Cover-beds as soil parent materials in midlatitude regions

CATENA ELSEVIER

Catena 30 (1997) 197"213

Cover-beds as soil parent materials in midlatitude regions Arno Kleber

*

Bayreuth University, Chair of Geomorphology, 95440 Bayreuth, Bavaria, Germany Received 18 March 1996; revised 10 January 1997; accepted 11 March 1997

Abstract In parts of southern France, the Russian Plain, south central Turkey, the western USA and in Germany, slopes axe covered by deposits (cover-beds) formed by geomorphic processes not limited to linear discharges. Often, loess material is mixed into them. Cover-beds usually form sequences of two or more distinct layers, and their distribution depends on the geomorphic, climate-driven processes of their formation. As they influence pedogenesis, they contribute to the understanding of soil properties and soil distribution. Horizon boundaries occur at depths where cover-bed properties change. Where aeolian matter is mixed in, podzolisation is buffered but depletion of clay may occur; loess-rich cover-beds may entirely decouple pedogenesis from bedrock influence. In humid areas, soil-water stagnation is often associated with varying cover-bed bulk densities, particularly upon flat relief. In semiarid areas, deep soil profiles consist of multiple layer sequences often with argillic and calcic properties within the same horizons. They reflect several cycles of cover-bed deposition and incorporation of loess, alternating with decalcification accompanied and followed by clay translocation. This led to the overprinting of buffed soils by pedogenic carbonate leached from younger sediments. Synchronous sediment a n d / o r airborne carbonate accretion and pedogenesis, which is usually invoked to explain soil profiles with several calcic horizons, cannot apply to cover-beds. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. Keywords: Hillslope deposits; Pedogenesis; Soil disconformities; Calcic soils; Loess material

1. Introduction Hillslope deposits, reviewed by Daniels and H a m m e r (1992), have often been recognised as soil parent materials (e.g., Birkeland and Burke, 1988; Molloy, 1988;

* Corresponding author. Fax: + 49-921-55-2314. 0341-8162/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII S0341-8162(97)00018-0

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Sokolov, 1989), but few papers discuss whether they show recurring sequences (Veit, 1987, 1993; Paton et al., 1995). This paper examines sequences of soil parent materials on slopes in several areas between 37 ° and 56 ° north, a zone characterised by Quaternary periglacial conditions. Published results are reviewed and new data reported. Daniels and Hammer (1992) p. 78, define hillslope sediments as materials, which are derived from upslope through erosion processes such as slope wash or creep, combined with frost heave or bioturbation, and which merge into alluvium on foot or toe slopes. However, this definition does not explicitly include inmixed loess material that stems not from an earlier loess deposit upslope, but from incorporation of an aeolian material during movement a n d / o r turbation. Also, such deposits may overlie alluvium rather than merge into it. Kleber (1990) proposed the term 'cover-bed' to include these deposits (cf. the 'mobile zone' of Ollier and Pain, 1996). It was defined as allochthonous deposits occurring on surfaces of varying inclination, and resulting from processes, such as solifluction, not limited to linear discharges. Cover-beds often contain loess material. Bach (1995) also used the term, although he included in situ regolith, which is not in my definition. Soil terminology in this text follows Soil Survey Staff (1994).

2. Cover-beds in Germany The cover-beds of Germany (Kleber, 1992a, with further references) differ in their content of coarse clasts, loess material and often tephra. They are divided into three categories. (a) The upper layer, which is widely distributed, with a relatively constant thickness of around 50 cm. It contains loess material and is usually rich in rock fragments. (b) The intermediate layer, which is spatially restricted to flattenings or hollows on slopes exposed to the wind, but is widespread on lower parts of wind-sheltered slopes. This layer is rarely more than lm thick. It is richer in loess and usually poorer in coarse material than layers above and below it. (c) The basal layer, which is widespread again. Occasionally, it may be much more than l m thick (Kleber et al., in press). It is free of loess, often contains rock fragments and typically has high bulk density (usually > 1.75 g cm-3). These layers were mainly formed by solifluction and cryoturbation. The upper layer formed during the Younger Dryas event, as indicated by traces of Laacher See Tephra. In contrast to this stratigraphic distinctness, the lower layers may be diachronous; nonetheless, they display recurring vertical sequences. The basal layer is assumed to have formed in a phase when no loess occurred on the slopes, i.e., after a period of intense erosion and removal of earlier loess. Later, after more loess had been deposited, slope processes included loess particles as long as loess remained in the area. Loess-free layers usually could no longer form, except locally (Semmel, 1990) where they override intermediate layers that wedge out upslope. Despite their variability, several conclusions may be drawn about the influence of the cover-beds on the soils. In two-layer sequences having no intermediate layer, the cover-beds influence the formation of the soils as they provide weathered material. In

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A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

SW . . . .

A Bw 2C 3C

A Eg 2Btg 3Bg 4C

NE

/ Upper Layer . . . . . . . . . . Basal Layer

A E Bsh Bw 2C

A Bw 2C 3C

30

A E 2Bt 3C 4C

A Eg 2Btg 3Bg 4Bg

,~ :200m

k I

Fig. 1. Catena through the Buntsandstein cuesta at Wei6enbnmn, Bavaria. Based on supervised mapping by 3 yrs of student field courses. Position is H55633/R44533 to H55637/R44568 (German GKN-gdd). Layer thicknesses are exaggerated.

addition, their contact zones, where properties such as texture and bulk density change abruptly, determine soil horizon boundaries and often cause soil-water stagnation. Some pedogenic processes are favoured (depletion of clay) or hindered (podzolisation) by the loess in the upper layer. Further, the dominant loess content in the intermediate layer of tripartite sequences seems to completely decouple pedogenesis from bedrock influence, and usually leads to development of Alfisols. Fig. 1 gives an example of the spatial distribution of cover-beds and the resulting soils (additional examples in Kleber, 1992a). In this area, soils developed solely from the underlying sandstone would be acidic and

Kx~

upper layer

sandintermediate stone~x~ayer(s) i. . . . // basal stone marl

far~\, ~1~ \ \

Eemian(?)paleosol

gravel 7-9

basal x"-----~'~_i meadow '

~

~

Fig. 2. Schematic profile of cover-beds in the Sisteron area, France, on various bedrock types and various relief positions. Not to scale.

200

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

podzolisation would dominate, but in fact the loess content of the upper layer prevents this. The only exception is near the slope summit, where the loess material is minimal because this location favoured loess deposition leastl and a Bsh-horizon is present. Where intermediate layers occur, Alfisols are developed.

3. Sisteron area, Provence, France The Sisteron Basin has up to nine gravel terraces along the major rivers. The fifth and sixth terraces merge upstream with moraines of the last glaciation (supervised mapping by student field courses from 1986 to 1992, and Ripper, 1989); the four lower terraces are younger than the last glacial maximum, and the upper ones probably correspond with the penultimate a n d / o r earlier glaciations. Kilian and Penck (1895), Gidon and Montjuvent (1969), Montjuvent and Winistorfer (1980) and Briem (1988) gave similar suggestions of age, though the number of terraces mapped by my students is greater than reported by any of these authors. The basin is surrounded by cuestas of steeply dipping Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. Summits and steep backslopes are underlain by limestone or rarely sandstone. Flattenings and footslopes are mainly underlain by marl. Fig. 2 summarises the distribution of the cover-beds in the Sisteron Basin. Example profiles are given in Table 1. On the slopes of the basin rim, at least two layers cover the underlying regolith or bedrock, but three layers occur on some gently inclined upper slopes and on all flattenings with slopes of less than ca. 6 °. In all but the deepest layer, local and aeolian material are mixed. The latter is indicated by an increase in coarse silt and by the heavy mineralogy (Table 2 lists selected analyses). In the profile almost at the summit of Le Puy, where upslope influence may be excluded, the upper two layers (Bw and 2Bwg) are significantly richer in heavy minerals than the deeper ones, mainly because of minerals that are entirely absent in the regolith (5C). A similarly rich mineral suite is found in the gravel terraces of the Durance Valley, which are potential sources of windblown silt in the area (Table 2, Ventavon 4C). Rock fragments vary significantly among the cover-beds in most profiles with the clasts usually concentrated in the upper layer. The intermediate layers typically contain the greatest amount of silt, whereas the basal layers and, of course, the underlying regolith consists of local components only. Typically, basal layers have high bulk densities, leading to water stagnation even on steeper slopes. Though their downslope clast orientation is usually not well expressed compared to the upper layer, the basal layers are probably periglacial in origin as well. They often contain rock fragments, which are entirely weathered and easily smear between the fingers, along with fresh fragments of the same rock and of the same size. The weathering probably did not occur in situ, but instead may be explained by movement of previously weathered fragments in a frozen condition. Apart from features connected with soil-water stagnation, pedogenesis is restricted to the upper layer and stops abruptly at its lower boundary. Only weak carbonate translocation into deeper parts of the profiles may be observed. In the upper layer, cambic properties are developed. Argillic properties, which might be expected in subsoils rich in loess

A. K l e b e r / Catena 30 (1997) 1 9 7 - 2 1 3

201

material, are absent, probably because decalcification as a necessary predecessor was insufficient (see Table 1 for carbonate contents). On river terraces, three different types of soil profiles may be found. On the uppermost terraces, terraces 7-9, which are probably as old or older than the penultiTable 1 Particle size distribution, coiour and chemical properties of soils in the Sisteron area, France Depth

Horizon Layer a cGr b fGr

Le Puy (3G92' E, On sandstone, 1° 2 A 45 Bw 65 2Bw(g) 80 3Bg 100 4Bg 1 2 0 + 5C

cS

mS fS

cSi

mSi

fSi

Clay Colour c

pH CaCO 3 d Corg

7.8 9.3 10.1 13.5 5.2

38.6 34.6 33.7 39.5 28.0

10YR4/3 2.5Y4/4 2.5Y5/3 2.5Y5/4 2.5Y5/5

7.8 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.8

17.6 39.9 43.3 37.4 15.0

1.2 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4

2.5Y4/4 2.5Y5/5

7.8 31.9 6.6 1.8

0.6 0.2

5Y4/3 5Y4/3 5Y4/4 5Y5/3

7.8 7.9 7.8 7.8

33.6 39.4 35.5 36.1

0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3

49GO9' N) inclination, near summit uL iLl iL2 iL3 bL

10 ' 0 0 0 30

4.3 2.5 0.0 4.9 0.0

0.5 4.6 21.7 16.6 10.3 0.1 1.7 18.2 25.9 10.2 0.1 1.3 19.7 25.9 9.3 0.1 1.2 9.8 24.4 11.5 2.2 9.4 36.2 12.0 7.0

On sandstone, 12 ° inclination, backslope 3 A 0.0 1.5 2.0 50 Bw uL 15 0.0 2.1 9.6 85 + 2C bL 30

10.4 20.2 36.0 10.5

On marl, 6 ° inclination, saddle 5 A 50 Bwg2 uL 10 75 2Bkg iL 0 95 3Bg bL 0 115 + 4CBg marl 0

0.6 1.5 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.6

17.3 22.5 1.1 2.2

Le Dossier (3G94'E, 49GO8'50r'N) On limestone, 16 ° inclination, backslope 5 A 40 Bwg uL 10 8.0 4.0 2.5 7 5 + 2C bL 30 31.1 7.9 3.1

2.8 2.8

8.0 18.5 23.1 41.1 7.6 16.0 20.3 42.3

2.5Y4/5 2.5Y4/4

7.8 55.3 7.8 47.5

0.5 0.6

On limestone, 5 ° 10 A 45 Bw 65 2C 1 0 0 + 3C

3.2 3.8 3.9

8.9 16.3 23.0 41.1 8.2 18.9 25.7 35.9 6.2 21.2 25.8 29.1

10YR5/6 10YR6/6 10YR7/6

7.8 51.1 7.8 62.6 7.9 71.2

0.4 0.3 0.2

Bois de Buche-Clot de Vincent (3G96 t E, 49GO9'N) On marl and limestone, interbedded, 7~ inclination, backslope 20 Ap 35 BAw uL 20 40.1 6.9 2.6 3.7 11.9 18.1 21.2 35.6 70 2C bL 1 0.0 1.1 1.3 2.7 6.2 21.6 24.4 42.7 80 3Bg bL 30 52.6 6.9 3.3 3.4 8.6 16.4 21.2 40.2 95 + 4CBg marl 1 4.9 3.4 1.7 1.9 7.2 14.6 23.9 47.3

10YR3/3 2.5Y5/5 2.5Y4/4 2.5Y5/5

7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8

40.0 55.1 52.6 43.7

1.9 0.5 0.4 0.2

On marl and limestone, interbedded, 5 ° inclination, 40 ABw uL 5 2.4 2.0 1.7 55 2Bw iL 0 0.0 0.1 0.4 120 2Bg iL 30 26.1 4.7 2.3 140 3Bg bL 0 2.6 0.4 0.4 1 9 0 + 4C marl 0 0.8 0.0 0.2

2.5Y4/2 2.5Y6/3 2.5Y5/4 2.5Y5/4 2.5Y6/3

7.8 8.0 8.0 7.8 7.8

36.6 43.7 51.1 39.9 42.7

1.3 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3

0.0 0.0 5.5 0.0

11.9 7.0

12.0 42.0 5.3 29.5

17.5 9.6 13.4 16.0 8.6 14.4 4.2 11.7 25.9 6.9 11.7 25.8

40.1 38.0 55.7 52.4

inclination, slope flattening uL iL bL

50 15 30

35.5 4.9 2.6 14.3 4.3 3.3 15.6 8.4 5.3

slope flattening 3.5 11.9 17.8 2.9 12.1 16.5 3.5 12.0 15.4 2.0 8.4 16.1 2.5 8.4 14.5

19.1 21.6 20.2 20.1 21.6

44. l 46.4 41.8 52.6 52.8

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A. K l e b e r / Catena 30 (1997) 1 9 7 - 2 1 3

Table 1 (continued) Depth

Horizon Layer a cGr b fGr

Bois de Faye (3G92' e, 49G32'50"N) On till, 8 ° inclination, footslope 200 C fan 205 Ab Eem 1 0.0 280 2Bwg Eem 20 0.0 320 3Bwg Eem 30 16.8 4 0 0 + 4Bwg till 15 9.3 On till 5 50 400 415 440 490 510+

cS

3.4 2.2 4.5 5.4

mS tS

cSi

mSi

fSi

Clay Colour e

pH

4.1 3.8 5.0 7.1

16.9 17.6 12.3 11.9

20.1 20.8 20.7 21.5

13.0 13.5 12.9 14.6

38.0 37.0 38.8 32.7

10YR3/3 10YR3/4 10YR4/4 10YR4/3

7.6 7.7 7.6 7.6

0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2

0.7 0.5 0.3 0.3

4.5 5.1 5.7 6.9

and limestone-derived fan deposit, 9 ° inclination, A ABw uL 50 85.8 6.0 2.6 2.9 2C fan 60 77.4 13.5 5.0 3.4 2Bwb Eem 10 23.8 3.0 3.1 3.9 4Bwkg fan 50 50.9 7.4 3.4 3.1 5Bw till 20 38.8 4.7 4.0 4.6 5C till 20 39.8 7.4 5.4 6.0

Durrance Valley, St. Anne (3G97'E, 49G18'N) Terrace 1, < 1° inclination, top 30 Bwg obd 0 0.0 3.0 6.0 6 0 + 2Bg obd 0 0.0 0.0 0.6

footslope 14.3 10.3 14.9 12.3 13.8 14.9

17.4 17.3 18.6 17.6 18.6 19.6

18,0 19,3 13.8 16.1 12.8 12.9

38.9 31.3 42.7 40.1 41.5 33.8

10YR2/2 10YR4/6 10YR3/6 10YR3/4 10YR4/4 10YR4/6

7,9 20.5 8.0 46.4 7.5 0.3 7.7 15.7 7.9 2.7 7.5 7.7

1.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3

26.028.9 20.241.0

17.5 18.4

8.5 8.6

10.0 11.3

2.5Y4/4 10YR3/1

8.0 36.8 7.8 31.8

0.3 0.9

13.1 17.7 10.0 21.4

10YR3/2 10YR3/3

7.6 7.8

17.5 16.1

2.1 1.1

Terrace 3, 2 ° inclination, top 25 A obd 0 4 5 + 2Bw gray 20

0.0 32.1

Terrace 5, 1° inclination, top 45 ABw uL 10 6 0 + 2Bw grav 30

31.3 11.3 22.4 10.6 15.8 32.0 21.5 37.7 6.9 7.5

0.7 6.3 18.9 17.0 26.3 1.9 13.4 19.8 19.9 13.6

Plan Roman (3G98'50"E, 49G14'50"N) Terrace 7, < 1° inclination, near top 5 A 40 Bw uL 30 9.3 1 2 0 + 2Bw Eem 50 27.1

8.1 6.8

Ventavon (3G93'E, 49G17'N) Terrace 7, 1° inclination, near top 5 A 50 Bw uL 30 23.9 100 2Bwl Eem 10 9.3 210 2Bw2 Eem 10 4,4 4 0 0 + 3C gray 80 29.7

9.0 6.2 5.4 17.3

CaCO 3 d Corg e

11.5 6.2

8.4 20.0 6.2 14.1

7 . 5 Y R 3 / 4 7.8 10.5 1 0 Y R 4 / 4 7.8 28.5

0.8 0.5

11.9 14.2 19.6 15.1 11.5 12.7 17.2 13.9

9.8 21.2 9.0 28.9

5YR4/6 5.1 2 . 5 Y R 3 / 6 5.2

0.1 0.1

0.3 0.2

7.7 1.7 7.7 0.8 7.7 0.3 7.9 38.6

0.7 0.3 0.4 0.2

10.2 10.2 15.4 10.09.9 14.5 10.8 13.1 16.0 16.3 11.911.4

Terrace 7, slope to terrace 6, 6 ° inclination, slope shoulder 5 A 35 Bw uL 25 33.4 15.1 16.9 12.8 18.5 60 2C bL 50 31.7 12.4 17.7 16.411.8 100 + 3C gray 100 Le Po~t (3G94'E, 49G22'N) Terrace 8, < 1° inclination, near top 45 Ap uL 2 26.1 13.8 14.8 16.5 17.0 55 2Bw iL 5 18.0 6.2 11.4 14.419.0 80 3Bw Eem 15 38.0 6.0 14.1 18.3 16.1 1 0 0 + 4C gray 40 31.9 16.4 17.7 15.4 12.4

11.4 12.2 15.2 14.1

9.8 9.7 8.0 10.3

34.0 37.5 31.4 18.7

5YR3/4 2.5YR3/4 2.5YR4/6 2.5Y4/4

12.0 8.8 15.9 15.5 8.4 17.8

7 . 5 Y R 3 / 4 7.8 19.7 10YR4/6 7.9 35.3

11.6 8.8 17.5 16.4 11.8 20.7 12.3 8.2 34.9 11.7 9.8 16.6

7.5YR3/4 7.5YR4/4 5YR3/4 10YR4/4

7.1 0.6 6.9 0.5 7.1 0.3 7.7 25.7

1.4 0.2

1.6 0.9 0.7 1.0

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

203

Table 2 Heavy mineral composition of selected profiles in the Sisteron area, France Location

Le Puy, summit

Mineral/horizon

Bw

2Bw(g)

5C

Anatase Augite Chlorite Epidote Glaucophane Garnet Hornblende, brown Hornblende, green Mica Rutile Staurolite Tourmaline Zircon Zoisite and ctinozoisite Others Total grains counted

6.5

7.5

11.4

9.7

9.0 3.0

6.5 16.1 4.8 4.8 1.6 41.9 6.5

6.01 11.91 9.0[ 1.51 4.5[ 44.61 3.01

1.6 62

671

Ventavon, top

8.6 2.8

2.8 11.4

60.2

2.8 35

Bw

2Bw

4C

1.4 1.5 2.91 49.0 4.4 2.9] 0.5 21.11 8.41

2.9 1.5 4.4 1.4 204

I 53.5 5.6 [ 1.4 12.0 1.41 0.7 3.51 7.1 7.1[ 3.5 3.5 142

4.6 1.5 51.8 2.1 4.1 16.9 3.6 0.5 1.5 0.5 6.1 6. I 205

Analyzed fraction: 0.1-0.2 mm. Numbers are % of nonopaque grains. Grains were counted until ca. 200 was reached except for samples poor in heavy minerals. Vertical lines: breaks assumed to indicate disconformities.

mate glaciation, the most prominent soil feature is a buried, clay-rich horizon with a reddish-brown colour (Table 1, Plan Roman, Ventavon, le POE0. A similar clayey soil, though less red in colour (possibly because of a more silicic parent material) is exposed on the foot slope of the northern basin rim, where it overlies till and is buried by thick fan deposits (Table 1, Bois de Faye). These soils result from more intense pedogenesis than the surface soils. Restricted to the higher gravel terraces, they are assumed to date from the Eemian, when Mediterranean-type pedogenesis must have reached up into this Alpine footzone (Briem, 1988). On terraces 7-9, this buried soil is overlain by a cover-bed, which is brown and contains fresh terrace material, reflecting less intense

Notes to Table 1: a uL, iL, bL = upper, intermediate and basal layers, respectively; reg =regolith; g r a v = terrace gravel; obd = overbank deposit; Eem = Eemian (?) soil. b Particle sizes: Gr = gravel; S = sand; Si = silt; c = coarse; m = medium; f = fine; cGr = volume % of whole soil (field estimate); fGr = weight % of whole soil without cGr; others = weight % of fine earth < 2 mm, determined carbonate-free. c Munsell colour, wet. d Total carbonate (%) determined with the Scheibler apparatus. Organic carbon (%) determined wet, using potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. Horizontal lines: breaks in sediment properties assumed to indicate major disconformities; coordinates: French grid net.

204

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

weathering. Its heavy mineral suite (Table 2, Ventavon, top, Bw) is similar to that of the underlying gravel (4C) but different from the Eemian (7) soil (2Bw), which has fewer, mainly stable heavy minerals (i.e., the unstable mica and chlorite are less common), reflecting intense weathering and no fresh aeolian input. However, a few fresh rock fragments within these mature horizons indicate that they have not formed entirely in situ but were transported after their formation; they are soil sediments. Relics of this mature soil material were not found on the slopes between terraces 7 and 6 (Table 1, Ventavon slope shoulder). On lower terraces, there are isolated occurrences of further redeposited material. However, on Terraces 1-4, there are no cover-beds, and fluvial overbank deposits cover the entire topography, with ground water, peat, or reworked organic matter dominating the soil properties.

4. Moscow area, Russia

In the area of Moshaysk, west of Moscow, the parent materials of softs on till and related deposits of the penultimate glaciation were investigated by Kleber and Gusev (1992, 1995, in review). Till and glaciofluvial deposits are ubiquitously overlain by cover-beds everywhere. The basal bed consists solely of local components, but two properties distinguish it from the underlying material: clasts are well oriented downslope (not so in the till), and it has a high bulk density ( > 1.8 g cm -3, compared to values of < 1.6 g cm -3 above and below). Except on upper slopes, this layer is overlain by a loess-rich cover-bed (coarse silt typically increases from < 20% to > 35%) with intense argiUic and often secondary stagnic (due to temporary soil-water stagnation) properties. The loess-rich layer may reach a thickness of 3 m on footslopes (Fig. 3), and pedogenetically unaffected sediment then causes bifurcation of the argillic horizons, indicating that they belong to two different phases of soil formation, each developed in a separate parent material. The entire topography, except where man-induced soil erosion has taken place, is

W

E

till

~l I 150m

upper layer intermediate layer ~argillic properties) i.nterme.diatelayer.. ~no arg,,c propernesj basal layer

Fig. 3. Sketch across a moraine slope in the Moshaysk area, Russia, after Kleber and Gusev (in review). Geographicalcoordinates:35°25.5'E, 55°44.5'N. Layer thicknesses are exaggerated.

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

205

covered by a loose layer of constant (40-50 cm) thickness. Compared to the underlying deposits, this is further enriched with loess (ca, 50% coarse silt), while coarse rock fragments decrease (on average from > 10% to < 5%). Its heavy mineral suite is often closer to that of the till than to cover-beds directly beneath (Kleber and Gusev, in review). This layer hosts the Ap- and E-horizons of the surface soils; but on flat relief, modern pedogenesis is dominated by the effects of water perched on the denser layers below. The soils and their horizon sequences are relatively uniform because all three layers are widespread; only the intermediate one varies significantly in thickness and is occasionally missing entirely.

5. Konya Basin and rim, Turkey Deep soils are rarely found in southern Anatolia because of soil erosion throughout much of the Holocene in this area of early human settlement (Kleber, 1980). Furthermore, deep soils other than soil sediments are absent on surfaces that were formed during and after the last deep-lake cycle of the Konya Basin paleolake (Zech and Cepel, 1977; Kleber, 1980), which lasted until Early Holocene times (Erol, 1978). Despite this, four deep soil profiles were located for this study on a variety of underlying rock types: marl, limestone, andesite of intermediate composition and rather acidic tephra. Three sites are in mountainous areas with no significantly different rock types cropping out upslope of the profiles. The fourth is on marl located at the margin of the basin floor. The marl (Table 3, Sel~uk University campus, 7Bk) is overlain by a salt-bearing fluviolacustrine gravel (6Bkz). The overlying layers are therefore allochthonous; they do not significantly differ in texture of the fine earth fraction from the marl, but the heavy minerals (Table 4, particularly augite and hornblende) testify an allochthonous origin, and together with differences in the gravel components (Table 3), indicate a major break below the 2Bk-horizon. Differences in grain size (gravel, sand) and heavy minerals between horizons are found in all profiles. All have argillic and calcic horizons, and in particular, composite horizons with properties of both. Typically, the maximum carbonate enrichment, indicated by nodules rather than by carbonate filaments and coatings, occurs in the uppermost parts of these composite horizons. All profiles have similar sequences of layers and horizons (Fig. 4) despite different underlying bedrock types. Therefore, it is assumed that they reflect the same pedogenic histories. Airborne dust as a component of the parent materials is indicated by abundant silt in some layers (Table 3) and by the heavy mineral suites (Table 4). Therefore, the most likely sources of the carbonate in the soils are airborne dust and perhaps Ca 2+ ions leached from upper parts of the profiles and redeposited in lower parts. Other possible sources may be excluded for some of the soils: enrichment from ascending or lateral water flow is impossible because of the lack of nearby groundwater, except for the marl site, and release of Ca 2+ ions from bedrock by weathering cannot apply to the tephra and andesite sites, as these rocks contain almost no Ca-bearing silicate minerals. The carbonate in the composite horizons must have been deposited after the argillic properties had been formed, because carbonate enrichment and clay illuviation cannot

A. K l e b e r / Catena 30 (1997) 1 9 7 - 2 1 3

206

Table 3 Particle size distribution, colour and chemical properties of soils in the Konya area, Turkey Depth

Layer a

cGr b fGr

cS

mS

fS

On marl, Selquk University campus excavation pit, 90 artificial 110 Btl 1 3.3 5.4 6.5 7.7 140 Bt2 1 4.9 5.3 6.8 8.0 210 2Bk 10 3.1 3.5 4.5 7.5 240 3Bk 1 3.2 6.7 8.8 12.4 270 4Btk 1 2.5 9.7 12.9 10.6 380 5Btk 2 2.5 2.6 6.3 9.1 460 6Bkz 20 13.5 8.0 7.8 8,3 4 9 0 + 7Bk 3 6.7 6.8 9.4 12.6

cSi

mSi

fSi

Clay Colour e

pH CaCO 3 d Corg e Salt

1055 m asl, 2 ° inclination (32°33 ', 38°00'N) 10YR4/3 10YR5/4 10YR7/4 10YR6/4 7.5YR4/4 10YR5/4 10YR7/4 10YR7/4

7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.6 9.0 8.2

3.7 1.9 68.4 47.1 33.4 40.0 66,9 71.2

0.7 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.3

0.1 0.3 0.2 0.7 1.7 1,0 8.9 0.8

On limestone, Beysehir yolu, 1270 m asl, 2 ° inclination (33°49.5'E, 37'46.5'N) 50 Bt 2 2.4 6.5 9.6 9.4 3.4 12.0 19.9 39.1 7 . 5 Y R 5 / 8

7.8

2.9

0.8

0.3

Stoneline 95 2Btkl 150 2Btk2 250 2Bt Stoneline 310 3Btk 330 4Bk 500 + 5R

11.6 8.7 6.0 2.8 5.8 6.7 3.5 6.3 I

8.5 9.0 9.4 10,3 12.6 16.5 11.3 12.2

11.7 12,0 12.6 11.2 10.2 14.4 13.2 15.1

48.4 50.2 56.5 47.9 38.1 44.5 47.9 37.6

5 2 3

14.8 7.9 7.4

9.8 8.6 3.5

8.6 8.1 11.8

3.2 6.4 7.9

3.6 2.3 3.6

7.5 21.8 45.4 7.3 25.3 41.8 7.5 17.0 48.7

10YR6/4 10YR6/4 10YR5/6

7,8 47.7 7.8 43.3 7.8 4.7

0.3 0.2 0.1

0.0 0.0 0.0

4 0

3.6 2.1

2,0 1.9

4.6 3.9

8.1 7.7

13.2 5.6

13.2 18.2 40.7 12.9 21.3 46.7

10YR5/6 10YR5/8

7.7 40.9 7.8 44.0

0.2 0.4

0.0 0.0

0.5 5.7 0,4 3.4 17.1

0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2

0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

On volcanic tephra, Madensehir, Kara Dag, 65 Bt 1 2.9 7.3 20.0 150 2Btk 10 1.7 5.4 8.4 205 2Bt 10 4.8 7.1 17.0 305 3Btk 15 4.4 17.2 20.1 380 4Bk 0 41.8 52,4 21.1

1350 m asl, 14.6 3.5 15.8 8.4 14.6 4.8 20.5 10.3 6.0 0.4

11° inclination (34°16'E, 37°29.5'N) 13.3 16,7 24.6 1 0 Y R 3 / 4 7.7 9.1 16.3 36.6 1 0 Y R 3 / 4 7.7 12.2 17.4 26.7 7 . 5 Y R 3 / 4 7.5 14.5 8.7 8.6 1 0 Y R 3 / 4 7.8 6,6 5.3 8,3 1 0 Y R 6 / 2 8.0

On andesite, SiUe, 1170 m asl, 27 ° inclination (33°29 ', 37°56.6'N) 60 Bt 30 23,2 16.7 22.9 20.6 3.1 14.5 8.1 14.1 180 2Bt 5 16.6 16.0 20.6 17.8 6.5 9.9 7.1 22.2

10YR4/4 10YR3/4

7.8 7.8

0.8 2.5

0.3 0.1

0.0 0.0

Stoneline 410 3Bt

3

12.7

18.1 21.3

18.0

7.1

9.7

5.8 20.7

7.5YR4/4

7,8

1.6

0.2

0.0

Stoneline 4 4 0 + 4C

0

13.0

15.1 23.8 20.8

7,7

10.2

6.0

7.5YR4/6

7.8

2.4

0.2

0.0

16.4

~-e See the footnotes of Table 1 for key, coordinates are latitude, longitude.

occur simultaneously in the same horizon (Soil Survey Staff, 1975; Birkeland, 1984), and clay translocation is only possible during or after the depletion of carbonate, because clay tends to flocculate where Ca 2+ ions are abundant. The possible exception, translocation in natric horizons, was not observed in these soils, three of which are far away from potential sodium sources. If the carbonate came as a steady aeolian influx, as suggested by Machette (1985) for calcic soils in the southwestern USA, the occurrence of several Bk-horizons at various depths might be explained by repeated climate-driven episodes of varying leaching

207

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

Table 4 Heavy mineral compositionof soils in the Konya area, Turkey Bedrock

Marl

Mineral/horizon

Btl

Augite Diopside Epidote Garnet Hornblende,brown Hornblende,green Mica Olivine Titanaugite Titanite Zircon Others Total grains counted

55.0 51.41 38.4 42.1

0.9 39.3 0.4 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.4 0.4 229

Limestone 2Bk

0.4 0.4 0.9 42.11 0.4 0.4 0.9 1.8 0.4 0.8 224

3Bk

2.0 0.4 0.8 51.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 2.8 0.8 0.8 250

4 B t k 5Btk 6Bkz 7Bk 43.5

1.1 0.4 47.1 0.4 0.8 1.1 5.81 0.4 0.8 259

0.4 0.9 48.7 0.9 1.3 0.9 2.51 0.9 232

Bt

37.21 28.3 0.4 1.3 2.4 0.6 1.6 3.2 1.2 43.4 51.4 0.6 1.6 0.6 2.2 0.8 8.1 4.9 0.6 3.7 2.1 3.6 312 247

2Bt

3 B t k 4Bk

33.21 16.3 2.4 6.1 4.4 1.8 1.6 2.1 2.0 36.8[ 6 0 . 2 0.7 2.4

17.1 0.7 3.0 3.0 2.4 51.7 1.3

15.6 1.0 5.6 0.7 3.5 53.1 0.4

0.4 17.7[ 0.4 0.8 280

1.0 18.1 0.4 1.3 298

1.4 17.0 0.4 1.4 288

0.4 9.61 0.8 251

Bedrock

Tephra

Andesite

Mineral/horizon

Bt

2Btk

3Btk

4Bk

5C

Bt

2Btk

3Btk

4C

Augite Diopside Epidote Hornblende,brown Hornblende,green Mica Titanaugite Zircon Others Total grains counted

2.5

2.3

3.3

1.0

4.2 0.9

0.41

14.2 1.0

5.5 2.0

15.3 80.2 0.8

17.1 78.3 0.8

10.81 85.41

2.41 95.11 0.5

7.6 85.2 0.4

20.0 8.21 69.9[ 0.4

8.2 0.4 0.4 18.1 25.91 45.91 0.8

22.0 28.7 41.3

1.2 242

1.6 258

0.5 212

1.0 205

1.7 237

1.2 256

0.4 270

14.5 40.01 28.81 0.6 0.3 0.6 316

0.4 254

See the footnotes of Table 2 for key. intensity, each leading to a horizon of carbonate enrichment (Birkeland, 1984; McFadden and Tinsley, 1985). Because any intense leaching event would cause the dissolution of older calcic horizons higher in the profiles, this implies a strongly decreasing trend of leaching intensity with time, and this must have happened during the Pleistocene because comparable soils are absent on Holocene surfaces. However, in the lake history of nearby Tuz Gtilii, there is no evidence for a comparable climatic trend, as the Pleistocene lake levels are closely spaced vertically (Erol, 1970). Furthermore, calcic horizons occur to depths of 4 m, and, according to McFadden and Tinsley (1985), a thermic soil temperature regime is needed to form calcic horizons as deep as 3 m. It is unlikely that the area has experienced such a climate since the Tertiary (Kleber, 1980). Another complication is provided by the marl profile. Its 4Btk-horizon is overlain by calcic horizons (2Bk and 3Bk), the lower of which at least is only partially overprinted by pedogenic carbonate: fewer than half of the pedogenic surfaces are covered by carbonate, so that some clay cutans could be recognised if they existed. Despite this indication of limited carbonate enrichment, the carbonate content of both horizons is large, so some of the carbonate is probably primary rather than pedogenic; this would

208

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

marl

limestone

tephra andesite

O-

Bt 2Bt 2-

3Bt 4C 4

m stoneline ~

nodules ~

regolith

Fig. 4. Correlation of the profiles in the Konya area, Turkey. Grey shading indicates suggested correlation of soil horizons.

have prevented the development of argillic properties. This fresh, largely unaltered calcareous material separating the Bt- and 4Btk-horizons identifies the 4Btk-horizon as part of a paleosol, and the overlying layers with Bk-horizons as younger soils. Thus, the profile documents at least two different episodes of clay illuviation. All the Turkish soil phenomena may be explained by a multiphase model: three phases of solifluction and synchronous loess admixture forming cover-beds were each followed by major pedogenic phases. The latter started with leaching of the carbonate from the loess material, leading to subsoil carbonate enrichment. Decalcification was accompanied and followed by clay translocation. Then, the A- and E-horizons of this soil were probably stripped off, a phenomenon often found in paleosols, and the remains were buried by the cover-bed of the following depositional phase. The subsequent pedogenesis leached this new deposit, and the carbonate was redeposited in the buried soil horizon beneath. All profiles show the most intense carbonate enrichment in just the upper parts of the paleo-argillic horizons, because their water permeability was decreased by iUuvial clay. McFadden and Tinsley (1985) suggested that permeability to water is the second most important factor after climate to influence the depth of Bk-horizons. 6. Northeastern Great Basin and rim, Utah, USA In and near the northeastern Great Basin, cover-beds were deposited during at least three phases, which are broadly contemporary throughout the area (Kleber, 1993). They contain airborne heavy minerals and silt (Kleber, 1993, 1994a). Relations to dated deposits and relief allow their ages to be constrained (Fig. 5). The youngest layer was formed around 13,000 B.P. (Kleber, 1990). Two deeper layers were deposited after the penultimate glaciation but prior to the last glacial maximum; they are separated by a

209

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

adjacent Rocky Mountains

northeastern Great Basin

rer-bed

m

~"

•

o

o

3 0

~-. ~

~"

soil properties

,~ Pinedale variable, mainly mollic 13 000 B.P.) Pinedale

argillic, sometimes superimposed calcic properties in upper part

t-Bull Lake

argillic, usually strong superimposed calcic properties

Fig. 5. Schematic distribution and stratigraphy of cover-beds in the northeastern Great Basin and adjacent Rocky Mountains, USA, after Kleber (1992a, 1993, 1995b). Layers on early Wiseonsinan moraines are based on the interpretation of published data (mainly Colman and Pierce, 1984, 1986) rather than my own observations. disconformity of probable early Wisconsinan age (Kleber, 1993). The clast orientation of the youngest layer indicates solifluction; the environmental conditions during the formation of the lower two layers are less clear, but they were probably formed at the end of major cold episodes, under similar environmental conditions to the youngest (Kleber, 1994a, 1995a). Each phase of deposition was succeeded by soil formation. The youngest layer bears a soil of intermediate maturity. The deeper layers contain soils with argillic and mostly calcic horizons, with each soil usually welded to the one beneath by an horizon of carbonate enrichment (Kleber, 1992b, 1993). In some situations, however, these layers and their soils bifurcate (Fig. 5), confirming the multistoried nature of the soils and their parent materials.

7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1. Significance o f cover-beds

The soils of this study were formed not in bedrock, but in cover-beds, and their development was decisively influenced by this fact. Cover-beds are deposited essentially

210

A. Kleber / Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

parallel to the slopes. Soil horizons--be they formed by weathering or translocation of, for instance, clay or carbonate--usually have their boundaries at disconformities; these are easily misinterpreted as solely pedogenic. Disconformities within soils may be identified by changes in the heavy mineralogy, by variations in grain size (mainly silt, often indicative of inmixed loess material) and/or the coarse fraction (often enriched contrary to expected weathering trends), and by the bifurcation of layers and/or soil horizons. Since bulk densities often differ among cover-beds, they also affect soil-water stagnation, and slope hydrology in general (lCdeber et al., in press). In all studied profiles, some or all cover-beds contain admixed loess material. This reduces the influence of bedrock properties on the soils; many soils are therefore entirely decoupled from bedrock influence and the loess material determines soil properties. Theories of the evolution of soils should take their stratified, partially allochthonous nature into account. Modelling pedogenic processes usually requires parent material that is homogeneous or has known consistent trends (Wang and Arnold, 1973). For example, heavy metal pollution in surface soil horizons cannot be estimated by comparison with deeper parts of the profile if the original metal contents differed significantly among the various parent material layers (Sabel, 1989). Also, the estimation of pedogenic clay is problematic (Colman, 1982) unless variation in original clay content can be excluded. There are, however, many differences between the sites in temperate and semiarid regions. 7.2. Cover-beds in temperate areas

Typical of the temperate areas are layers with high bulk density, which are usually the deepest in the profiles. Many of these qualify as fragipans (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1994). Observations of modern periglacial phenomena (Bunting, 1973) and micromorphological studies (Fitzpatrick, 1956) suggest that during periglacial conditions the induration takes place in slowly moving layers with frequent water supersaturation, overlying slowly thawing permafrost. This agrees well with the suggested climate when the basal layers in Germany were formed (Kleber, 1992a). The bulk density of these layers affects soil permeability, causing soil-water stagnation even above permeable bedrock. Overlying layers are usually looser. Their admixed loess material plays an essential role in pedogenesis. On quartz-rich parent material, it prevents the soils from becoming very acidic, and following decalcification, argiUic properties develop in the loess-influenced subsoil layers. Only where there is insufficient decalcification is clay translocation impaired. The temperate examples are characterised by up to three different layers, each with typical distinguishing properties. Only the uppermost one is stratigraphically distinct, at least in Germany where the Late Pleistocene Laacher See Tephra often provides evidence of age. In Burgundy, France, this tephra was recently found in cover-beds (Kleber, 1994b), suggesting that the uppermost layers in parts of France and in Germany are contemporaneous. The deeper layers, however, are diachronous. The explanation of Kleber (1992a) is that basal and intermediate layers could have resulted from many of the climatic oscillations of the Quaternary; which particular oscillation produced deposits persisting to today depends on local factors. Only where buried soils occur may

A. Kleber/ Catena 30 (1997) 197-213

211

the deeper layers also be relatively dated, as in examples from Germany (Semmel, 1968), Russia (Kleber and Gusev, in review), and Southern France (this study). 7.3. Cover-beds o f semiarid areas

In contrast, cover-beds found in semiarid areas have less variable sediment properties. Separation into different layers was based on buried soils rather than on sediment properties. Each layer/soil sequence probably represents a major climatic cycle (Kleber, 1994a) rather than any of the numerous minor climatic oscillations. Therefore, these sequences probably have more chrono-stratigraphic value than those in temperate climates. In these areas, leached carbonate is concentrated in the subsoils. Thus, pedogenic episodes must have been sufficiently moist to allow for topsoil decalcification. The supply of calcium necessary to form the multiple calcic horizons in most profiles may be explained by cyclic deposition of fresh aeolian material. Synchronous airborne carbonate accretion and pedogenesis, which is usually invoked to explain composite soil profiles (Yaalon and Ganor, 1973; Birkeland, 1984), cannot apply to cover-beds, because en bloc movement occurred during solifluction, so that, contrary to pure loess, some parts of the deposit were never at or very close to the surface. Based on the areas discussed, I propose that deep soils are commonly layered and that cover-beds, as defined in Section 1, are the major soil parent materials on hill slopes. Similar research in other areas should show whether these rules are universally valid. This should help us understand soil properties and predict their distribution better.

Acknowledgements I thank V.V. Gusev, Moscow, H. Bahar, Konya and the students joining my field courses, for their essential help during field work. The analyses were performed at the University of Bayreuth Geomorphologic Laboratory, under the direction of R. Schill, to whom I express my gratitude. The research in the USA and in Russia was funded by the German Research Foundation. The work in Turkey was supported by the Alexander yon Humboldt Foundation and by the Zantner-Busch Foundation, Erlangen, and the work in France and in Germany by University of Bayreuth grants. I thank R.W. Arnold, J.A. Catt and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the manuscript.

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Bunting, B.T., 1973. Site relationships, properties and morphology of high arctic hydromorphic soils on Devon Islands, N.W.T, Canada. In: Schlichting, E., Schwertmarm, U. (Eds.), Pseudogley and Gley. Verlag Chemic, Weinheim, pp. 195-205. Colman, S.M., 1982. Clay mineralogy of weathering rinds and possible implications concerning the sources of clay minerals in soils. Geology 10, 370-375. Colman, S.M., Pierce, K.L., 1984. Correlation of Quaternary glacial sequences in the western United States based on weathering rinds and related studies. In: Mahaney, W.C. (Ed.), Correlation of Quaternary Chronologies. Geo Books, Norwich, England, pp. 437-453. Colman, S.M., Pierce, K.L., 1986. Glacial sequence near McCall, Idaho: Weathering rinds, soil development, morphology and other relative-age criteria. Quaternary Res. 25, 25-42. Daniels, R.B., Hammer, R.D., 1992. Soil Geomorphology. Wiley, New York. Erol, O., 1970. Les hauts niveaux p16istocenes du Tuz G~ilii (lac Sal~) en Anatolie centrale (Turquie). Ann. Gtographie 79, 39-50. Erol, O., 1978. The Quaternary history of the lake basins of central and southern Anatolia. In: Brice, W. (Ed.), The Environmental History of the Near and Middle East since the Last Ice Age. London Academic Press, London, pp. 111-139. Fitzpatrick, E.A., 1956. An indurated soil horizon formed by permafrost. J. Soil Sci. 7, 248-257. Gidon, M., Montjuvent, G., 1969. Essai de coordination des formations quaternaires de ta moyenne Durance et du Haut-Drac (Hautes Alpes). Bull. de l'Association francalse pour l'ttude du Quaternalre 2, 145-161. Kilian, W., Peuck, A., 1895. Les dtptts glaciaires et fluvio-glaciaires du Bassin de la Durance. Comptes Rendus Acadtmie Sciences 52, 1354-1357. Kleber, A., 1980. Zur Entwicldung und jungen Formung von H~ingen und Fl~ichen an den R'~dern der Konya-Ova/Inneranatolien, insbesondere am Konya-Bozdag. Masteral thesis, University of Erlangen, Germany, 143 pp. Kleber, A., 1990. Upper Quaternary sediments and soils in the Great Salt Lake area, USA. Zeitschrift ftir Geomorphologie Neue Folge 34, 271-281. Kleber, A., 1992a. Periglacial slope deposits and their pedogenic implications in Germany. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 99, 361-372. Kleber, A., 1992b. Deckschiehten und B~ten in den nordwestlichen La Sal Mt., Utah, USA. Bonnet Geographische Abhandlungen 85, 114-129. Kleber, A., 1993. A stratigraphy of slope deposits and soils in the northeastern Great Basin and its vicinity. Zeitschrift fiir Geomorphologie Neue Folge Supplementband 92, 173-188. Kleber, A., 1994a. On the paleoecology of the northern Great Basin and adjacent Rocky Mountains. Zeitschrifl fiir Geomorphologie Neue Folge 38, 421-434. Kleber, A., 1994b. Traces of Laacher See Tephra in the area of Chagny, Bourgogne, France. Rev. de Gtomorphologie dynamique 45, 71-76. Kleber, A., 1995a. Die HiJhenabh'fingigkeit von Deckschichten und B&ten im nord/Jsflichen Great Basin und in den angrenzenden Rocky Mountains, USA. Mitteilungen Osterreichische Geographische Ges. 137, 223244. IGeber, A., 1995b. Geomorphic responses to late Late Pleistocene climate warming (Germany and Western USA). Terra nostra, Schriften Alfred-Wegener Stiftung, p. 136. Kleber, A., Gusev, V.V., 1992. On the heavy mineral contents of moraines and soils in the area of Moscow, Russia. Geo~kodynamik 13, 79-85. Kleber, A., Gusev, V.V., 1995. Soil parent material sequences west of Moscow, Russia. Terra nostra, Schriften Alfred-Wegener Stiftung, p. 101. Kleber, A., Gusev, V.V., in review. Soil parent materials in the Moshaysk-district, Russia. Catena. Kleber, A., Lindemann, J., Schellenberger, A., Beierkuhnlein, C., Kanpenjohann, M., Peiffer, S., in press. Slope hydrology and sulfate reduction in a spring catchment, Frankenwald, Bavaria. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosys. Machette, M.N., 1985. Calcic soils of the southwestern United States. Geol. Soc. Am. Spe. Pap. 203, 1-21. McFadden, L.D., Tinsley, J.C., 1985. Rate and depth of pedogenic-carbonate accumulation in soils: formulation and testing of a compartment model. Geol. Soc. Am. Spe. Pap. 203, 23-41. Molloy, L.F,, 1988. Soils in the New Zealand landscape. Mallinson Rendel, Wellington, New Zealand.

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