How Global Competition for Foreign Direct Investment Influences Transparency Reforms in Extractive Industries Transparency in Nigeria’s Oil and Gas Industry: Is Policy Re-engineering the Way Out?

The Tengiz Oil Enclave: Labor, Business, and The State The Turbulent Liquid Fuel Industry in Zimbabwe: Options for Resolving the Crisis and Improving Supply to the Poor Time Consistency in Petroleum Taxation Lessons from Norway

Qualitative

The Taxation of Petroleum and Minerals Introduction

Time-series crosscountry analysis Case study

Case study

Case study Case study

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and logistic regression) Legal analysis and document analysis

Interviews and ethnography Legal analysis, descriptive statistics and document analysis Legal analysis and document analysis

Document analysis

Regressions and document analysis Statistical analysis (regressions) Gray literature Legal analysis and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and regressions) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and GMM) Descriptive statistics and document analysis Document analysis

Descriptive statistics and document analysis

Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and regressions) Legal analysis and document analysis

Document analysis

Descriptive statistics and document analysis Legal analysis and document analysis

Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative

Agbiboa, D. Cerami, A. Ross, M. L. Jeong, Y. & Weiner, R. J.

Theoretical Cross-case analysis

Case study Case study

Document analysis Statistical analysis (descriptive statistics and OLS multivariate regression)

Document analysis Document analysis

Oyewunmi, O. A. & Olujobi, O. Qualitative J. Watts, M. J. & Ibaba, I. S. Qualitative Case study/Theoretical Legal analysis and document analysis Oil and Gas Journal Gray literature Gray literature Gray literature

Quantitative

Qualitative

Osmundsen, P. Öge, K.

Qualitative Mixed

Daniel, D., Keen, M. & McPherson, C. Yessenova, S. Mashange, K.

Theoretical

Comparison

Qualitative

Mixed

The Resource Curse: Analysis of the Applicability to the Large-Scale Export of Electricity from Eisgruber, L. Renewable Resources The Scramble for African Oil Yates, D.

Theoretical Case study/Theoretical Gray literature Case study Time-series crosscountry analysis Comparison

Case study

Cross-sectional timeseries analysis Comparison

Case study

Case study

Comparison

Time-series crosscountry analysis Comparison

Busse, M. & Gröning, S.

Mixed

Gonzalez, A.

Mixed

Qualitative

Qualitative

Vermeer, E. B. Quantitative

Qualitative

Leenders, R.

Gankou, J., Bendoma, M. & Sow, M. N. Pleines, H. & Wöstheinrich, R.

Mixed

Hilson, G. & Maconachie, R.

Statistical analysis (Tobit regressions)

Cross-sectional timeseries analysis Case study Interviews and document analysis

Statistical analysis (GMM regressions)

Methods

Cross-country analysis

Case selection

Quantitative

The Resource Curse Revisited: Governance and Natural Resources

The Resource Curse and Oil Revenues in Angola and Venezuela

The Institutional Environment and the Link between Capital Flows and Capital Flight in Cameroon The International–Domestic Nexus in Anticorruption Policy Making: The Case of Caspian Oil and Gas States The Land of Black Gold, Corruption, Poverty and Sabotage: Overcoming the Niger Delta’s Problems through the Establishment of a Nigerian Non-Renewable Revenue Special Fund (NNRSF) The Oil PSA and Its Inverse Effect on Human Resource Development (HRD) The Political Resource Curse The Price of Oil: Corruption The Public Oversight of Oil Projects in Azerbaijan, 2004–2007 The Relationship Between Tax Effort and Oil Revenue in Selected Oil Countries

Qualitative

Sturesson, A. & Zobel, T.

Ebeke, C. H. & Ntsama Etoundi, Quantitative S. M. Chalmers, A. W. & Mocker, S. T. Quantitative

The Effects of Natural Resources on Urbanization, Concentration, and Living Standards in Africa The End of Exceptionalism? Explaining Chinese National Oil Companies’ Overseas Investments The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in Uganda: Who will take the lead when the government falters? The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative: Panacea or white elephant for sub-Saharan Africa? The First Time as Tragedy, the Second as Farce? Lebanon’s Nascent Petroleum Sector and the Risks of Corruption The Global Expansion of Chinese Oil Companies: Political Demands, Profitability and Risks

Approach

Author(s)

Title

Table A2 (continued)

Resource curse Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse Transparency

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency Transparency

Resource curse

Resource curse

Accountability Resource curse Transparency Transparency Oil management/ Energy strategy Resource curse

Transparency

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Transparency

Transparency

Oil management/ Energy strategy Transparency

Transparency

Topic

G.M. Moisé

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

G.M. Moisé

Table A3 Studies excluded with motivation. Title

Author(s)

Year

Reason for Exclusion*

Access to Safe Water Aid an Institutions in Transition Economies Brunei in 2015: Oil Revenues Down, Sharia on the Rise Bunkering Activities in Nigerian Waters and Their Eco-Economic Consequences Bureaucratic Corruption as a Consequence of the Gulf migration: The Case of North Yemen

Holmberg, S., & Rothstein B. Askarov, Z., & Doucouliagos, H. Muller, D. M. Babatunde, B. B., et al. Sultan, N. A.

2012 2015 2016 2018 1993

Causes and Consequences of Crude Oil Pipeline Vandalism in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis Approach Chinese Practice in Public International Law: 2010 Co-Investment and Clientelism as Informal Institutions: Beyond ‘Good Enough’ Property Rights Protection Consolidating or Corrupting the Peace? The Power Elite and Amnesty Policy in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria Corruption and Inequality at the Crossroad: A Multimethod Study of Bribery and Discrimination in Latin America Corruption and Oil Exploration: Expert Agreement About the Prevention of HIV/AIDS in the Niger Delta of Nigeria Corruption, Democracy, and Economic Growth

Umar, A. T., & Othman, M. S. H.

2017

Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Incidental, different focus

Lijiang, Z. Hamilton-Hart, N., & Palmer, B.

2011 2017

Nwokolo, N., & Aghedo, I.

2018

Incidental, different focus Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Incidental, different focus

Fried, B. J., Lagunes, P., & Venkataramani, A. Udoh, I. A., Stammen, R. M., & Mantell, J. E. Cooper Drury, A., Krieckhaus, J., & Lusztig, M. Relly, J. E.

2010

Incidental, different focus

2008

Incidental, different focus

2006

Diwan, I., Tzannatos, Z., & Akin, T. Kandil, M.

2018 2009

Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus

Hillman, A. L. Wallace, C., & Latcheva, R.

2007 2006

Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus

Bisschop, L. C. J., Strobl, S., & Viollaz, J. S. Tarek, B. A., & Ahmed, Z. Tarek, B. A., & Ahmed, Z. Cockayne, J., & Lupel, A. Glazebrook, T., & Kola-Olusanya, A. Ghura, H., Li X., & Harraf, A.

2018

Incidental, different focus

2017 2017 2009 2011 2017

Haveluck Harrison, G., & Safar, F. Sovacool, B. K.

2004 2017

Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Not accessible Petroleum sector but not related to corruption Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus

Obi, C. Aderogba, A., & Gbenga, O. Onwuka, E. C.

2018 2017 2005

Not accessible Not accessible Incidental, different focus

Bertelli, A. M., & Whitford, A. B.

2009

Incidental, different focus

2003 2008 2005 2014 2017

Incidental, Incidental, Incidental, Incidental, Incidental,

Stratagems and Spoils in US Policy in the Middle East The Corruption of Political Elites in Iraq – An Economic Analysis

Tamim, M. Ewhrudjakpor, C. Brock, G. Amineh, M. P. Ezeoha, A. E., & Ugochukwu Uche, C. Karim, W. J. Sawaan, H. K.

2011 2012

The Eco-Economics of Crude Oil Exploration in Nigeria The Informal Economy and Business Cycles

Kola-Olusanya, A., & Mekuleyi, G. O. Ferreira-Tiryaki, G.

2018 2008

The Oil Boom Era The Resurgence of the Niger Delta Militants and the Survival of the Nigerian State The State of Environmental Protection in the Russian Federation: A Review of the Post-Soviet Era Use of Stakeholder Engagement to Support Policy Transfer: A Case of Contaminated Land Management in Nigeria

Onuoha, M. E., & Elegbede, I. Chikwem, F. C., & Duru, J. C. Newell, J. P., & Henry, L. A.

2018 2018 2016

Incidental, different focus Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Incidental, different focus Corruption but not in the petroleum sector Not accessible Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus

Sam, K., Coulon, F., & Prpich, G.

2017

Incidental, different focus

Corruption, Secrecy, and Access-to-Information Legislation in Africa: A Cross-national Study of Political Institutions Debunking Myth: Economic Values in the Arab World through the Prism of Opinion Polls Determinants of Institutional Quality and their Impact on Economic Growth in the MENA Region Economic and Security Consequences of Supreme Values Economic Transformation Outside the Law: Corruption, Trust in Public Institutions and the Informal Economy in Transition Countries of Central and Eastern Europe Getting into Deep Water: Coastal Land Loss and State-Corporate Crime in the Louisiana Bayou Governance and Public debt Accumulation: Quantitative Analysis in MENA Countries Institutional Quality and Public Debt Accumulation: An Empirical Analysis Introduction: Rethinking the Relationship Between Peace Operations and Organized Crime Justice, Conflict, Capital, and Care Moderating Relationship of Institutions for Opportunity Entrepreneurship and Economic Development: Literature Review and Proposed Conceptual Framework Modern E&P data management in Kuwait Oil Company Monitoring the Moneylenders: Institutional Accountability and Environmental Governance at the World Bank’s Inspection Panel Nigeria: The Role of Civil Society in the Politics of Oil Governance and Revenue Management Nigerian Government’s Attempts at Removing Fuel Subsidy and the Attendant Mass Protests Oil Extraction, Environmental Degradation and Poverty in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: A Viewpoint Perceiving Credible Commitments: How Independent Regulators Shape Elite Perceptions of Regulatory Quality Policies and Priorities in Bangladesh Gas Sector Planning Poverty and Its Alleviation: The Nigerian Experience Regional Growth in Russia During the 1990s—What Role Did FDI Play? Rethinking EU Energy Security Considering Past Trends and Future Prospects State Legitimacy and the Unending Crisis of Petrol Subsidy Reforms in Nigeria

2011

different different different different different

focus focus focus focus focus

*4 of the 42 studies were never actually read because of their inaccessibility. The choice to include them in this table is because they reached the eligibility phase based on their title and abstract.

17

2006 2018 2010

2015 2006 2013 2016 2002 2006 2007 2017 2012 2003

Repetskaya, Y.O. Clement, H. Yashlavskii, A.E. Serrano, S. & Kahn, M. Soto, I.B.R. & Labarca, N. Prozorovskii, A.S. Brzica, D. Bayou, C. Bertrand, G. Cantu, F. & Hoyo, V. Janzen, J. Coronel, G.

An Ecological Crisis without Borders in Central Asia Corporate Social (Ir)responsibility in Brazil: Companies, Power and Ties Intertwined Criminal Market of Oil and Oil Products in Irkutsk Region

Economic Boom instead of Bust - Russia's Upturn under the Microscope

Extremist Group "Boko Haram" in Nigeria: A Danger of Local or Global Level? Georgia Reforms to Consolidate Human Development in Venezuela Indonesia as an Example of Modernization Institutional Framework in the Period Before Slovakia's European Union Accession Latvia a Record-Breaking Country Lithuania the Land of Lost Opportunities? Mexico 2016: The Decline of Institutional Trust Mongolia under Market Economy and Globalisation National focus. The Crisis at PDVSA: A tragedy for Venezuela

18 2013 2015 2006 2015

2011 2017 2010 2006 2016 2008 2006 2005

Heinrich, A. & Pleines, H. De Montclos, M.A.P. Bach, D.C. Augé, B. Rodriguez, J.L.G. et al. Götz, R. Mayer-Serra, C.E. Magrin, G. Lhomel, E. Kolev, G. Valter, S. Tait, N. Kamenka, I.

Oil, Power and Environment in Angola

Post-Soviet Resource Curse? Natural Resource Abundance and Authoritarianism Reforming the Constitution: The Political Economy of the Pacto por Mexico Rents, Territories and Development: Permanence and Change Romania in the EU's Doorway Structural Weaknesses of the Russian Economy The Syrian Regime and the Logic of Inertia The Textile and the Clothing Industry in Ukraine: Again in the Upwind Uzbekistan Terrorism and Social Discontent

Bulletin d'Association de Geographes Francais Courrier des Pays de l'Est Wirtschaftsdienst Maghreb - Machrek Textile Network Courrier des Pays de l'Est

Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Politicas Y Sociales

Osteuropa

Boletin de la Asociacion de Geografos Espanoles

Herodote Afrique Contemporaine Herodote

Osteuropa

Revista de Economia Mundial

Courrier des Pays de l'Est Courrier des Pays de l'Est Revista de Ciencia Politica Geographische Rundschau Oil and Gas Journal Latinoamerica

Courrier des Pays de l'Est Opcion Mirovaya Ekonomika I Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya Ekonomicky Casopis

Mirovaya Ekonomika I Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya

Criminology Journal of Baikal National University of Economics and Law Osteuropa

Courrier des Pays de l'Est Polem!ca

Revista Cientifica Hermes

Journal

French French German French German French

Spanish

German

Spanish

French French French

German

Spanish

French Spanish German Spanish

French Spanish Russian Slovak

Russian

German

Russian

French Portuguese

Portuguese

Language

2 1 1 1 0 0

0

0

0

0 6 0

0

1

0 0 0 2 0

0 0 0 2

0

0

0

0 0

0

Citations

focus

focus

focus

focus focus

Possibly related Incidental, different focus Possibly related Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Possibly related

Incidental, different Incidental, different Possibly related Incidental, different Relevant Resource curse Relevant Resource curse Relevant Resource curse Incidental, different Possibly related Relevant Resource curse Relevant Resource curse Relevant Resource curse Incidental, different

Possibly related Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus Incidental, different focus

Relevant Oil management Possibly related Relevant Accountability in the oil sector Relevant Resource curse Relevant Resource curse Incidental, different focus

Relevance*

* Studies in different languages were evaluated on the basis of their title and abstract. A study is deemed “relevant” if respects the other requirements, “incidental” if it does not, “possibly related” if the decision would have required reading the entire text. Those considered relevant were also assigned to their respective stream of literature.

2014

2012

Colom-Jaen, A.

Natural Resources and Development in Chad: Resource Curse or Peripherical Insertion? Neither Boon nor Bane Management of the Oil Boom in the Post-Soviet Space Nigeria, an Emergent Power or a Failed State? Nigeria: Paradoxes de l'Abondance et Démocratisation en Trompe-l'œil Oil in Nigeria, an Instrument of Power that Reflects a State Vulnerability

2006

2018

Nunes, C., Rickrot, J. & Watanabe, M. Genté, R. Costa, M.A.N. & Borin, E.

A Survey on the Variation of Stock Price of Petrobras S.A.

Year

Author(s)

Title

Table A4 Studies excluded due to language requirements.

G.M. Moisé

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

G.M. Moisé

Appendix B. Supplementary data Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.01.002.

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