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CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION | Recording
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
them to prevent further contamination or destruction. The processing of the evidence at the crime scene requires the use of procedures that reduce its destruction. All evidence should be first visually examined with the naked eye, then examined with the use of a forensic light source, and then processed in a nondestructive manner. Each of these steps must be performed carefully, in such a manner that the potential value of the evidence to the investigation is not diminished. All physical evidence, once documented and processed at the scene, must be packaged properly. Packaging can be critical to its protection. If an item with a nonporous surface, such as a drinking glass, is packaged to be transported to the police agency or laboratory for further analysis, it must be packaged in a paper product so it can `breathe' and not become moldy. Packaging must also be done in a manner that preserves potential latent prints. For example, if the paper bag is too large, the glass could rub up against its walls and `wipe' the prints. The packaging must be appropriate for the evidence. An essential element of the preservation of evidence is the sealing of the evidence bags or containers. In order for the evidence to be viable for court, its packaging must be properly marked and sealed. All evidence must be placed in a sealed container before it leaves the crime scene. This is usually accomplished using integrity (tamper-evident) tape. The tape should also have the initials or marks of the person recovering the evidence placed across it. A new style of integrity tape now available includes a space for the packer's right thumb print. This combination of integrity tape and markings will ensure the evidence has been satisfactorily protected from tampering. Preservation of the evidence does not stop with packaging. The evidence must be handled properly and stored in a temperature-controlled environment. Leaving items in a hot vehicle for long periods of time could invalidate some analyses. Temperature, whether it is extreme heat or freezing, can greatly affect outcome.
Conclusion Preservation techniques must be used in every aspect of crime scene processing and physical evidence collection. To prevent the loss or destruction of the physical evidence, the scene must be secured in a timely fashion and physical barriers must be used. Physical evidence is normally fragile and therefore requires that great care is used in its handling. By doing so, the investigative value of the physical evidence recovered from the crime scene can be maximized.
443
See also: Crime-scene Investigation and Examination: Recording; Packaging; Contamination; Major Incident Scene Management.
Further Reading Eliopulos LN (1993) Death Investigator's Handbook: A Guide to Crime Scene Processing, Forensic Evaluations and Investigative Techniques. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press. Fisher BAJ (2000) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 6th edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Hawthorne MR (1999) First Unit Responder: A Guide to Physical Evidence Collection for Patrol Officers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. US Department of Justice, National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence (1999) What Every Law Enforcement Officer Should Know About DNA Evidence. Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
Recording J Horswell, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, Australia Copyright # 2000 Academic Press doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0449
Background The accurate recording of details of a crime scene, incident scene or of any subsequent examination is important for several reasons. It is important for the crime scene investigator as it will provide the basis for statements and reports that the crime scene investigator has to compile at a later date. It will also provide investigators with information of which they may not otherwise have knowledge; it will assist the court in reconstructing the scene and may provide the most reliable facts regarding the case. Finally, it may provide the courts with the best evidence available. It is fair to say that crime scene investigators can never make too many notes during a scene investigation. Notes should always be compiled during the course of the examination, not at some time later; however, if it is not possible to do so then details should be recorded as soon as possible afterwards. There are obvious and very good reasons for compiling contemporaneous and accurate notes: . Notes made at the time of an examination are likely to be more reliable and accurate than notes made some time later.
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. By making notes as he or she is working, the crime scene investigator is less likely to overlook minor details committed to memory. . An accurate record of times and dates will be maintained. This will avoid discrepancies with the records of other investigators involved in the investigation. . An accurate record is available for later reference during the investigation and when compiling statements for court. . When giving evidence in court, the crime scene investigator may be permitted by the court to refresh his or her memory by referring to the notes taken during the investigation. Obviously if the notes are made during the conduct of each stage of an examination, then there can be no dispute as to their recency.
Photographs Photographs can provide a detailed record of the condition of a scene, illustrating the items present and their relative locations. For this reason, photographs should be taken before items are moved or interfered with, and should be taken from varying angles. There may be items shown in the photographs which were not mentioned in the written notes taken at the time, and the photographs may help to refresh the crime scene investigator's memory on some aspect of the scene or examination. On the other hand, during court hearings, defense counsel may cross-examine the crime scene investigator about objects shown in the photographs, and if there are no notes about the items it may prove embarrassing. It is therefore important not to rely too heavily on photographs: the crime scene investigator should insure there are ample written notes as well. The general survey procedure will help determine what photographs will be required and the sequence in which they are taken. As a rule, the crime scene should be photographed after the general survey and before any further examination is made, without reconstructing the scene in any way. The crime scene investigator should be able to demonstrate photographically how the scene was before the start of the scene examination. It is not the intent of this article to provide a short course on photography; however, the points raised will insure that there is an adequate coverage of the scene by the crime scene investigator. The 6 6 6/6 6 7 cm or 120 roll film camera is ideal for the recording of toolmarks, shoe impressions and tire tracks. The Mamiya camera is a popular large
format camera; these cameras are heavy and therefore better used with a tripod. This is also an excellent format for use during a postmortem examination for the recording of injuries. The 35 mm camera is the workhorse of the crime scene investigator: a good, all-round camera for scene work and the recording of fingerprints. Before commencing the photographic aspect of the crime scene investigation it must be remembered that photographs should not include artifacts introduced by the crime scene investigator and other investigators. Briefcases, clipboards, photographic equipment bags, crime scene kits or the photographer's feet should not feature in any of the photographs. Each crime scene will be different but the following should be considered: . The photographic record should be comprehensive and should include the general layout of premises or features of an area. This will depend on the seriousness and circumstances of the crime. . The photographic record should illustrate the relative position of rooms, the state of those rooms and the position of houses in streets in relation to the crime scene. . Footprints, tire tracks and toolmarks should be photographed with a scale before casting. A close-up and positioning photograph should be taken. . Photographs should be taken from a number of angles or positions, including those described by witnesses. . A series of photographs should be taken from the point of entry to the point of exit. . Detailed photographs should be taken of potential evidentiary material, such as the body, injuries, weapons, trace material, cartridge case/s, damage and other relevant items. . As the scene examination progresses, further photographs should include new potential evidentiary material found, or areas of importance which were previously concealed. Before taking any photographs the crime scene investigator must think: . . . .
What am I going to photograph? Why should it be photographed? What do I want to demonstrate using photography? How can I record it as I see it?
Having made these comments, it is necessary to cover all pertinent material. It is wiser to take too many photographs than too few. It must, however, be remembered that it is not necessary to have all the negatives printed. This should create no problem in court as long as the investigating officer is aware of
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
the situation. It may also be necessary in some jurisdictions to advise the defense of their existence; one way to cover this point is to have the investigating officer select the photographs he or she wants from proof sheets. The crime scene investigator should be prepared to defend his or her selection of the photographs later in court.
Video Recording It is useful to video the crime scene; a recording may be an invaluable briefing tool for investigators and others to view later, as well as to introduce as potential evidence in court. The recording of a crime scene by video should be undertaken in each serious and major crime. Experience has shown that the video of any crime scene should be taken without sound. The subsequent audiences that view the video should be guided through it by the crime scene investigator or investigating officer, either in person or by means of a `voice over'. The video recording of what is called a `re-enactment' should be attempted only after the suspect has been interviewed and only after an invitation is accepted by the suspect, with the video being taken while the suspect is under caution. Such videos have been shown to be a very successful tool in presenting the prosecution case at court. The court will also be able to see if the suspect is under stress or duress at the time of the re-enactment video, along with his or her general demeanour and that of the interviewing officer. Experience has shown that powerful evidence can be gained from this technique. The video recording of a crime scene should be under the direct control and guidance of the crime scene investigator or crime scene manager, as it is only these individuals who are aware of the current position regarding the processing, by recording, search and recovery, of potential evidentiary material at the crime scene.
Digital Photography Digital photography is not currently popular as an alternative to silver halide images as the image can be altered. However, many systems are being developed with an inbuilt `audit trail' to overcome this problem. There is every likelihood that digital imaging will overtake the more traditional recording methods in the future. This medium is also a useful investigative tool that can facilitate the movement or shipment of an image of an item from one place to another as an attachment to an e-mail message. It may also be used in the
445
recording and movement of arrested person photographs. It may also come into its own in the presentation of evidence in court. Courts are already using CD-ROM technology as a means of presenting evidence. This includes statements, photographs and drawings. In addition, virtual reality crime scene footage is also being used to present the crime scene to the court. Crime scene investigators should be aware of its potential as an aid to a forensic investigation. Labels: The label should be completed at the time of collection or receipt of the item so that the item can be later identified, as well as to start the chain of custody for the item. Written notes: As mentioned above, it is essential for the crime scene investigator to make notes as he or she progresses through an examination, or as soon as possible afterwards. Because of this, the notes may not be in a logical sequence, but this does not matter. The sequence can be reorganized at a later stage, when writing the report or statement. The main aim of writing notes is to provide an accurate and comprehensive record of events and observations which will still be meaningful months later. For this reason, it is preferable to write detailed notes at the time rather than attempting to save time by using abbreviations, which, although readily understood when being written, might be insufficient to refresh the crime scene investigator's memory after several months. On arrival at a crime scene, the following should be noted: . . . . . . . . . .
date and time of arrival; names of persons at the scene on arrival; weather conditions; lighting conditions at night; what has happened ± the incident; what has taken place ± activity since incident; officer in charge of the case; scene guard; assistance provided at the scene; other resources already requested.
The sequence of the crime scene investigator's actions following arrival will vary depending upon the situation with which he or she is faced. If there is no requirement to start a particular examination immediately, it is often advantageous to spend some time studying the crime scene, noting all observations. Any movement through the crime scene, noting observations, can only be done if there is no risk of contaminating or damaging possible evidence. A pathway should be identified, which is used as a common approach path into and out of the critical areas of the crime scene.
446 CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
Plans There are two types of plan: a sketch drawn by the crime scene investigator, and a scale plan, which can be drawn by an experienced crime scene investigator or a draughtsman. These complement written notes and photographs and are notes of the scene examination as well.
Sketch plan
A sketch enables the crime scene investigator to show the location of items and their relationship to other items. A sketch should be drawn for all serious and major crime scenes. Although the sketch only needs to be freehand, it must be neat enough for the crime scene investigator or draughtsman accurately to interpret the data at a later date in order to produce a scale drawing. There are several basic types of drawing that are commonly encountered in sketching crime scenes. The floor plan view is the most common and is the easiest to complete. It depicts the location looking down from above. This should be used for both indoor and outdoor scenes. The exploded view or crossprojection method is similar to the floor plan view and differs only in that the walls fold out to reveal items of evidence found on or in the walls. Isometric projection of walls as stand-alone drawings may be used to indicate items of evidence, such as bloodstain patterns found on walls at a crime scene, exhibiting extreme violence. Three-dimensional drawings, virtual reality and animated computer programs are now being used more and more in crime scene investigation. The following two methods are suitable for measuring crime scenes: . Coordinate method: This method uses the principles of measuring the distance of an object, such as a body, from two fixed points. One form of the coordinate method involves the use of a baseline, which is drawn between two known points. The baseline may also be a wall or drawn as a mathematical centre of a room, the exact dimensions of which are known. The measurements of a given item are then taken from left to right along the baseline to a point at right angles to the item which is to be plotted. . Triangulation method: The triangulation method requires three measurements: ± base; ± shortest side of the triangle; ± longest side of the triangle.
An established base may be used, for example the side of a house. Two measurements are then taken, from the corners of that side of the house to the item to be plotted. When a crime scene is in an open area, such as a beach, paddock or park, the triangulation method is usually employed but it is necessary to establish a base. This can be achieved with the aid of a magnetic compass to determine true north. Method of measuring crime scenes . Accurately determine north with a compass and place it at the top of the plan. . Determine what is to be included in the plan and the method of recording. . Draw a rough sketch on which the measurements will be recorded. . Work systematically throughout the scene, recording dimensions, in the case of a room, and the location of important items within it. . It is ideal that the person responsible for both the sketch plan and the scale drawing should be the person who records the measurements on the sketch plan. . Use the progressive system of measurement where possible; for example, corner of room to the nearest point of window 0.3 m metres and 3.5 m to the other end of the window frame. . In order to locate items within a room or open area, use either the coordinate or the triangulation method, or a combination of both. . The position of bodies and important items should be plotted prior to removal or collection; however, the position of `fixed' objects may be recorded at a subsequent date, thus enabling a quicker examination of the scene. . If objects must be moved prior to plotting then mark their location before moving them, for example with chalk, felt marking pen, crayon or spray paint. . Add the crime scene investigator's name, the case, date, time and location. If anyone assisted, his or her name should also be included on the sketch. Scale plan
Scale plans are used to convey accurately the size, shape and position of important potential evidence and other features of the crime scene. They are a valuable adjunct to scene photographs. Scale plans are also an aid in reviewing a crime scene with investigators. The use of modern surveying equipment overcomes many of the problems encountered in preparing crime scene plans. These tools are now being put to good effect by many practitioners.
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recovery of Human Remains
Summary The fundamental reason for recording crime scenes is to take a crime scene and reproduce what has occurred for the information of the investigation team and, ultimately, the court. See also: Crime-scene Investigation and Examination: Major Incident Scene Management. Photography and Digital Imaging: Digital Imaging Enhancement.
Further Reading Fisher BAJ (1993) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 5th edn. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press. Goddard KW (1977) Crime Scene Investigation. Reston, VA: Reston. Horswell J (1993) Crime scene investigation. In: Freckelton I, Selby J (eds) Expert Evidence. North Ryde, NSW: Law Book Company. Kirk P (1974) Crime Investigation, 2nd edn. Chichester: Wiley. Svensson A and Wendel O (1974) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 2nd edn. New York: Elsevier.
Recovery of Human Remains H B Baldwin, Forensic Enterprises, Orland Park, IL, USA C Puskarich May, Criminal Justice Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA Copyright # 2000 Academic Press doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0451
Introduction This article will introduce the reader to the basic techniques used in the recovery of human remains. It is not intended to be all inclusive, but may provide insight into unique aspects of recovering remains suspected to be human. Physical evidence, testimonial evidence, search techniques, surface recoveries, excavations and exhumations will be discussed. Recommendations to maximize the amount of information obtainable by a forensic anthropologist will also be presented. Recovering human remains that are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized is the same as any other death investigation, with the four basic types
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of manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental and natural) possible. The only difference between `normal' death investigations and recovery scenes is the amount of decomposition, the disarticulation of the bones, and the unusual environments within which we must work. As in all death investigations, recovery of human remains is a team effort. The combined talents of several people, each a specialist in his or her own area of expertise, is required. All law enforcement officials involved have specific responsibilities. Meeting these responsibilities often impacts the efforts of others. Although a crime scene can be handled in numerous ways, and each case may dictate a different approach, experience has proved certain guidelines to be advantageous. The following are suggestions for consideration in any death investigation. First officer on the scene . Render aid if needed. . Protect the scene; this includes prevention of possible contamination by keeping other police personnel from entering the crime scene. . Secure witnesses and keep them separated. . Take immediate notes because the scene will continually change. . Request the services of a crime scene technician, the coroner and investigators. If required by policy, notify the state's attorney's office. . Condense all facts into a comprehensive report. Crime scene technician . Locate and identify physical evidence at the scene. . Process the crime scene, attend the autopsy and take custody of all physical evidence. . Package and transport all physical evidence to the appropriate crime laboratory. . Prepare a comprehensive report. Coroner/medical examiner . Give direction to the pathologist. . Determine the cause and manner of death. Request assistance from the crime scene technician if needed. . Establish a close line of communication between the coroner's office, crime scene personnel and investigators. Pathologist . Obtain all physical evidence from the victim's body. If all pertinent information and evidence are recovered from the body, there should be no need to exhume the body. Items such as a knife tip broken off inside the body can be used for laboratory comparison if the knife is recovered.
them to prevent further contamination or destruction. The processing of the evidence at the crime scene requires the use of procedures that reduce its destruction. All evidence should be first visually examined with the naked eye, then examined with the use of a forensic light source, and then processed in a nondestructive manner. Each of these steps must be performed carefully, in such a manner that the potential value of the evidence to the investigation is not diminished. All physical evidence, once documented and processed at the scene, must be packaged properly. Packaging can be critical to its protection. If an item with a nonporous surface, such as a drinking glass, is packaged to be transported to the police agency or laboratory for further analysis, it must be packaged in a paper product so it can `breathe' and not become moldy. Packaging must also be done in a manner that preserves potential latent prints. For example, if the paper bag is too large, the glass could rub up against its walls and `wipe' the prints. The packaging must be appropriate for the evidence. An essential element of the preservation of evidence is the sealing of the evidence bags or containers. In order for the evidence to be viable for court, its packaging must be properly marked and sealed. All evidence must be placed in a sealed container before it leaves the crime scene. This is usually accomplished using integrity (tamper-evident) tape. The tape should also have the initials or marks of the person recovering the evidence placed across it. A new style of integrity tape now available includes a space for the packer's right thumb print. This combination of integrity tape and markings will ensure the evidence has been satisfactorily protected from tampering. Preservation of the evidence does not stop with packaging. The evidence must be handled properly and stored in a temperature-controlled environment. Leaving items in a hot vehicle for long periods of time could invalidate some analyses. Temperature, whether it is extreme heat or freezing, can greatly affect outcome.
Conclusion Preservation techniques must be used in every aspect of crime scene processing and physical evidence collection. To prevent the loss or destruction of the physical evidence, the scene must be secured in a timely fashion and physical barriers must be used. Physical evidence is normally fragile and therefore requires that great care is used in its handling. By doing so, the investigative value of the physical evidence recovered from the crime scene can be maximized.
443
See also: Crime-scene Investigation and Examination: Recording; Packaging; Contamination; Major Incident Scene Management.
Further Reading Eliopulos LN (1993) Death Investigator's Handbook: A Guide to Crime Scene Processing, Forensic Evaluations and Investigative Techniques. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press. Fisher BAJ (2000) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 6th edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Hawthorne MR (1999) First Unit Responder: A Guide to Physical Evidence Collection for Patrol Officers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. US Department of Justice, National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence (1999) What Every Law Enforcement Officer Should Know About DNA Evidence. Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
Recording J Horswell, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, Australia Copyright # 2000 Academic Press doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0449
Background The accurate recording of details of a crime scene, incident scene or of any subsequent examination is important for several reasons. It is important for the crime scene investigator as it will provide the basis for statements and reports that the crime scene investigator has to compile at a later date. It will also provide investigators with information of which they may not otherwise have knowledge; it will assist the court in reconstructing the scene and may provide the most reliable facts regarding the case. Finally, it may provide the courts with the best evidence available. It is fair to say that crime scene investigators can never make too many notes during a scene investigation. Notes should always be compiled during the course of the examination, not at some time later; however, if it is not possible to do so then details should be recorded as soon as possible afterwards. There are obvious and very good reasons for compiling contemporaneous and accurate notes: . Notes made at the time of an examination are likely to be more reliable and accurate than notes made some time later.
444 CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
. By making notes as he or she is working, the crime scene investigator is less likely to overlook minor details committed to memory. . An accurate record of times and dates will be maintained. This will avoid discrepancies with the records of other investigators involved in the investigation. . An accurate record is available for later reference during the investigation and when compiling statements for court. . When giving evidence in court, the crime scene investigator may be permitted by the court to refresh his or her memory by referring to the notes taken during the investigation. Obviously if the notes are made during the conduct of each stage of an examination, then there can be no dispute as to their recency.
Photographs Photographs can provide a detailed record of the condition of a scene, illustrating the items present and their relative locations. For this reason, photographs should be taken before items are moved or interfered with, and should be taken from varying angles. There may be items shown in the photographs which were not mentioned in the written notes taken at the time, and the photographs may help to refresh the crime scene investigator's memory on some aspect of the scene or examination. On the other hand, during court hearings, defense counsel may cross-examine the crime scene investigator about objects shown in the photographs, and if there are no notes about the items it may prove embarrassing. It is therefore important not to rely too heavily on photographs: the crime scene investigator should insure there are ample written notes as well. The general survey procedure will help determine what photographs will be required and the sequence in which they are taken. As a rule, the crime scene should be photographed after the general survey and before any further examination is made, without reconstructing the scene in any way. The crime scene investigator should be able to demonstrate photographically how the scene was before the start of the scene examination. It is not the intent of this article to provide a short course on photography; however, the points raised will insure that there is an adequate coverage of the scene by the crime scene investigator. The 6 6 6/6 6 7 cm or 120 roll film camera is ideal for the recording of toolmarks, shoe impressions and tire tracks. The Mamiya camera is a popular large
format camera; these cameras are heavy and therefore better used with a tripod. This is also an excellent format for use during a postmortem examination for the recording of injuries. The 35 mm camera is the workhorse of the crime scene investigator: a good, all-round camera for scene work and the recording of fingerprints. Before commencing the photographic aspect of the crime scene investigation it must be remembered that photographs should not include artifacts introduced by the crime scene investigator and other investigators. Briefcases, clipboards, photographic equipment bags, crime scene kits or the photographer's feet should not feature in any of the photographs. Each crime scene will be different but the following should be considered: . The photographic record should be comprehensive and should include the general layout of premises or features of an area. This will depend on the seriousness and circumstances of the crime. . The photographic record should illustrate the relative position of rooms, the state of those rooms and the position of houses in streets in relation to the crime scene. . Footprints, tire tracks and toolmarks should be photographed with a scale before casting. A close-up and positioning photograph should be taken. . Photographs should be taken from a number of angles or positions, including those described by witnesses. . A series of photographs should be taken from the point of entry to the point of exit. . Detailed photographs should be taken of potential evidentiary material, such as the body, injuries, weapons, trace material, cartridge case/s, damage and other relevant items. . As the scene examination progresses, further photographs should include new potential evidentiary material found, or areas of importance which were previously concealed. Before taking any photographs the crime scene investigator must think: . . . .
What am I going to photograph? Why should it be photographed? What do I want to demonstrate using photography? How can I record it as I see it?
Having made these comments, it is necessary to cover all pertinent material. It is wiser to take too many photographs than too few. It must, however, be remembered that it is not necessary to have all the negatives printed. This should create no problem in court as long as the investigating officer is aware of
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
the situation. It may also be necessary in some jurisdictions to advise the defense of their existence; one way to cover this point is to have the investigating officer select the photographs he or she wants from proof sheets. The crime scene investigator should be prepared to defend his or her selection of the photographs later in court.
Video Recording It is useful to video the crime scene; a recording may be an invaluable briefing tool for investigators and others to view later, as well as to introduce as potential evidence in court. The recording of a crime scene by video should be undertaken in each serious and major crime. Experience has shown that the video of any crime scene should be taken without sound. The subsequent audiences that view the video should be guided through it by the crime scene investigator or investigating officer, either in person or by means of a `voice over'. The video recording of what is called a `re-enactment' should be attempted only after the suspect has been interviewed and only after an invitation is accepted by the suspect, with the video being taken while the suspect is under caution. Such videos have been shown to be a very successful tool in presenting the prosecution case at court. The court will also be able to see if the suspect is under stress or duress at the time of the re-enactment video, along with his or her general demeanour and that of the interviewing officer. Experience has shown that powerful evidence can be gained from this technique. The video recording of a crime scene should be under the direct control and guidance of the crime scene investigator or crime scene manager, as it is only these individuals who are aware of the current position regarding the processing, by recording, search and recovery, of potential evidentiary material at the crime scene.
Digital Photography Digital photography is not currently popular as an alternative to silver halide images as the image can be altered. However, many systems are being developed with an inbuilt `audit trail' to overcome this problem. There is every likelihood that digital imaging will overtake the more traditional recording methods in the future. This medium is also a useful investigative tool that can facilitate the movement or shipment of an image of an item from one place to another as an attachment to an e-mail message. It may also be used in the
445
recording and movement of arrested person photographs. It may also come into its own in the presentation of evidence in court. Courts are already using CD-ROM technology as a means of presenting evidence. This includes statements, photographs and drawings. In addition, virtual reality crime scene footage is also being used to present the crime scene to the court. Crime scene investigators should be aware of its potential as an aid to a forensic investigation. Labels: The label should be completed at the time of collection or receipt of the item so that the item can be later identified, as well as to start the chain of custody for the item. Written notes: As mentioned above, it is essential for the crime scene investigator to make notes as he or she progresses through an examination, or as soon as possible afterwards. Because of this, the notes may not be in a logical sequence, but this does not matter. The sequence can be reorganized at a later stage, when writing the report or statement. The main aim of writing notes is to provide an accurate and comprehensive record of events and observations which will still be meaningful months later. For this reason, it is preferable to write detailed notes at the time rather than attempting to save time by using abbreviations, which, although readily understood when being written, might be insufficient to refresh the crime scene investigator's memory after several months. On arrival at a crime scene, the following should be noted: . . . . . . . . . .
date and time of arrival; names of persons at the scene on arrival; weather conditions; lighting conditions at night; what has happened ± the incident; what has taken place ± activity since incident; officer in charge of the case; scene guard; assistance provided at the scene; other resources already requested.
The sequence of the crime scene investigator's actions following arrival will vary depending upon the situation with which he or she is faced. If there is no requirement to start a particular examination immediately, it is often advantageous to spend some time studying the crime scene, noting all observations. Any movement through the crime scene, noting observations, can only be done if there is no risk of contaminating or damaging possible evidence. A pathway should be identified, which is used as a common approach path into and out of the critical areas of the crime scene.
446 CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recording
Plans There are two types of plan: a sketch drawn by the crime scene investigator, and a scale plan, which can be drawn by an experienced crime scene investigator or a draughtsman. These complement written notes and photographs and are notes of the scene examination as well.
Sketch plan
A sketch enables the crime scene investigator to show the location of items and their relationship to other items. A sketch should be drawn for all serious and major crime scenes. Although the sketch only needs to be freehand, it must be neat enough for the crime scene investigator or draughtsman accurately to interpret the data at a later date in order to produce a scale drawing. There are several basic types of drawing that are commonly encountered in sketching crime scenes. The floor plan view is the most common and is the easiest to complete. It depicts the location looking down from above. This should be used for both indoor and outdoor scenes. The exploded view or crossprojection method is similar to the floor plan view and differs only in that the walls fold out to reveal items of evidence found on or in the walls. Isometric projection of walls as stand-alone drawings may be used to indicate items of evidence, such as bloodstain patterns found on walls at a crime scene, exhibiting extreme violence. Three-dimensional drawings, virtual reality and animated computer programs are now being used more and more in crime scene investigation. The following two methods are suitable for measuring crime scenes: . Coordinate method: This method uses the principles of measuring the distance of an object, such as a body, from two fixed points. One form of the coordinate method involves the use of a baseline, which is drawn between two known points. The baseline may also be a wall or drawn as a mathematical centre of a room, the exact dimensions of which are known. The measurements of a given item are then taken from left to right along the baseline to a point at right angles to the item which is to be plotted. . Triangulation method: The triangulation method requires three measurements: ± base; ± shortest side of the triangle; ± longest side of the triangle.
An established base may be used, for example the side of a house. Two measurements are then taken, from the corners of that side of the house to the item to be plotted. When a crime scene is in an open area, such as a beach, paddock or park, the triangulation method is usually employed but it is necessary to establish a base. This can be achieved with the aid of a magnetic compass to determine true north. Method of measuring crime scenes . Accurately determine north with a compass and place it at the top of the plan. . Determine what is to be included in the plan and the method of recording. . Draw a rough sketch on which the measurements will be recorded. . Work systematically throughout the scene, recording dimensions, in the case of a room, and the location of important items within it. . It is ideal that the person responsible for both the sketch plan and the scale drawing should be the person who records the measurements on the sketch plan. . Use the progressive system of measurement where possible; for example, corner of room to the nearest point of window 0.3 m metres and 3.5 m to the other end of the window frame. . In order to locate items within a room or open area, use either the coordinate or the triangulation method, or a combination of both. . The position of bodies and important items should be plotted prior to removal or collection; however, the position of `fixed' objects may be recorded at a subsequent date, thus enabling a quicker examination of the scene. . If objects must be moved prior to plotting then mark their location before moving them, for example with chalk, felt marking pen, crayon or spray paint. . Add the crime scene investigator's name, the case, date, time and location. If anyone assisted, his or her name should also be included on the sketch. Scale plan
Scale plans are used to convey accurately the size, shape and position of important potential evidence and other features of the crime scene. They are a valuable adjunct to scene photographs. Scale plans are also an aid in reviewing a crime scene with investigators. The use of modern surveying equipment overcomes many of the problems encountered in preparing crime scene plans. These tools are now being put to good effect by many practitioners.
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND EXAMINATION/Recovery of Human Remains
Summary The fundamental reason for recording crime scenes is to take a crime scene and reproduce what has occurred for the information of the investigation team and, ultimately, the court. See also: Crime-scene Investigation and Examination: Major Incident Scene Management. Photography and Digital Imaging: Digital Imaging Enhancement.
Further Reading Fisher BAJ (1993) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 5th edn. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press. Goddard KW (1977) Crime Scene Investigation. Reston, VA: Reston. Horswell J (1993) Crime scene investigation. In: Freckelton I, Selby J (eds) Expert Evidence. North Ryde, NSW: Law Book Company. Kirk P (1974) Crime Investigation, 2nd edn. Chichester: Wiley. Svensson A and Wendel O (1974) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 2nd edn. New York: Elsevier.
Recovery of Human Remains H B Baldwin, Forensic Enterprises, Orland Park, IL, USA C Puskarich May, Criminal Justice Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA Copyright # 2000 Academic Press doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0451
Introduction This article will introduce the reader to the basic techniques used in the recovery of human remains. It is not intended to be all inclusive, but may provide insight into unique aspects of recovering remains suspected to be human. Physical evidence, testimonial evidence, search techniques, surface recoveries, excavations and exhumations will be discussed. Recommendations to maximize the amount of information obtainable by a forensic anthropologist will also be presented. Recovering human remains that are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized is the same as any other death investigation, with the four basic types
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of manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental and natural) possible. The only difference between `normal' death investigations and recovery scenes is the amount of decomposition, the disarticulation of the bones, and the unusual environments within which we must work. As in all death investigations, recovery of human remains is a team effort. The combined talents of several people, each a specialist in his or her own area of expertise, is required. All law enforcement officials involved have specific responsibilities. Meeting these responsibilities often impacts the efforts of others. Although a crime scene can be handled in numerous ways, and each case may dictate a different approach, experience has proved certain guidelines to be advantageous. The following are suggestions for consideration in any death investigation. First officer on the scene . Render aid if needed. . Protect the scene; this includes prevention of possible contamination by keeping other police personnel from entering the crime scene. . Secure witnesses and keep them separated. . Take immediate notes because the scene will continually change. . Request the services of a crime scene technician, the coroner and investigators. If required by policy, notify the state's attorney's office. . Condense all facts into a comprehensive report. Crime scene technician . Locate and identify physical evidence at the scene. . Process the crime scene, attend the autopsy and take custody of all physical evidence. . Package and transport all physical evidence to the appropriate crime laboratory. . Prepare a comprehensive report. Coroner/medical examiner . Give direction to the pathologist. . Determine the cause and manner of death. Request assistance from the crime scene technician if needed. . Establish a close line of communication between the coroner's office, crime scene personnel and investigators. Pathologist . Obtain all physical evidence from the victim's body. If all pertinent information and evidence are recovered from the body, there should be no need to exhume the body. Items such as a knife tip broken off inside the body can be used for laboratory comparison if the knife is recovered.