Creating sense of presence in a virtual reality experience: Impact on neurophysiological arousal and attitude towards a winter sport

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sport Management Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smr

Creating sense of presence in a virtual reality experience: Impact on neurophysiological arousal and attitude towards a winter sport Jun-Phil Uhma , Hyun-Woo Leeb,* , Jin-Wook Hanc a b c

Division of Sport Management, Texas A&M University, United States Division of Sport Management, Texas A&M University, United States Sport Industry Management, Kyung Hee University, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 19 February 2019 Received in revised form 22 October 2019 Accepted 25 October 2019 Available online xxx

The authors of this study examined the impact of sense of presence on affective responses to a virtual reality experience and attitude towards a winter sport—luge. An experiment was implemented to compare virtual reality experience environments where a sense of presence was stimulated to the experimental group. Electroencephalogram was used to measure emotional arousal and self-report measures were used to assess attitudes. The experimental group with higher sense of presence showed higher arousal and attitude towards luge. While most of the literature of virtual reality has focused on creating a highfidelity virtual environment, results of this study highlight the importance of creating an immersive environment in the physical space where a person experiences virtual reality. The authors further discuss the implications to scholars and managers. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand.

Keywords: Presence Arousal Attitude Virtual reality EEG Environment

1. Introduction As technology in cyber-physical systems advance rapidly, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) experiences are promptly becoming commercialized and provided to the general public, including sport fans. Various attempts have already been made to use VR technology to experience and enjoy sports that could be either costly, dangerous, or difficult to access owing to geographical constraints (Levy & Katz, 2007). For instance, VR horse riding simulators are continuously being developed for educational purposes (Byeon & Kwak, 2013) and now anyone can safely enjoy extreme sports such as mountain biking and sky diving through VR (Plante, Aldridge, Bogden, & Hanelin, 2003). The local organizing committee of the 2018 Winter Olympics has held VR experience exhibitions for fans to experience the viewpoint of Winter Olympic Games athletes. With access to VR equipment, fans can now vicariously experience athletes’ performance, and interact with their friends actually attending a game from where ever they want. In this way, VR technology can help sports fans to overcome the limitations of the physical realities and communicate naturally everywhere. Further, VR is gaining spotlight in the field of sports because it provides new experiences for sports fans and promotes them to become more immersed in sports. Accordingly, applying the emerging technologies has become an imminent task to sport marketers. However, most

* Corresponding author at: Division of Sport Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4243, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.-W. Lee). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.10.003 1441-3523/Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand.

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sports-relatedVR studies focused on the technical aspects of VR (e.g., Cannavò, Pratticò, Ministeri, & Lamberti, 2018; Kasapakis, Dzardanova, & Paschalidis, 2018) or rehabilitation (e.g., Smith-Jentsch, Campbell, Milanovich, & Reynolds, 2001; Tieri, Morone, Paolucci, & Iosa, 2018). From a marketing standpoint, it is imperative to stage a better VR experience to consumers, and understand its impact on the attitude towards the sport itself (Homburg, Jozi c, & Kuehnl, 2017; Karakus, Baydas, Gunay, Coban, & Goktas, 2016; Pine & Gilmore, 1998). VR users’ sense of being in and feelings in a particular place or time period varies in a physically separated virtual environment. A large body of research in VR focused on the effect of this sense of presence in virtual environments. For example, numerous researchers focused on the links between a sense of presence in the virtual environment and emotions (e.g., Diemer, Alpers, Peperkorn, Shiban, & Mühlberger, 2015; Riva et al., 2007; Sanchez-Vives & Slater, 2005). However, although researchers frequently adopted psychometric methods to identify the effect of presence on emotional experience in virtual environments, there are limited studies providing neurophysiological evidence of such affective experience. Over the past few years, there has been increased research to understand marketing, consumer behavior, and advertising effects by using various neurophysiological methods. For instance, researchers are using neurophysiological methods like electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracker, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), galvanic skin response (GSR), and various other physiological measures, as empirical evidence in marketing research (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019; Venkatraman et al., 2015). These methods are efficacious in understanding consumer behavior because they can measure consumers’ physiological responses to external stimuli such as advertisements in real time. Venkatraman et al. assessed the interrelatedness of traditional self-reported measures and neurophysiological measures and asserted that consumer behavior might be understood better when both measures are used in research. In this study, we used quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) as a scientific measurement of human brain activity, which reflects the emotional information processing to a VR stimulation by quantifying human emotions in real time. We examined the relationships among sense of presence, EEG signals reflecting affective responses, and participants’ attitude towards a sport discipline experienced in VR. The VR content specifically adopted in this research was developed by the local organizing committee of the 2018 Winter Olympics as a strategic marketing effort to increase the awareness and interest toward the relatively less popular sport in the local area (Kim, 2017; You, 2017). Aligned with the marketing strategy of using VR as a tool for the marketing of a particular sport, we designed our experimental setting to stimulate the sense of presence by enhancing the cognitive involvement towards the sport. This was in attempt to advance the study of presence as a large body of research is evidencing the effect of presence in VR (e.g., Slater, Usoh, & Steed, 1994; Tang, Biocca, & Lim, 2004) but research highlighting human factors as stimuli of presence—as a way for participants to be more immersed in a VR experience—is insufficient. Using an original experimental protocol and analyzing self-reported and neurophysiological measures, we aimed to enhance the understanding of consumer psychology and behavior during VR sports experience. Following a review of literature of VR and presence, we generated hypotheses to achieve our research objectives. 2. Theoretical background and hypothesis development VR research in sport marketing is scattered. For instance, Lee, Chung and Lee (2013) and Lee and Park (2018) studied psychological response of VR sport game players, while Bae and Kim (2015) designed a system to play sports games and exercise at once through VR. Although not directly nor technically related to VR, researchers also attempted to investigate the effectiveness of virtual advertising on screens (Tsuji, Bennett, & Leigh, 2009; Turner & Cusumano, 2000). Further, Lee (2013) investigated ways to produce effective virtual advertisement in sports broadcasting by utilizing VR technology. Nonetheless, not much empirical work exists about sport consumers’ actual experience. Psychological research pertaining to VR environments and experiences spotlights presence as an imperative variable. The word presence was derived from the term telepresence coined by Marvin Minsky in 1980s, in the context of teleoperation. Based on the theorization of VR and presence, we identified presence as the experimental variable in experiencing VR. Specifically, antecedents of presence were considered in setting the experimental stimuli. Also, affective arousal and attitude were chosen as dependent variables considering that an individual’s response to situations is affected and represented by cognitive and affective systems (Mischel & Shoda, 1995). Furthermore, an environmental psychology approach (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Saegert & Winkel, 1990) was applied in testing the stimulus control and synthesizing the literature of emotion and consumer behavior (e.g., Ajzen, 2001; Barrett, Mesquita, Ochsner, & Gross, 2007; Pritchard & Funk, 2010; Thornson, Goldiez, & Le, 2009). 2.1. Sense of presence An observer’s sense of presence has long been a concern of the entertainment industry. As authors and artists continuously search for new ways to stimulate this mental state, Sheridan (1992) asserted that the new technological interfaces of telepresence and virtual presence could also affect the sense of presence, and speculated how virtual environments and sensory outputs can produce a sense of presence. Steuer (1992) identified sensory richness or vividness and the capability of VR as an important variable. In line with this concept, Lombard and Ditton (1997) defined presence as a perceptual illusion of nonmediation where media users experience an illusion that a mediated experience (e.g., television; VR) is not mediated.

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Numerous researchers in the context of VR highlighted the subjective sensation of presence. Kim and Biocca (1997) examined how the feeling of being in the virtual environment and not in the physical presence affected memory and consumer attitudes. Li, Daugherty and Biocca (2002) tested the mediating role of presence between media and consumer characteristics on the virtual experience. Klein (2003) also found that presence mediated the effect of media characteristics on consumer’s affective responses. Further, Riva et al. (2007) and Diemer et al. (2015) investigated how presence affects emotional reactions. Applying of the concept of presence has also led to Tussyadiah, Wang, and Jia (2017)) study, which indicated the positive affect of presence on attitude change toward tourism destinations. Sense of presence consistently showed significant effects on affective outcomes. Considering the significance of the construct, researchers also investigated the antecedents of presence. While the highfidelity virtual environment involving technological vividness and sensory richness is important (Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007; Steuer, 1992), Thornson et al. (2009) argued that human factors such as cognitive involvement, spatial orientation, personality trait of introversion, ability to construct mental models, and empathy are also important in staging an immersive VR experience. We provide a brief review of these human factors and specifically elucidate the role of cognitive involvement, which was manipulated in our experiment. Thornson et al. (2009) identified spatial orientation as one’s natural ability to maintain body orientation and or posture in relation to the surrounding environment. He also noted that introverts might be better able to suppress conflicting sensory inputs such as hardware or the real-world stimuli, as they often prefer solitary activities and tend to have a calming effect on those around them. Ability to construct mental models are affected by one’s capability to suppressing conflicting stimuli and allocating attention to virtual stimuli (Schubert, Friedmann, & Regenbrecht, 2001; Witmer & Singer, 1998); and projecting himself or herself into the virtual environment and interacting with other objects and beings (Regenbrecht, Schubert, & Friedmann, 1998). Supported by empirical research that people with a high ability to sympathize with other’s psychological perspectives experience higher levels of presence (e.g., Sas, O’Hare, & Reilly, 2004), empathy is recognized as an important factor in determining presence. These are associated with the ability to. In addition, these human factors affecting sense of presence has been shown to predict cognitive tasks (Smith-Jentsch et al., 2001). Thornson et al. (2009) distinguished active cognitive involvement from passive cognitive involvement in immersive VR experiences. Active involvement can be defined as the tendency to become involved and immersed in cognitive tasks. Active cognitive involvement is required when a person needs to intentionally tune out internal and external distractions in order to focus on the virtual experience (Thornson et al., 2009). Passive cognitive involvement refers to a cognitive state where a person is fully immersed in an activity. For instance, a person is in a passive cognitive involvement when he or she is fully immersed with a sense of presence. Relating to the theory of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), such cognitive state can be activated when one’s abilities and skills match the challenges they face. To sum up, people become immersed in the cognitive state when their abilities and skills match the challenges they face, and this state ultimately affects presence. Whereas all other factors in Thornson et al.’s study are personal abilities or traits, active and passive cognitive involvement are psychological states which can be stimulated by an environmental setting (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Saegert & Winkel, 1990). Moreover, empirical studies of these factors of presence are limited. In the current experiment, we manipulated sense of presence by stimulating both active and passive cognitive involvement. 2.2. Emotional arousal Arousal can be defined as an activation of emotional experience—a feeling of the mind or body being active—often related to autonomic, somatic, or cortical state (Barrett et al., 2007). Further, arousal can be measured by the degree of physiological and psychological excitement. Researchers in the field of media and communication adopted and studied arousal in order to assess observers’ responses to media. For instance, researchers have investigated the changes of and consequences to users’ level of arousals after experiencing new media technology such as 3-dimensional television and VR (Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007; Lombard, Reich, Grabe, Bracken, & Ditton, 2000). Further, arousal has been considered an important topic in VR studies, as level of arousal was found to be a critical determinant for improving the efficiency in task training such as military training, flight simulation, and virtual surgery (Witmer & Singer, 1998). A large body of research suggests that the improvement of media technology is associated with the increase in emotional arousal. In fact, various scholars have found that the degree of arousal increased in new media environments such as VR (e.g., Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Steuer, 1992). Specifically, media and communication scholars paid particular attention to presence as one of the causes of increased arousal. Results indicate that arousal became stronger in general when the user felt a greater presence while experiencing new media. Baumgartner, Valko, Esslen and Jäncke (2006) investigated the relationship between arousal and presence through a vicarious roller coaster experienced in a virtual environment. They provided empirical evidence that a higher level of presence in a VR experience caused a stronger state of physiological arousal. Ravaja et al. (2006) concluded that the level of presence experienced in computer game influences psychological arousal. Based on the theoretical groundings and existing studies, it is predicted that the level of presence experienced through VR sportscontent can have a positive effect on one’s arousal level. Arousal is generally measured in two ways: by measuring physiological responses and by self-report surveys. However, there remains the question of whether it is possible to analyze phenomena in the domain of human psychology, such as arousal, with simple self-report data (Kim, Magnusen, & Lee, 2017; Venkatraman et al., 2015). Such questions arise due to the fact that it is impossible to completely control the influence of external factors such as a variety of personal, social, and

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cultural elements while self-reporting one’s psychological state (Venkatraman et al., 2015). Hence, researchers recently experimented with new neuroscientific approaches (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019; Venkatraman et al., 2015). Based on the aforementioned theoretical background of presence and consistent with the neurophysiological literature, we established the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1. Increase in sense of presence will positively affect neurophysiological arousal. 2.3. Attitude Attitude represents “summary evaluation of a psychological object captured in such attribute dimensions as good-bad, harmful-beneficial, pleasant-unpleasant, and likable-dislikable” (Ajzen, 2001, p. 28). In other words, it is an overall positive or negative feeling about a certain object. In the context of sport marketing, an attitude can be defined as representing one’s general thoughts and feelings of favorableness towards a sport-related object such as sport products, sport brands, sport advertisements, sport service (Funk, Alexandris, & McDonald, 2016). Attitude plays a significant role in predicting a person's behavioral intentions and can affect a behavioral response to the object, and therefore, it is one of the most fundamental concept for marketers to understand consumer behaviors (Ajzen, 2001). Due to the recent advance of digital technologies, scholars have attempted to assess the effects of emerging VR technologies. One of the major subjects of study was demonstrating the relationships among the representative factors of VR, including presence and attitude. In marketing, researchers have illuminated the effect of presence on attitude towards advertisements or brands. In brief, research findings show that presence causes positive emotions and ultimately contributes to forming a positive attitude (e.g., Nelson, Yaros, & Keum, 2006). For instance, Li et al. (2002) argued that advertisements represented products in a 3D format resulted in greater persuasive effect on advertisement attitude and purchase intention through presence. Klein (2003) demonstrated that presence has a positive effect on consumers’ attitude towards products advertised on computer media. Furthermore, researchers have also examined the relationships between presence and attitude in venues beyond advertising (e.g., education, medicine, and tourism), based on the recent conceptual expansion of VR, diversification of technical categories, and expansion of areas of its application (Wexelblat, 1993). For instance, Tussyadiah et al. (2017) examined the effect of VR experience on travel decision-making, and reported that presence has a positive effect on attitude towards tourist destinations. Accordingly, a VR experience affected attitude towards a physical object. Connecting this to sports, experiencing a sport through VR could affect one’s attitude towards the sport discipline. For instance, winter sport disciplines such as luge, which are not easily accessible, could create awareness and feelings towards the sport through a VR experience. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical study examining how presence can influence a person’s attitude towards a type of sport—a sport discipline—experienced in VR despite the wide application of the marketing concept in the field of sport marketing (e.g., Funk et al., 2016; Pritchard & Funk, 2010). This led to testing the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2. Increase in sense of presence will positively affect attitude towards the sport experienced in VR. 3. Method 3.1. Participants In order to check the appropriate sample size needed for this study, G*Power (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) was used for an a priori power analysis (1-β = .80) to determine the required sample size applying a large effect size f2(V) = .50 at an alpha level of .05. The result showed that the recommended sample size was 28 participants (14 for each group). The actual number of participants in this study satisfied this criterion, as 36 participants living in a metropolitan area were recruited (18 for each group). Following the suggestions for EEG research, we recruited the participants by using a purposeful non-probability convenience sampling method. Using a randomized block design, we controlled the blocks for gender to be even, and then randomly assigned men and women into experimental groups using a random number generator. Since EEG signals are influenced by individual variables, especially age (Dickter & Kieffaber, 2014), we restricted participants’ age to be under 39 years old. The age of participants ranged from 15 to 32 (M = 22.67; SD = 6.33). All participants in the experiment had no history of brain disease, heart disease, color blindness or color weakness, and reported no complaint of mental or physical fatigue. Since handedness may have an effect on lateralization of hemispheric functions, participants were limited to righthanders to reduce the measurement error (Dickter & Kieffaber, 2014). Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the study participants. 3.2. Measures 3.2.1. Psychometric measures For the psychometric scales, we used items with adequate reliability and validity assessed in previous studies. Six items from the Revised Personal Involvement Inventory (RPII) developed by Zaichkowsky (1994) were used to measure the

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Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the participants. Exposure to external stimulus

Variables

Sex Age

Handedness Brain disease Total

Male Female 10s 20s 30s Right-handed Left-handed No Yes

Total (N = 36)

Exposure (n = 18)

No exposure (n = 18)

11(61.1) 7(38.9) 7(38.9) 5(27.8) 6(33.3) 18(100) 0(0) 18(100) 0(0) 18(100)

11(61.1) 7(38.9) 7(38.9) 7(38.9) 4(22.2) 18(100) 0(0) 18(100) 0(0) 18(100)

22(61.1) 14(38.9) 14(38.9) 12(33.3) 10(27.8) 36(100) 0(0) 36(100) 0(0) 36(100)

involvement to luge of study participants before the VR experiment. To measure presence, we utilized eight items used in Uhm, Yoon and Han (2017), which were based on Kim and Biocca (1997). In Uhm et al.’s study, reliability of items measuring presence was .96. Items measuring attitude towards the sport discipline, luge, were derived from three items that Yoon, Laczniak, Muehling and Reece (1995) used to measure attitude about an advertisement. In their study, reliability of items measuring attitude toward an advertisement was .92. Presence was measured by a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree), and involvement and attitude towards the sport discipline were measured by a 7-point semantic differential scale (positive/negative, good/bad, favorable/unfavorable). The psychometric measures used in this study are listed in Table A1 in Appendix A. 3.2.2. Neurophysiological measures To measure neurophysiological arousal, 4 channels among 8 channels of LXE5208 (Laxtha, Inc., Daejeon, Korea) were used to acquire EEG waves in the frontal lobe region. Quantitative EEG data were extracted using Telescan 3.16 software. In order to measure participants’ physiological arousal while watching the video, EEG waves were acquired using electrodes on a scalp cap. Signals were acquired from the prefrontal lobe channels (Fp1, Fp2) and frontal lobe channels (F3, F4) in both hemispheres. The reason for choosing the prefrontal lobe and frontal lobe as the region of interest was because these areas play a critical role in the generation and regulation of emotional arousal (Dixon, Thiruchselvam, Todd, & Christoff, 2017). Although various scholars have classified positive/negative emotional responses through the brain wave asymmetry of the left and right hemispheres in prior studies, the purpose of this study was to identify the arousal level of the participants, not to classify positive/negative emotional arousal. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the relationship between presence, arousal, and attitude after averaging quantified EEG levels of both left and right hemispheres. 3.3. Manipulation We investigated the effect of presence on arousal and attitude towards a sport discipline. A winter sport, luge, was utilized for the experiment. To test the effect of presence, a poster was designed as a stimulus enhancing participants’ sense of presences. A poster was considered as appropriate tool for this study because it is an effective visual communication tool that helps participants become more involved in a task (Dale, 1969; Hess, Tosney, & Liegel, 2009), which is efficient in conveying information and relatively easy to make and modify (Nysveen & Breivik, 2005). Based on the official poster promoting the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics, the luge VR poster for this experiment was designed and adjusted into an A3 size format. Texts and illustrations were added to increase the sense of presence. To be specific, the actual 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics mascot—Soohorang—was included on the poster, and the fonts and the design of the posters were made as similar to the original posters as possible. According to Thornson et al. (2009) study of antecedents of presence, active and passive cognitive involvements were stimulated in the poster. To increase active cognitive involvement, a brief description of luge (information about the speed and gravity force of the luge experience) and explanation about the side-by-side function (SBS), which is the VR viewing technology, were provided. To stimulate passive cognitive involvement, illustrations on posters delivering visual information and the immersive experience of VR were shown to the participants prior to the actual experience. Visual information included the Olympic mascot riding luge and the 2018 PyeongChang Olympic logo. Specifically, we manipulated the experimental group to focus on the task actively and take interest in new information by exposing them to relatively new sports and technology information. The experimental group was exposed to the environment with the poster stimulus and while the control group was not exposed to the stimulus before VR experience. The original poster and the translated poster with cognitive involvement stimuli are illustrated in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Manipulation Poster and Cognitive Involvement Stimuli.

3.4. The VR experience A video clip titled ‘Luge run with 360 degrees camera from ZDF in Altenberg’ (FIL-LUGE TV, 2017), which is a one minute and 28 s-long clip posted on YouTube, was chosen as the experimental stimulus. Luge was selected as a VR experimental stimulus mainly for two reasons. First, luge is difficult for the general public to access because (a) it can be dangerous due to its fast velocity, (b) it requires expensive professional equipment, and (c) the sport is only available on specific downhill tracks. Luge was therefore, judged as a good sport discipline to experience vicariously through VR. Second, since luge was considered an unpopular sport in Korea, where the research was conducted, it was considered suitable to achieve the study’s purpose of exploring ways to enhance interest in the sport itself through VR. The video was purposely filmed for VR experience, recorded from a first-person perspective of a German luge athlete traversing an actual track. Therefore, the participants who watched the video while wearing the VR equipment could indirectly experience luge speeds of up to 130 km per hour for about 90 s. Samsung New Gear VR and Galaxy S8 were used as the equipment for VR. 3.5. Procedure The experiment was conducted for four days and, according to the group assignment, eight participants were tested per day. Experiments on day 1 and day 2 were conducted in an environment with the poster stimuli, and on day 3 and day 4 experiments were conducted without poster stimuli. The poster-stimulated participants were instructed to view the poster installed outside of the laboratory for 1 min before entering the lab. Given the amount of poster content, a minute was considered sufficient to view the poster, so a total of one minute of viewing time was provided to the poster-stimulated participants. Before the EEG analysis, the participants read and signed a consent form and were given an explanation about the experiment and the equipment. Subsequently, in order to confirm that the participants were randomly assigned, involvement to luge was measured before the VR experience. After measuring involvement, the proper size electro-cap was put onto participants’ head and wet EEG electrodes were attached to the prefrontal (Fp1, Fp2) and frontal (F3, F4) regions of both hemispheres according to the International 10–20 system (Jasper, 1958). The reference electrode and the ground electrode were attached to the lobes of each ear (A1, A2). Thus, a total of six electrodes were attached to participants. In this process, electro-gel was injected into all electrode cavities and impedance was checked whether it is below 3 K ohms. In addition, to minimize the electrode artifacts, a gauzes were used to blot the mount of electro-gel and medical tapes were used so that the electrodes cannot move. After placing the electrodes, the baseline brain waves were acquired with participants being in a comfortable and stable state without any physical movement. The baseline brain waves were analyzed for two minutes. The 10–20 system location and the experimental setting for a participant is shown in Fig. 2. After analyzing the baseline brain waves, participants put on the VR equipment and watched the video described above. The EEG data were acquired from the beginning of the video clip to the end, and the EEG data collection was stopped at the moment the video ended. After EEG data acquisition, the electrodes were removed from the participants and their attitude towards luge were measured. The EEG experiments were conducted in an office rented for this study. All possible obstacles were removed so that the participants could be tested in a well-controlled environment. In addition, a specialist from Laxtha helped conduct the EEG analyses and this made it possible to do high quality analysis. At the end of the experiment, a 10,000 KRW gift card was offered to the participants.

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Fig. 2. The International 10–20 System and the Experimental Setting.

3.6. Data analyses 3.6.1. qEEG data analysis In order to increase the reliability of the collected EEG data, the final analysis only included the 60-seconds (1 min) of data that were acquired between 10 and 70 s where the proportion of the noise was the lowest. The selected EEGs were transformed with fast Fourier transform (FFT) method, recorded as absolute power including all 0–50 Hz bands, and classified into the d waves (0.5–4 Hz), u waves (4–8 Hz), α waves (8–13 Hz), β waves (13–30 Hz), and g waves (30–120 Hz). Among the frequency bands, d waves were excluded from the EEG data through band pass filtering because there is a high possibility that d waves are mixed with noise from blinking of the eyes or body movement. We used β waves to measure sport consumer arousal (Kassarjian, 1982). Eq. (1) was used to confirm the presence of arousal when the stimulus was presented. A positive value from the equation was considered to show arousal and negative value was considered to show no arousal. The β-wave activity was positive for all participants, so we continued the follow-up analyses. Arousal = Absolute β wave during stimulus - Absolute β wave during rest

(1)

After confirming the presence or absence of arousal, we calculated the relative band-to-band power of the β-wave in the entire EEG band (4–50 Hz) to determine the level of arousal when the stimulus was presented. The equation for band-toband β power is shown in Eq. (2). Then, the final EEG values for the four electrodes (Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4) were averaged. Band-to-band β power = 13–30 Hz / 4–50 Hz

(2)

The qEEG data and survey data obtained in this study were statistically analyzed utilizing the following procedures. First, in order to check random assignment of the participants into each group, we compared a difference in involvement to luge between the experimental and control groups using a t-test. Second, Cronbach's α coefficient was calculated to confirm the reliability of the scale. Third, descriptive analysis was conducted to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the variables and to verify the normality of the data. Fourth, manipulation was checked by comparing the level of sense of presence between the groups using a t-test. Fifth, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to compare the mean differences of arousal and attitude towards luge between the groups. 4. Results 4.1. Manipulation test There was no statistically significant difference in involvement to luge between the two groups. On the other hand, we found evidence that cognitive involvement stimulated sense of presence, as sense of presence was significantly difference between the two groups. Therefore, manipulation of sense of presence was successful. Table 2 shows the results of t-tests examining the mean difference of involvement and presence between the experimental group and control group.

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Table 2 Differences in involvement and presence between exposure and non-exposure group for external environmental stimulus. External environmental stimulus (scenario)

Variable

Pre-involvement Presence *

t

Exposure (n = 18)

No exposure (n = 18)

11.89  4.43 36.72  8.66

11.28  3.06 32.11  8.00

.48 2.06*

p < .05.

Table 3 Descriptive Statistics. Scale

M

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

Cronbach’s α

Presence Arousal Attitude towards luge

4.30 .23 5.09

.88 .03 .88

.15 .23 .49

.65 .88 .38

.93 .86 .97

Table 4 Summary Results of MANOVA. Experimental Group (n = 18)

Control group (n = 18)

Scale

M

SD

M

SD

F

p

h2

Arousal Attitude towards luge

.25 5.54

.02 .90

.21 4.65

.02 .61

21.52 12.01

.000 .001

.39 .26

4.2. Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics of the study variables including mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are listed in Table 3. Given that skewness and kurtosis values were within the recommended range, it is assumed that all the variables were normally distributed. In addition, Cronbach’s α of the all variables ranged between .86 and .97, and exceeded the criteria of .70 suggested by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). 4.3. Testing hypotheses MANOVA was conducted to examine differences in arousal and attitude toward luge between the groups. The results of the multivariate test indicated that there was a significant difference in linear combination of the dependent variables between the experimental and control group: Pillai's trace was .46; F (2, 33) = 14.21; p < .001; h2 = .46. The follow-up univariate test in Table 4 indicated that all the means of the dependent variables in the experimental groups were higher than those of the control groups. Therefore, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were accepted. 5. Discussion Implementing an experiment using neurophysiological and psychometric measures, we examined the effect of presence on arousal and attitude towards luge. Foremost, the experimental group’s sense of presence was significantly enhanced by stimulating cognitive involvement information. Next, the experimental group showed significantly higher arousal and attitude towards luge. These results lent support to all of the tested hypotheses. The empirical evidence supported how environmental stimuli affects one’s cognitive-affective system. Psychometric measures of sport consumer responses (i.e., sense of presence and attitude) and EEG measures of affective response (i.e., emotional arousal) indicated that an environmental setting with a poster stimulating cognitive involvement increased emotional arousal during a VR experience, and post-experience attitude towards the sport discipline. The effect on presence is in accordance with Thornson et al. (2009), who suggest that active and passive cognitive involvement is an antecedent variable in virtual environments. Effect on attitudes is in line with the finding by Klein (2003); Li et al. (2002), and Tussyadiah et al. (2017). Impact on emotional arousal is consistent with Riva et al. (2007) and Diemer et al. (2015) study on emotional reactions. In addition to these findings from both psychometric and neurophysiological measures, we suggest that future investigation should further identify the factors affecting a sporting VR experience.

Please cite this article in press as: J.-P. Uhm, et al., Creating sense of presence in a virtual reality experience: Impact on neurophysiological arousal and attitude towards a winter sport, Sport Management Review (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2019.10.003

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Personal factors of a user needs to be considered to better understand a VR experience, as presence is fully dependent on a user’s subjective judgment (Schloerb, 1995). Lombard and Ditton (1997) emphasized the importance of understanding personal characteristics by pointing out one’s willingness to suspend disbelief as a personal characteristic that can lead to his or her willingness to focus on the content. However, there have been only few studies which have investigated the role of personal factors (Sacau, Laarni, & Hartmann, 2008). While we manipulated presence by stimulating cognitive involvement, researchers should investigate the roles of other personal factors in future studies. We used posters as cognitive-affective cues in our experiment to create an immersive environment for participants to better focus and engage themselves in VR. The results showed higher experience levels of presence in the experimental group. It appears that posters may have caused the increase of willingness to suspend disbelief, leading to their willingness to focus on the VR. The finding substantiates the hypothesis of Draper, Kaber and Usher (1998), in which they stated that the ability to focus on media stimuli might influence presence. This is also in line with the assertion of Riley, Kaber and Draper (2004) who stated that attention allocation is positively related with telepresence. From these findings, the importance of personal factors, as a determinant of presence, were supported. In other words, cognitive-affective cues are important factors that can influence the level of presence. According to the results of Hypothesis 1, the presence level during VR experience positively influenced neurophysiological arousal. This finding is in line with other studies that have examined the relationship between presence and physiological arousal. For instance, Ravaja et al. (2006) study found the positive association between presence and electrodermal activity (EDA). Meehan, Insko, Whitton and Brooks (2002) also found presence is positively related to EDA and heart rate (HR). On the other hand, not all findings of presence studies investigating the relationship between presence and physiological arousal are consistent. Contrary to the results of this study, there are reports indicating a nonsignificant relationship between presence experienced in VR and physiological arousal. For example, Bailey, Wise and Bolls (2009) reported that presence does not significantly influence the arousal level through an experiment in the context where children were playing online video games and physiological arousal of skin conductance levels were measured. As such, the relationship between presence experienced in the VR and physiological arousal needs further scrutiny. Using EDA and HR as the indicators of physiological arousal, we argue that those measures might not reflect an immersive experience and the relationship between the two factors may be difficult to generalize. Hence, the present study contributes to presence literature by adding evidence to the relationship between presence and arousal using qEEG, which reflects an emotional information processing in the brain. Neurophysiological evidence should be further explored to clarify which VR environmental leads to optimal settings where presence affects emotions and which does not. Moreover, VR contents in the field of sports need further investigation. In line with the previously outlined research design, results of this study highlight the possibilities of future interdisciplinary research. Synthesizing the literature of presence with environmental psychology and consumer behavior can further shed light to applied VR research. First, more environmental settings should be staged to experiment VR experiences. Based on Mehrabian and Russell (1974) framework of environmental psychology, other sensory modalities and personal predisposition variables should be tested in VR environments. For instance, sensory modality variables such as lighting, color, and temperature could be tested to identify a more immersive VR experience (Novak, La Lopa, & Novak, 2010; Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Also, while Thornson et al. (2009) identified six factors of personal characteristics, other personal traits than cognitive involvement (such as spatial orientation, introversion, ability to construct mental models, and empathy) and media characteristics should be further included in testing a VR experience. Second, the effect of a higher-fidelity VR also needs attention. As highlighted in previous research of VR (e.g., Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Steuer, 1992), better resolution of VR machines and advanced interfaces should be assessed as technology advances. Finally, researchers should investigate other behavioral outcomes applied to various settings in sport marketing. For example, recently, professional leagues such as the NBA and MLB are already experimenting with VR systems where fans can virtually experience live sporting events from key points at a game, such as being on the sidelines during a football game or sitting in a courtside seat at a basketball game. In this situation, it is necessary to analyze real-life market response such as whether there is an intention to watch sports games through VR instead of spectating actual games. The current experiment actually measured real-time emotional arousal and examined its relationship with presence, having the advantage of providing immediate feedback of consumer response with less bias compared to previous studies (Kim et al., 2017). Moreover, a neurophysiological measure can capture both conscious and nonconscious response providing a more holistic view to consumer response with potential to expand the theoretical boundaries of consumer experience research (Homburg et al., 2017; Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019; Sanchez-Vives & Slater, 2005). From a marketing perspective, marketers should stage better VR environments to increase one’s sense of presence. To stage an optimal experience, it is important to design and develop an immersive environment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Pine & Gilmore, 1998). As suggested by the results, setting an environment that can enhance a consumer’s cognitive involvement can stimulate a better cognitive-affective experience. For example, when a local organizing committee of the Winter Olympic Games is operating an exhibition for VR experience to sport fans, they should provide adequate information and environment for the person to be ready to absorb the VR experience (Lee & Kim, 2013).

Please cite this article in press as: J.-P. Uhm, et al., Creating sense of presence in a virtual reality experience: Impact on neurophysiological arousal and attitude towards a winter sport, Sport Management Review (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2019.10.003

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Especially when sports such as luge are hard to experience in first-hand, or when fans have less information on the sport, stimulating a fan’s involvement can lead to better emotional experience and forming more positive attitudes after the experience. It is also notable that numerous VR-related theme parks have been launched worldwide since the popularity of and interest in VR has recently started to increase (Niles, 2018). Therefore, marketers need to develop systematical approaches to maximize consumers’ VR experience. The results of this study provide practical implications for the field of sports entertainment not only by suggesting new methods but also by underscoring the potential use of VR in raising public interest in sports that are not easily accessible for first-hand experience. The results reveal that not only internal factors, such as the quality of VR content or technical aspects such as resolution and interactivity but also external factors such as proper environmental composition are very important before experiencing VR. To ensure positive VR experience, marketers needs to carefully identify and stage the entire consumer journey. We suggest marketers to present an environment fostering presence, which is informative and psychologically connecting with the virtually immersive experience. Additionally, marketers can use real-time neurophysiological measures to receive immediate feedback from users experiencing VR. Similar to how pre-stimulus of VR environment affected consumer experience, it can be important to utilize customer feedback to reinforce meta-attitude after the experience (Homburg et al., 2017; Pritchard & Funk, 2010). Furthermore, those post-experience attitudes can create an online discourse through social media to bolster the positive experience (Pronschinske, Groza, & Walker, 2012). Together, while presence can be stimulated to enhance the emotional reaction during and attitudes after a VR experience, more environmental settings and mechanisms need to be test to develop better VR contents and devices. The academic significance of the present study lies in substantiating differences in the user’s experience level of presence according to personal characteristics. In addition, the present study has practical significance in that it provides guidelines and suggestions to sports marketers for the process of planning and creating sport VR environments. In particular, we highlighted the importance of an immersive environment and the demonstrations offering a more realistic experience for those virtually experiencing sports. 5.1. Limitations and suggestions The current study is not without limitations. Foremost, we used a neuromarketing technique (EEG) to measure the emotional arousal of the VR participants. However, neuromarketing techniques are relatively new to the field of sport marketing. Therefore, we suggest researchers to conduct empirical studies providing neurophysiological and psychometric evidence as a single study is not sufficient for generalization. Future studies could be carried out by replicating the experiment or applying multiple measures into different settings. In that way, implications of this study will be enriched with external validity, and the field of sport marketing would benefit from the various viewpoints into examining methods and theory. In addition, it would be practically meaningful for scholars to compare and analyze the factors that are more effective when stimulating the sense of presence. Also, we used a unidimensional attitude scale to examine individuals’ general thoughts and positive feelings toward luge. However, research on attitude has given rise to multidimensional instruments designed to measure the various facets of attitudes (e.g., affective, cognitive, and conative attitudes). Hence, we suggest the use of multidimensional attitude scales and examination of other aspects of attitudinal evaluations for a more indepth analysis (Ajzen, 2001). Lastly, implications of this study can be tested in other new media platforms (e.g., augmented reality and mixed reality). 5.2. Conclusion We examined the effect of sense of presence on emotional arousal and attitude using neurophysiological and psychometric measures. Our findings extend earlier research by examining the impact of an immersive environment on presence and its effects on experiencing sports through VR. The findings offer practical and theoretical contributions. First, marketers can better understand the importance of creating an immersive environment for creating a more effective VR experience and capturing its effects. Second, the analysis brings in the discussion of presence into the field of sport marketing by stimulating and testing its effects in a VR setting. Third, a neurophysiological evidence is provided as a real-time affective measure. In summation, sport marketers can stage more immersive VR environments by utilizing cognitive involvement; evaluate the effectiveness of such stimuli by measuring presence and arousal; and assess behavioral outcomes using attitudinal measures. As we highlighted the benefits of the neuroscientific method in capturing sport consumers’ affective processing in VR experience, we assert that new approaches in testing consumer responses can expand the theoretical boundaries of sport consumer behavior.

Acknowledgement This work was supported by Kyung Hee University under the 2017 sabbatical year research grant.

Please cite this article in press as: J.-P. Uhm, et al., Creating sense of presence in a virtual reality experience: Impact on neurophysiological arousal and attitude towards a winter sport, Sport Management Review (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2019.10.003

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Appendix A

Table A1 Psychometric Measures. Factors

Semantic Scale Items

Involvement Important Relevant Exciting Appealing Fascinating Involving Positive Attitude towards Good sports Favorable Item Factors

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When the broadcast ended, I felt like I came back to the “real world” after a journey The television came to me and created a new world for me, and the world suddenly disappeared when the broadcast ended During the broadcast, I felt I was in the world the television created During the broadcast, I NEVER forgot that I was in the middle of an experiment During the broadcast, my body was in the room, but my mind was inside the world created by television During the broadcast, the television-generated world was more real or present for me compared to the “real world.” The television-generated world seemed to me only “something I saw” rather than “somewhere I visited.” During the broadcast, my mind was in the room, not in the world created by television.

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Unimportant Irrelevant Unexciting Unappealing Mundane Uninvolving Negative Bad Unfavorable Slightly agree

Agree Strongly agree

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Strongly disagree Presence

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