Criminal justice journals: A review and annotated bibliography of selected scholarly journals

Criminal Justice Journals: A Review and Annotated Bibliography of Selected Scholarly Journals Richard Irving and Henry K. Mendelsohn The purpose of this paper is to identify and review selected criminal justice journals. The journals will be identifed during the course of a historical review of theoretical perspectives on criminal justice. This approach has been used because many of the contemporary journals adhere to theoretical perspectives emanating from particular phases of the history of criminal justice as a field. Three criteria were used in selecting 28 journals to be included. First, the journal had to be devoted primarily to some aspect of criminal justice as defined below. Second, it had to be scholarly, i.e., the contents had to include articles exploring theoretical issues and/or the reporting of scientific studies. Third, the journal had to be published in English and primarily devoted to the subject of criminal justice in North America or England. Three procedures were used to establish which journals met the criteria. First, the editorial policy of each journal was examined. Second, the articles in several issues of each journal were examined. Third, each journal's historical development (including its professional affiliations, if applicable) were examined. These same procedures were used to determine each journals's theoretical perspective. This paper will first define criminal justice and present a review of the literature pertaining to criminal justice periodicals. Next, the historical development of criminal justice, criminology, and professional training programs in criminal justice will be explored, particularly as these apply to the development of criminal justice journals. Each journal will be grouped with other journals of similar theoretical perspective. Finally, an annotated bibliography of the identified journals is included after the review.

Irving and Mendelsohn are at the Nelson A. Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy at SUNY, Albany, New York.

Criminal Justice Defined

Criminal justice is an interdisciplinary field of study incorporating research in the behavioral and social sciences (defined to include law and public administration) focused on crime as a social problem. It includes everything covered in traditional criminology along with all of the crime-related studies that criminology has ignored (Myren, 1979, 27). This is a broad definition which raises objections among people who would like to make a theoryversus-practice distinction between criminology and criminal justice (Conrad, 1979, 9-11). However, this definition is supported by the existence of a recognizable group of scholars and professionals adhering to the research perspective and subject scope this definition indicates. Academic schools and departments have been established which encompass the aspects of crime studies included within this definition and which refer to their field of study as criminal justice. In addition, a body of literature has developed which conforms to the scope of this definition. This paper concerns those journls which serve as outlets for criminal justice literature. Research has indicated that the major factor contributing to the initiation of scholarly journals is the lack of adequate outlets for a particular subject matter (Rowland, 1981, 39). Indeed, the development of criminal justice as a distinct academic field has led to the publishing of many journals. As outlets for the field's literature, it would be expected that the journals would reflect the nature and scope of the field. However, a review of the literature concerning criminal justice journals conveys a confusing picture as to both the boundaries of the field and the journals to be included within it.

Literature Review Literature pertaining to criminal justice journals SERIALS REVIEW

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has fallen into two categories. The first of these categories, of a bibliographic nature, includes Rank's (1967) international checklist of journals devoted to crime studies; Newton's, et al. (1976) annotated bibliography of criminal justice information sources; Mersky's, et al. (1979) author's guide to journals in the areas of law, criminology, and criminal justice; and LaPerla and Horton's (1979) annotated bibliography of selected criminal justice journals. Included journals vary from publication to publication, and none of these bibliographic references attempts to define the theoretical boundaries for criminal justice journals a~ a group. The other category contains literature which either uses studies of criminal justice journals to compare academic institutions and/or organizations, or attempts to establish prestige rankings for the journals. Dezee (1975) used the number of faculty publications in 32 scholarly journals to construct a prestige ranking scale for institutions offering criminology/criminal justice graduate degrees. Parker and Goldfeder (1979) ranked criminal justice programs at 52 institutions on the dimension of productivity as determined by faculty publications in ten high prestige journals. Fabianic (1980) surveyed criminal justice educators regarding the prestige they attached to particular criminal justice journals, and the reading attention they gave to the respective journals. Shichor et al. (1981) constructed prestige rankings for 43 criminology and criminal justice journals based on survey responses from a sampling of criminologists. Their research was designed to obtain responses from practicing criminologists as well as academicians. Their results indicated no systematic differences in journal ratings between practitioners and academicians. Regoli et al. (1981) examined the prestige rankings of criminal justice journals based on survey responses obtained from members of the American Society of Criminology, and/or the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. They found, contrary to Shichor, that conflicting or competing professional ideologies influenced the assessment of the relative importance of criminal justice journals. Specifically, two distinct membership groups (ASC and ACJS) had divergent prestige rankings for the journals. Winker (1983) examined the alleged contradictions between Regoli's and Schichor's results. He found that the apparent divergence between the ASC and the ACJS members' rankings of journals proved to be insignificant when additional statistical measurements were introduced into the analysis. As with the bibliographic publications, no pattern of agreement emerges from the articles as to which journals should be considered criminal justice journals.

Historical Development of Criminal Justice The 22

development of criminal justice can be

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divided into three chronological stages. The first stage saw the development of criminology as a field of study. Next, educational programs for law enforcement and correctional personnel developed. Finally, an eclectic approach to the study of crime, societies' reactions to crime, and the process of forming and implementing policy regarding crime issues developed. While these stages were not mutually exclusive, each stressed different aspects of crime studies.

Development of Criminology "Criminology is the scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime (including juvenile delinquency). In its wider sense, embracing penology, it is thus the study of the causation, correction, and prevention of c r i m e . . , seen from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as ethics, anthropology, biology, ethology (the study of character), psychology and psychiatry, sociology, and statistics." (Mannheim, 1974, 282.) The first use of the term criminology is attributed to Raffaelo Garofalo in 1885, although scientific studies falling within the scope of the above definition had been undertaken for at least a century prior to that date. There are three generally recognized schools of criminology: the European School, the American School, and the Classical School. The European School is primarily concerned with identifying personal characteristics of criminal offenders which distinguish them from the rest of the population and which might thus be associated with criminal behavior. The earliest adherents to this school focused on physical characteristics of offenders for example, Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) attributed criminality to a physical abnormality in the offender's brain, and Cesare Lombroso (18361909) attributed it to cranial, skeletal, and neurological malfunctions. Later adherents, influenced by Freud's psychological theories, attributed criminal behavior to personality disorders. Among current scholars, the European School is represented by theorists such as Clarence Ray Jeffery and Jurgen Eysenck. Jeffery has applied theories from the fields of biology and genetics to the study of criminal behavior. Eysenck has attributed much of criminal behavior to innate differences in personality types. Literature reflecting this school of thought may be found dispersed throughout criminal justice journals. However, the British Journal o f Criminology and Criminal Justice and Behavior are particularly associated with the European perspective. The European School has an applied side which follows a rehabilitation philosophy, i.e., changing or controlling individual characteristics which are associated with criminal behavior. The rehabilitation philosophy is represented by the following journals:

Criminal Justice and Behavior, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, and the Journal of Offender Counseling Services and Rehabilita{ion. The American School is grounded in sociology. Adherents to the sociological perspective are concerned mainly with identifying environmental variables which are associated with crime. While the sociological perspective is commonly associated with America, its theoretical roots lay in the work of several turn-of-the-century European sociologists. This group includes Enrico Ferri (1856-1929), who attributed crime to social and cultural factors: Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904), who contended that criminal behavior was learned and transmitted through the process of imitation; and Emile Durkhelm (1858-1917), whose theory of anomie traced criminal behavior to the evolution of heterogeneous societies containing social groups with norms divergent from the dominant norms as reflected in the laws of society. Twentieth century American criminological theories rooted in sociology include the "ChiCago School," whose members correlated crime with aggregate social factors indicative of social disorganization in urban areas; cultural theories, such as that advocated by Walter Miller, who associated gang delinquency with the milieu emanating from lower class culture; conflict theories such as Robert Merton's application of anomie to the analysis of criminal behavior; and learning theories such as Edwin Sutherland's theory of differential association. The applied side of the American School advocates social reform as a means of controlling crime. Reform proposals have included the removal of unjust discriminatory barriers to the dominant, political, social, and economic cultures, as well the creation of opportunities for individuals living in a criminally conducive environment to pursue lawful careers. Much of the sociologically-oriented criminal justice literature has been published in mainstream sociology journals such as American Sociological Review, American Journal of Sociology, and Social Problems. However, these journals are not primarily devoted to crime studies and therefore should not be considered as criminal justice journals per se. Criminal justice journals which are grounded in the sociological perspective, but not limited to that perspective, include Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, and Crime and Social Justice. The Classical School can be traced back to Marchese D. Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, two eighteenth century advocates of penal reform. The concepts of deterrence and retribution are the cornerstones of classical theory. Its fundamental assumption is that all people are rational social actors.

Thus, if penalties are made proportionate to the seriousness of crimes, people will be deterred from committing crimes by the threat of punishment. Classical theory is not concerned with the etiology of crime, whether it be attributed to individual or environmental variables. Rather, it is concerned with examining systems of sanctions designed to control criminal behavior, and with the administration of retribution. As such, it is aligned with legal studies, and its adherents are frequently found within law schools or sociology of law departments. Journals which serve as outlets for classical theorists' research include the International Journal of the Sociology of Law, Law and Human Behavior, and Law and Society Review. The applied side of classical theory emphasizes the role of criminal law in the criminal justice process. Journal outlets for literature of this nature include American Criminal Law Review, American Journal of Criminal Law, Criminal Law Bulletin, Criminal Justice Journal, Criminal Law Review, New England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement, and The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology.

Development of Professional Training Programs Many criminal justice journals began as newsletters or practice-oriented journals among professionals in the fields of law enforcement or corrections. While the contemporary editions of these journals are scholarly in format, many have retained the original purpose of providing information of practical interest to non-academic professionals. The first journal designed to appeal to both practitioners and academicians was the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. First published in 1910 by the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, the journal represented an effort by academicians and law enforcement officials to collaborate in their reporting on their respective observations about crime. August Vollmer was in the forefront of the movement to create an amalgam of law enforcement personnel and academicians. As a police administrator in Berkeley, California in the early 1900s, he instituted a formal training program for personnel within the Berkeley Police Department. By 1916, the program included academic courses taught at the University of California at Berkeley. The recognition that training and educational programs had beneficial consequences for police administration spread, and resulted in the incorporation of similar programs into the curriculum at other universities. A couple of developments during the past few decades provided an impetus for the creation of education programs for law enforcement personnel:

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first, the adoption of minimum training standards for some states, most notably California and New York; second, the establishment of the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) by the federal government in the late 1960s. The latter program allocated money to over 1,000 academic institutions to help fund the higher education of personnel working within criminal justice agencies. Scholarly journals devoted primarily to the law enforcement aspect of criminal justice include Journal of Police Science and Administration and Police Studies. The International Review of Police Development. Formal education programs directed at correctional personnel developed later. These programs have usually been located within schools of social work. Florida State University instituted one of the first degree programs for correctional personnel. It began in 1952 as a bachelor's degree program in the Department of Criminology and Corrections within the School of Social Work. By 1957, it had evolved into a doctorate program in conjunction with the Department of Sociology (Stephens, 1976, 99). Similar programs were subsequently developed within other schools of social work, many of which benefited from funds distributed by LEEP. The Journal of Offender Counseling Services and Rehabilitation is especially reflective of the scholarly activities of this group. Many of the scholarly journals in the correctional field began as newsletters for correction professionals and evolved into research journals. Examples include the Canadian Journal of Criminology; Crime and Delinquency, which started as the National Probation and Parole Association Journal; Federal Probation, which was first published in 1937 by the United States Probation System as the Federal Probation Newsletter; and Criminal Justice and Behavior: An International Journal, which was originally published as a newsletter of the Association of Correctional Psychologists. Criminal Justice and Behavior and International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology comprise a subset among the correction-oriented journals. Many of the articles in these two journals emphasize the application of a medical model to rehabilitation. Practitioners in both the law enforcement and correctional fields are continuously confronted with problems which have legal aspects. Journals which address the legal information needs of practitioners as well as analyzing implications of changes in the law for criminal justice programs and procedures include Criminal Law Quarterly, Criminal Law Review, Journal of Criminal Law, and Juvenile and Family Court Journal. Journals which take a more theoretical approach toward the legal concerns of criminal justice practitioners include those previously mentioned, as well as American Criminal Law Review, American Journal of Criminal Law, Criminal

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Justice Journal, and Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology.

The Eclectic Approach and Application of System Theory The avowed intention of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, in 1910, was to bring together academicians and practitioners for the purpose of studying crime. Yet, at the beginning of the 1960s, criminology tended to be relegated to the status of a minor field within departments of sociology, and criminologists had little input or experience in affecting law enforcement or correctional practices. Educational curricula for law enforcement and correctional personnel emphasized the transmission of vocational and administrative skills rather than theoretical knowledge. A typical education curriculum covered the criminal justice system and how it works; the essentials of counseling; public administration; and a knowledge of social services in the community (Conrad, 1979, 14-15). Several developments in the 1960s heightened public consciousness about crime and led to actions which affected crime studies. First, crime emerged as an important issue during the 1964 presidential election campaign. The urban riots which preceded and followed that campaign brought the issues of lawlessness, racial discrimination in law enforcement, and ineffectiveness in law enforcement administration to the public's attention. Second, the United States Supreme Court issued several decisions expanding the due process rights of criminal suspects. Moreover, it adopted the exclusionary rule as a means of securing compliance. The decisions forced changes in police practices and engendered hostile reactions from law enforcement personnel. Third, the U.S. Senate hearings on organized crime, and the U.S. Justice Department's active enforcement of laws regarding labor racketeering, served to keep the public conscious of the existence of organized crime in society. These developments led to the establishment of three presidential commissions which examined problems associated with crime: the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, and the National Commission on Riots and Civil Disorders. The commissions emphasized the importance of crime research and thereby raised the prestige of criminologists. In addition, the commissions' recommendations resulted in more federal money being made available for crime research. The combination of increased prestige and funding for crime-related research encouraged scientists from many disciplines to under-

take crime research, thereby fostering an eclectic approach toward crime studies. One of the first schools to develop an eclectic approach toward crime was the School of Criminology at the University of California-Berkeley. There, experts in the fields of psychology, law, sociology, and statistics and methods were brought together in an integrated effort to study crime. The school's journal, Issues in Criminology, first published in 1965, reflected an interdisciplinary approach toward crime studies. It ceased publication with the demise of the school in 1976, although the leftist remnants of the journal's staff continued to publish in Crime and Social Justice. Several current criminal justice journals were either started in the 1960s or underwent a transition in content which reflected a more eclectic and research-oriented approach toward the study of crime. This group includes Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Journal of" Criminal Law and Criminology, Canadian Journal of Criminology, and Crime and Delinquency. Another consequence of the commissions' recommendations was the allocation of federal money for the education of criminal justice practitioners. As mentioned above, the federally funded Law Enforcement Education Program had as its goal the provision of pertinent higher education for criminal justice personnel, "not only for law enforcement but probation and parole and other correction occupat i o n s . . , where previously training had been limited to correctional curricula in a few schools of social welfare" (Conrad, 1979, 8). A final consequence was the application of a system perspective to the study of crime. The findings of the various commissions indicated that there was a lack of coordination among criminal justice agencies. The lack of coordination not only resulted in an inefficient system but also in one which fostered capricious actions offensive to commonly accepted concepts of fairness in the administration of justice. The adoption of the system perspective expanded the focus of crime studies. It encouraged research directed at the analysis of criminal justice agencies and the criminal justice process. The system approach also affected the education programs offered practitioners. Practitioners were viewed as needing more than the acquisition of technical skills required to perform daily tasks. Rather, they would need a theoretical background which would allow them to evaluate the performance of their unit or agency in terms of the objectives and goals of the criminal justice system. As a corollary, if their analysis indicated that their unit was performing inadequately, they needed the skills to bring about change in that agency or to work with people in other agencies to

improve the overall performance of the system. While this approach could be effective at all levels of an organization, it would be especially effective if directed at people in positions including policy-making responsibilities. Not only would the focus of criminal justice education have to be expanded to include administrators, but its content would have to be more heavily grounded in crim n inology and systems theory. In New York State, Governor Rockefeller was concerned about the lack of administrators and policy makers in state government with specialized knowledge in criminal justice; the lack of a pool of research studies to draw from when making policy decision regarding criminal justice; and the lack of coordination among criminal justice agencies (Rocke.feller, 1964, 1934-1935). His support was instrumental in the establishment of the School of Criminal Justice at the State University of New York at Albany in 1965. The school differed from earlier criminal justice programs in two respects. First, it emphasized analysis of the criminal justice system as a system, and the introduction of planned change into the system. Second, its curriculum was designed to get practitioners involved in theoretical and methodological studies. The need for the latter was explained by one of the school's founders: One cannot even read and understand the literature without at least basic training in statistics and research design. And an administrator who has no independent capacity to assess the design and methodology of the studies used to generate the database on which he depends in decision making is entirely too reliant on staff. (Myren, 1976, 35.) Articles dealing with the systemic analysis of the criminal justice system are found in many of the journals previously mentioned. However, some of the newer journals are particulary devoted to articles written from this perspective. These include Criminal Justice Review, Journal of Criminal Justice, and, to a lesser extent, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice. The historical trend in crime studies has been to broaden the knowledge base through an interdisciplinary approach. However, that expanded knowledge base may be brought to bear on very specific aspects of crime studies. The concern with specific parts of the problem has been reflected in two recent journals: Victimology, which emphasizes literature dealing with crime victims; and Justice System Journal, which is concerned primarily with the analysis of court systems.

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Summary Our intent here has been to identify some boundaries for the field of criminal justice and to identify the scholarly journals associated with the field. Since the methods we used were subjective, our categorizing o f the journals is open to debate. A further empirical study based on content analysis might be worthwhile. However, we thought the immediate need was to give a framework to the field and its journals, a need not previously addressed by the literature.

Journals Reviewed American Criminal Law Review. 1962-. Q. American Bar Association, Section of Criminal Justice and the Georgetown University Law Center, Chicago, IL. ISSN 0164-0364. Formerly: American Criminal Law

Quarterly. This journal bills itself as "a journal of professional information and opinion." It focuses on various aspects of criminal law and the judicial system. Articles written by lawyers, professors of law, and law students present lawyers' viewpoints on the criminial justice system. Issues include articles on criminal law, commentary, and case comments.

American Journal o[ Criminal Law. 1972- . Three issues per year. University of Texas at Austin, Law School Foundation, 727 E. 26 St., Austin, TX 78705. ISSN 0092-2315. When it began publication in 1972, this journal described itself as "A Journal Concerned with the Criminal Law and Related Areas." The founding editor, Louis J. Sirico, Jr., pointed to the fact that few journals at that time devoted themselves to the criminal law and related areas of social change. This journal would attempt to rectify what the editors viewed as a neglected area o f legal scholarly publishing. Its reformist mission was reflected not only in subject content but also in its own internal organization, and was summarized by Sirico in The Editor's Forward (volume 1, number 1): "[this journal] has eschewed the elitist structure o f most law reviews. The desire to write is the only prerequisite for joining the staff. We are seeking to develop a non-competitive, consensus-run organization." In the forward to the first issue, Tom C. Clark, (former Associate Justice of the United State Supreme Court) expressed the hope that this journal would lead to reforms in the criminal justice system and in the teaching of criminal law in law schools (evidently a neglected area). Articles included in the first issue covered such topics as prison discipline and the eighth amend-

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ment, attorney-prison communications, and ineffective counsel. Also included were legal notes and b o o k reviews. Current issues remain essentially the same with each issue divided into articles, comments, notes, and b o o k reviews.

British Journal of Criminology. 1950- . Q. Institute for the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, and Sweet and Maxwell Stevens Journals, 11 New Fetter Lane, London, EC4PC4EE, England. ISSN 00070955. Formerly: British Journal of Delinquency. During the first ten years of publication, this journal was entitled the British Journal of Delinquency. At that time, the term delinquency did not apply exclusively to juvenile status offenders but was used in a broader context to denote deviation from the dominant normative structure. As the term delinquency eventually became a precisely defined term, so did the concept of criminology change meanings over time. When the editorial decision was made in 1960 to change the name from "delinq u e n c y " to "criminology," the editors argued that the concept o f criminology no longer applied to the narrow field of "police science" but was contemporarily used as a broader concept encompassing many social science disciplines. As a compromise the subtitle Delinquency and Deviant Social Behavior was added. The editors thought the subtitle would clarify the aim o f the journal; that is, to present a multidisciplinary forum for research. Although the journal was one result of work done at The Institute for the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, it is by no means clinically oriented. Articles with a clinical emphasis are welcomed, but the primary focus is on theory and research from a broad continuum of specialities. Also included are correspondence, notes, lengthy book reviews, and lists o f references on criminological concerns. Canadian Journal of Criminology. 1958- . Q. Canadian Association for the Prevention of Crime, 55 Parkdale, Ottawa, K1Y 1E5 Ontario, Canada. ISSN 0704-9722. Formerly: Canadian Journal of Criminology and Corrections; Canadian Journal of Cor-

rections. Volumes 1-12 were entitled Canadian Journal of Corrections. The name was changed to Canadian Journal of Criminology and Corrections for volumes 13-19. The present title started with volume 20. The parent organization also changed its name from Canadian Corrections Association to Canadian Criminology and Corrections Association, and in 1971 to The Canadian Association for the Prevention of Crime. Although the title kept changing, the editorial focus appears to have remained t h e same over the years. Earlier volumes published conference papers

as well as practice-oriented articles and some theoretical articles. Its current Instructions to Authors state that it is a forum for "original contributions and discussion in the field of criminology and criminal justice." Articles address both the theoretical and scientific aspects of crime, as well as practiceoriented concerns of law enforcement, administration of justice, and the treatment of the offender. Included are b o o k reviews, notes on current research being conducted in Canada, and a listing of Coming Events in criminology, such as upcoming conferences. Articles are in either French or English. The earlier volumes were printed in English and then repeated entirely in French. Perhaps rising publishing costs forced the discontinuation of bilingual publishing. However, columns such as Coming Events and Instructions to Authors are printed in b o t h languages.

Crime and Delinquency. 1955- . Q. National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 411 Hackensack Ave., Hackensack, NJ 07601. ISSN 0011-1287. Formerly: NPPA Journal. The National Council on Crime and Delinquency was formerly the National Probation and Parole Association. Its original publication was entitled National Probation and Parole Association Journal or NPPA Journal. It served as a " f o r u m for the expression and discussion of all c o m p e t e n t points of view in the field of prevention and correction of crime and delinquency." The title was changed to Crime and Delinquency starting with volume 6, number 3 in July 1960. The editorial focus remained the same. Indeed, this journal is still looking for " c o m p e t e n t views" but has broadened its focus to include views on the administration of criminal justice. Articles appear to cover a broad range of concerns in the field o f administration. Each issue includes six to eight articles, as well as numerous b o o k reviews. Crime and Social Justice: Issues in Criminology. 1974- . S-A. Institute for the Study of Labor and Economic Crisis: Synthex Press, San Francisco, CA. ISSN 0094-7571. This publication is something of a departure from mainstream criminal justice journals in that it presents alternative perspectives on criminal justice. It was originally subtitled " A Journal o f Radical Criminology" and, not surprisingly, was based in Berkeley, California. Early issues claimed to be "collectively p r o d u c e d " with policy decisions based on a consensus of all staff members. Production tasks were rotated among staff members, and members were expected to help each other regardless of assigned responsibilities. The journal was one result of the radical student movement at Berkeley and was founded b y dissident students and faculty at Berkeley's School of Criminal

Justice. The school closed in 1976, but the journal continued. However, the closing of the school affected not only this publication but another journal entitled Issues in Criminology, which until that time has been published under the auspices of the School of Criminal Justice. The t w o journals merged their resources to form the current publication. Today, this journal appears to be more conventional, at least in format. Many of the original founders are still involved in its publication but there is no longer a reference to its being a collectively produced journal. The persons who were formerly called Coordinators are n o w the Editors. It is currently published under the auspices of the Institute for the Study o f Labor and Economic Crisis. While still billing itself as progressive and interdisciplinary with a leftist orientation, it is now an established criminal justice publication. A recent format change was, according to the editors, a response to the worsening global crisis of capitalism and its impact on the criminal justice system. In order to maintain a focus on radical or progressive criminology, the editors have grouped articles under major headings such as "Theory and Research," "Pedagogy," "Social Justice and Social Policy," "State and Right-Wing Repression," and "Struggles for Justice." Book reviews also are ino cluded.

Criminal Justice and Behavior: An International Journal. 1974Q. American Association of Correctional Psychologists and Sage Publications, 275 S. Beverly Dr., Beverly Hills, CA 90212. ISSN 00938548. Supercedes: CorrectionalPsychologist. This journal developed from an earlier publication entitled Correctional Psychologist, which was the official newsletter of the Association of Correctional Psychologists. The association later changed its name to its present one: American Association of Correctional Psychologists and changed the newsletter to a journal. Serious publication problems, resulting from the fact that Correctional Psychologist was being printed in a prison, led to the journal's demise. However, the need for a professional journal was still apparent, which led to the founding of the current publication. It also became a Sage publication. The original subtitle of this new publication, "An International Journal of Correctional Psychology," was slightly misleading. While it was, and still is, international in scope and had an International Advisory Board, it did not focus entirely on psychological issues, nor on corrections. Nor did it focus exclusively on corrections. Thus, the subtitle was changed in 1981 to " A n International Journal." In its present incarnation, it seeks to explore the "behavioral, psychological, and interactional foundations of clientele and employees in the criminal justice system." The "full range of justice issues and

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problems" include the "processes of law isolation, deterrence, behavior change, and functioning of systems, groups, and individuals." In order to cover such breadth, two types of articles are published: original behavioral science research into criminal justice, and reports of program developments and other practical applications of behavioral science knowledge. Thus, authors are both practitioners and researchers. For example, the first issue presented two articles out of eight that had a practice orientation. They were entitled "Applied Psychological Research in a Correctional Setting" and "The Measuring of Research in Social Action: What the Clinical Community Can Expect from Research." The current issue no longer lists an international advisory board. It does state that it welcomes manuscripts from throughout the world. Included are editorials and book reviews.

Criminal Justice Journal. 1976- . Three issues per year. College of Law, Western State University, 2121 San Diego Ave., San Digo, CA. ISSN 0145-4226. This publication is a law review focusing on criminal law and criminal justice. Its editors and staff are all students. Many of the articles are written by College of Law students and faculty. Others are by persons not affiliated with the school. Articles cover a variety of topics related to criminal law and the criminal justice system. Some issues are thematic, such as one on "Sex and the Law" and another on "Psychiatry and the Law." Like many law reviews, Criminal Justice Journal contains sections on Notes, Case Comments, and Book Reviews. Criminal Justice Review. 1976- . S-A. College of Public and Urban Affairs, Georgia State University, University Plaza, Atlanta, GA 30303. ISSN 07340168. Criminal Justice Review publishes articles that are concerned with a broad perspective of criminal justice issues, institutions, and processes. Emphasis is on trends, problems, and research on the regional, national, and international levels. The total criminal justice system is examined, focusing especially on the interrelationships among the various components of the system. A recent development is the inclusion of a regular section which surveys recent legal developments. One issue examined important criminal justice decisions from the preceding term o f the Supreme Court of the United States. The second issue of each year surveys other happenings in the judicial and legislative arenas. Regular issues include book reviews and research and events notes. Some issues contain interviews with notable criminal justice officials. Criminal Law Bulletin. 1964-. Bi-M. Warren, Gotham

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and Lamont, Inc., 210 South St., Boston, MA 02111. ISSN 0011-1317. Criminal Law Bulletin started out as a m o n t h l y publication and was subtitled "A Monthly Survey." It is currently a bimonthly publication with two to three articles per issue. When Fred Cohen assumed editorship with volume 7, number 1, the format changed. Each issue began to include "Highlights of this Issue." Articles focus on various problem areas in the criminal justice system, especially those concerned with civil liberties. Also included are summaries of recent judicial decisions in criminal law.

Criminal Law Quarterly: A Canadian Journal o f Criminal Law for Judges, Magistrates, Lawyers, and Police Officers. 1958- . Q. Canada Law book, Ltd., 240 Edward St., Aurora, Ontario L4G 3S9, Canada. 1SSN 0011-1333. The stated purpose of this journal is to provide a forum for discussing the problems of the administration o f criminal justice in Canada. In volume 1, number 1, the Editor-in-Chief, C.C. Savage, states that the journal's purpose is not "to foster any particular crusade" nor provide a slant toward prosecution or defense. At its inception, it was hoped that it would draw upon a wide range of related disciplines to provide a scholarly vehicle to address Canadian concerns with regard to criminal law. Each issue includes editorials, notes and comments, letters to the editors, articles and addresses, and a table of cases, as well as a few book reviews. Criminal Law Review. 1954- . M. Sweet and Maxwell Stevens Journals, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE, England. ISSN 0011-135X (UK). This journal is an English publication concerned with all aspects of the criminal law in England. Its mission is to be comprehensive and detailed in its coverage o f the practice and administration of criminal law. The scope includes practice and procedure, and pertinent materials from related academic disciplines. Its goal is to reach an audience o f all persons concerned with the administration of criminal justice. Criminology: A n Interdisciplinary Journal. 1963-. Q. American Society of Criminology and Sage Publications, 275 S. Beverly Dr., Beverly Hills, CA 90212. ISSN 0011-1384. Formerly: Criminologiea. When this publication was initiated in May 1963, this journal was entitled Criminologica and was published as the "Newsletter of the American Society of Criminology." The seminal issue contained summaries of the 1962 meetings of the ASC. Less news and several short articles appeared in volume 2; succeeding issues contained more, and lengthier, articles. Articles, some descriptive and others research-oriented addressed criminological concerns of the day.

The newsletter format was dropped entirely by volume 4, number 1, May 1966. A subheading now appeared indicating that Criminologica was "An Interdisciplinary Journal of Criminology." It began to publish "scholarly articles, reports o f research in progress and other material of interest to the field of criminology." The present title started with volume 8, 1970 and became the "Official Publication of the American Society of Criminology." Its editorial focus is on interdisciplinary approaches "devoted to crime and deviant behavior as found in the disciplines of law, criminal justice, and the social and behavioral sciences." Articles on research, theoretical, and historical issues are emphasized. Also published are "materials which review and discuss current issues and controversies in the areas of crime and justice." The current editor, Charles W. Thomas, stated in volume 19, number 4, February 1982 that "Criminology is not generally d e f i n e d - n o r does it deserve to be d e f i n e d - a s the best of the journals the discipline has to offer." He is candid in admitting that m a n y authors did not submit to Criminology until their manuscripts had been rejected from five to six more prestigious journals. Thomas hoped that this situation would change as a result o f a new and distinguished editorial board and a streamlining of manuscript review procedures. Nonetheless, its status as the official publication of the ASC makes this journal an important part of a criminal justice collection.

the case in earlier issues. The current editors stress that this journal is interested in "all phases o f preventive and correctional activities in delinquency and crime." Authors range from academic researchers to practitioners. The journal's advisory committee is composed of both academics and federal bureaucrats. A striking difference between the latest issue and the journal's earlier years is the present strong emphasis on statisti-cal and factual data and original research. This journal continues to be a major publication in the field of criminal justice administration.

Federal Probation: A Journal of Correctional Philosophy and Practice. 1937Q. Administrative

year. Oregon Health Sciences University, 114 Gaines Halt, 840 Gaines Rd., Portland OR 97201. ISSN 0306-624X. Formerly: International Journal of

Office of the United States Courts, Supreme Court Building, Washington, DC 20544. ISSN 0014-9128. Federal Probation started as a newletter entitled Ye Newsletter, and was published by the United States Probation System. Its original purpose was to serve as an informational medium for the personnel of the United States Probation System. The first newsletter was published in April 1937. The second newsletter was issued in May/ June 1937 under the title Federal Probation Newsletter. Articles tended to be short, newsy, or opion pieces. The newsletter format was later dropped, and the title changed to Federal Probation: A Quarterly

Journal of Correctional Philosophy and Practice. By 1948, it was published under the aegis of the Administrative Office o f the United States Courts in Cooperation with the Bureau of Prisons of the Department of Justice. Articles still tended to be short and practice-oriented. By 1950, the journal had taken on its present appearance, and the articles were becoming more scholarly, often written by academicians rather than solely by probation officers and judges, as had been

International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice. 1977S-A. Wichita State Uni= versity, Department of Administration of Justice, Box 95, Wichita, KS 67208. ISSN 0192-4036. Unlike many journals that claim to be international but lack international representation in editorial boards and article authorship, this publication lives up to its name. The lengthy list of associate editors is comprised of persons from all over the world, and the articles also are international in authorship and scope. A recent issue presents articles on crime and criminal justice in the Middle East, West Germany, Japan, and Nigeria. Other articles focus on comparative criminology and international aspects of criminal justice. Book reviews are included occasionally.

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 1957- . Three issues per

Offender Therapy. This journal is the official publication of the Association for the Professional Treatment of Offenders and Canadian Association for the Treatment of Offenders. This journal was founded in 1957 by a pioneer organization in the field o f offenders therapy and corrections called the Association for the Psychiatric Treatment of Offenders, Inc. It was originally entitled

Journal of the Association for Psychiatric Treatment of Offenders. The purpose of founding the journal was to stimulate new ideas concerning the psychiatric treatment of offenders. Articles tended to be short and opinionated. The name of the journal has been changed a couple of times. From 1961-1966, it was entitled Journal of Offender Therapy ; from 1967-1971, International Journal of Offender Therapy; and since 1972 it has carried its current title. Presently, it is international in scope, publishing therapeutic, psychiatric, and psychological articles, including articles from differing behavioral perspectives. Articles are both clinical and theoretical. The

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journal places particular emphasis on new methods of treatment. Authors are a mixture of practitioners and academics, and present perspectives from many countries.

International Journal of Sociology of Law. 1973-. Q. Academic Press, 24 Oval Rd., London N.W. 1, England. ISSN 0194-6595 (UK). Formerly: International Journal of Criminology and Penology. The original intent of this journal was to broaden the intellectual base of criminology and penology, by providing a forum for international perspectives and comparative studies. An international editorial board was set up and articles from abroad were encouraged. The original editor was W.H. Nagel from Leiden, The Netherlands, who was associated with the Kriminologies Institute. Professor Nagel resigned from the editorship at the end of 1978; the title was changed to the Inter. national Journal of the Sociology of Law with the first issue in 1979. The new editors believed that the new title would reflect a growing emphasis in criminology on the sociology of law, and stated: "The need to develop a sociology of law has been widely recognized in much recent literature, and its importance for the further development of both criminology and penology is now understood." The journal emphasized, along with the traditional concerns of criminology, penal policy and the penal process as well as the anthropology of law. Current issues contain four to six articles and several book reviews. Journal of Criminal Law. 1937- . Q. Pageant Publishing, 5 Turners Wood, London N.W.11, England. ISSN 0022-0183 (UK). This is an English publication concerned with reporting cases and commentary for barristers, solicitors, magistrates' clerks, police officers, and all engaged in the practice and administration of criminal Law. Articles are divided by courts of jurisdiction. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 191 O-. Q. Northeastern University, School of Law, 357 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. ISSN 0091-4169. Formerly: Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science. This journal was one result of the National Conference on Criminal Law and Criminology held in Chicago, June 1909. Another result was the founding of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, which published this journal as its official publication. Previous to publication of this journal, there was "no journal or bulletin published in the English language devoted wholly or in part to the cause of criminal law and criminology." Its aim was to "a-

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rouse," and focus, a wide interest in the study of all questions relating t o the administration of criminal justice. It was hoped the journal would bring about reform in the American criminal justice system. It noted the "present widespread and increasing popular dissatisfaction with the administration of the criminal law," and hoped to address these concerns and bring about a modernized criminal justice system. The intention was to reach a wide audience of scholars, criminologists, and public officials. In 1982, this journal incorporated a publication entitled American Journal of Police Science, no doubt giving it an added dimension and a wider audience. Appearing at the end of each issue was the American Journal of Police Science, tacked onto the original journal. Not until 1951, with volume 42, number 1, did the title change to the Journal of Criminal Law, Criminolog) and Police Science. The section entitled "Police Science" was still tacked on at the end of the main text. In 1962, the journal became the official publication of the National District Attorney's Association and the National Association of Defense Lawyers in Criminal Cases. However, it was published under the aegis of Northwestern University's School of Law, as it had been since its inception. Later issues no longer claimed to be the official publication of the above named organizations. The section devoted to police science was dropped in 1973 with volume 64. This section became a separate publication entitled the Journal of Police Science and Administration. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology now focused exclusively on criminal law and criminology, and would be concerned with law enforcement only as it related to these topics. Thus, current issues are divided into two sections: "Criminal Law" and "Criminology." Each issue includes several book reviews. A cumulative index covering the years 1910 through 1970 was published in 1971.

Journal of Offender Counseling Services and Rehabilitation. 1976- . Q. Haworth Press, 28 E. 22nd St., New York, NY 10010. ISSN 0195-6116. Formerly: Offender Rehabilitation. This journal is devoted to exploring new interdisciplinary approaches to dealing with the reentry of ex-offenders into society. Authors are fairly evenly divided between academicians and practitioners. Contributions are multidisciplinary, including, for example, social work and criminological perspectives. Articles cover research and programs concerned with innovative methods of rehabilitation such as diversion programs, pre-release centers, and halfway houses. Articles also examine substantive problem areas such as vocational rehabilitation, correctional

counseling, and substance abuse. The journal's mission is to demonstrate the essential roles of exoffender services in the criminal justice system, and to evaluate and improve those services.

Journal of Police Science and Administration. 1973-. Q. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Box 6010, 13 Firstfield Rd., Gaithersburg, MD 20878. ISSN 0090-9084. This journal was originally a section of the Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science. It separated from its parent publication in 1973. This change was made in order to give greater emphasis to the areas of police science and police administration by publishing articles by practitioners. Reports take the form of feature articles, case studies, research projects, and technical data. The diversity of perspectives in the first issue is illustrated by the fact that authors of articles range from a former chief of the Los Angeles Police Department, to a Ph.D. toxicologist, to a member of the Chicago Bar. A section entitled "Police Science Technical Abstracts and Notes" was added, which presents abstracts of articles from related journals such as the Journal of Forensic Sciences. A book review section concerned with police science and administration was also added. Each issue contains several articles. Journal of Criminal Justice. 1973- . Bi-M. Pergamon Press, Maxwell House, Fairview Pk., Elmsford, NY 10523. ISSN 0047-2352. According to the founding editors, this journal was one result of the "unprecedented growth in education and research connected with criminal justice problems" in the 1960s. It was initiated to provide a mechanism for theorists and practitioners to exchange theories, concepts, and methodologies concerned with crime and criminal justice. Comparative perspectives are sought by encouraging articles from all over the world. The editorial board is multinational. The journal is currently affiliated with the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Each issue presents four to six articles along with notes of research in progress, a listing of "Current Publications Abstracts," and usually, but not always, book reviews. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 1964- . S-A, National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 411 Hackensack Ave., Hackensack, NJ 07601. ISSN 0022-4278. Originally, this journal was co-sponsored by the NCCD and the Center for Youth and Community Studies at Harvard University. It was started to provide a channel of communication between research workers in criminology. The initial editor, Lloyd Ohlin, believed that, at the time, there were no journals in criminology devoted to theory and re-

search. Instead, journals were concerned with the programmatic concerns of different practitioner groups. By 1964, there was a sufficient knowledge base in criminology to allow for the inception of research-oriented journals. Thus, this journal was, and still is, devoted to publishing reports of original research, new theory, and the critical analysis of theories and concepts especially pertinent to research development in this field.

Justice System Journal: A Management Review. 1974- . Three issues per year. Institute for Court Management and West Publishing Company, 1624 Market St., Suite 210, Denver, CO 80202. ISSN 0098-261X. This journal focuses on the operation of courts and related agencies by presenting articles and notes that are concerned with research, experience, and ideas on court management. It is particularly concerned with policy implications. Articles are authored by both practitioners and academics, and are thus of interest to both groups. Issues as varied as judicial recruitment, case flow management techniques, and the representativeness of American juries are addressed. Some special issues have focused on particular themes such as "Recent Research on Criminal Courts." There are about six articles per issue and book reviews are included. Juvenile and Family Court Journal. 1949- . Q. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, Box 8978, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89507. ISSN 0161-7109. Formerly: Journal of Juvenile and Family Courts, Juvenile Justice, Juvenile Court Judges Journals, Juvenile Journal. This is a good example of a journal that has had multiple incarnations. In 1972, its name changed from Juvenile Court Journal to Juvenile Justice. This was done to reflect a change in editorial emphasis. The editors hoped to broaden the readership base to include everyone who exercises dispositional powers over juveniles. They explicitly stated that the journal would be the vehicle for expression of policy statments of the National Council, but that not all the materials the journal published would reflect their views. Multi-disciplinary articles would address philosophical, judicial, legal, and sociological concerns within the juvenile justice system, including the needs and rights of children. The editors stated that "the primary criterion for selection of articles shall be that ideas expressed promote the philosophy that juvenile offenders shall be treated apart from adult offenders." They also stressed rehabilitation rather than punishment. When the National Council of Juvenile Court Judges changed its name to National Council of

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Juvenile and Family Court Judges in 1977, the Board of Trustees voted to change the name of the journal to Journal o f Juvenile and Family Courts. Today it is entitled Juvenile and Family Court Journal. The editorial emphasis seems to have changed little from the above description. Authors of articles range from judges, to prosecutors, to academicians from various disciplines. It invites articles on the nation's juvenile justice system, juvenile and family courts, and the treatment and control of juvenile delinquency. Each issue presents several articles and at least one book review. An occasional issue is thematic, such as the May 1983 issue, which was devoted to dispositions. Law and Human Behavior. 1977- . Q. Plenum Press, 233 Spring St., New York, NY 10013. ISSN 01477307X. In recent years, law and social science have moved toward convergence in many areas; this journal is devoted to fostering that trend. It bills itself as "a multi-disciplinary forum for articles and discussions of issues arising out of the relationship between law and the behavioral science." Contributors from the social sciences are to address their articles to the interrelationship between human behavior and the law, legal system, and legal process. Each issue is usually divided between articles, "Notes/Discussions," "Case/Comments," and an occasional book review. Law and Society Review. 1966-. Q. Law and Society Association, University of Denver College of Law, Montview and Quebec Sts., Denver, CO 80220. ISSN 0023-9216. The purpose in founding this journal was to provide an interdisciplinary forum focusing on relationships of legal institutions to society as a whole. This journal is policy-oriented and aims at fostering the collaboration of the social sciences with legal studies, much as does Law and Human Behavior. It is hoped by the editors that such collaboration will encourage the utilization of a legal perspective in the formation of public policy. Articles included come from a wide variety of social science disciplines. The first issues published articles by a lawyer, a political scientist, sociologists, and a graduate student in law and sociology. Not all articles focus on criminal justice, but most do. N e w England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement. 1974- . S-A. New England School of Law, 154 Stuart St., Boston, MA 02116-5687. Formerly: N e w England Journal on Prison Law. The inception of this journal resulted from two years of informal seminars at the New England School of Law that were concerned with prison law and related issues. At that time, there was no legal

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journal concerned exclusively with prisons. Thus, this journal was founded to provide a medium for the expression of the views of prisoners, prison officials, lawyers, judges, law students, and others on legal problems inherent in the prison system. The name of the journal was changed in 1983 to better reflect a changing editorial emphasis. In addition to publishing articles on "historical developments, current trends and future proposals for correctional law and the prison community," the journal will, according to the editors, become "a leading voice in the advancement of new ideas in the field of criminal, juvenile and civil confinement law." Each issue presents "Articles," "Commentaries," "Notes," "Recent Cases," and "Book Reviews." Some issues are thematic, devoted to such topics as "Foundations of Modern Penal Practice" and "Sentencing and Alternatives." Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development. 1978- . Q. Court and Judicial Publishing Co., Box 39, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire RG9 5UA, England. ISSN 0141-2949 (UK). This journal was started with the intent of providing an interdisciplinary and international forum for studies on the historical development of police and current police practices. It is aimed at a variety of audiences from public administrators to academicians. Each issue contains several articles, written by authors from a variety of backgrounds. Victimology: A n International Journal. 1976- . Q. Visage Press, 2333 N. Vernon St., Arlington, VA 22207. ISSN 0361-5170. Victim studies is a recent trend in criminology. This journal results from a need to fill a gap in the criminological literature. However, it does limit itself to criminological studies of victimology, but rather attempts to provide a multi-disciplinary and international "channel of communication for the emerging world wide community of scholars, professionals, and innovators concerned with victimization." It focuses on the victim, the variables and dynamics involved in victimization, and society's reaction to the problems of victims. The editorial board is international, as are the authors of the articles. Articles deal with empirical and methodological concerns, and policy and practice issues. Included are full length articles, project and research notes, book reviews, and conference and seminar announcements. Some issues, are thematic, such as a recent issue devoted to child abuse.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Conrad, John P.. "The First View." In Two Views of Criminology and Criminal Justice: Definitions, Trends, and the Future; Papers, by John P. Conrad and Richard A. Myren. Chicago: Joint Commission on Criminology and Criminal Justice Education and Standards, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1979. Dezee, Matthew R. "The Sociology of Criminology: A Study of Graduate Schools of Criminology and Criminal Justice." Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology Conference, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1975. Fabianic, David A. "Perceived Scholarship and Readership of Criminal Justice Journals." Journal of Police Science and Administration, 8: 1520, 1980. LaPerla, Susan S. and David M. Horton, comps. Criminal Justice Periodicals: A Selected BibHo. graphy. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1979. Mannheim, Hermann. "Criminology." In The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., Macropaedia, 5: 282-285. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1974. Mersky, Roy M., Robert C. Berring and James K. McCue. Author's Guide to Journals in Law, Criminal Justice and Criminology. New York: Haworth Press, 1979. Myren, Richard A. State University of New York at Albany, School of Criminal Justice: Establishment; initial faculty planning, development and maturation, conclusion. Albany: State University of New York at Albany, 1976. Myren, Richard A. "The Second View." In Two Views of Criminology and Criminal Justice: Definitions, Trends, and the Future: Papers, by John P. Conrad and Richard A. Myren. Chic-

ago: Joint Commission on Criminology and Criminal Justice Education and Standards, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1979. Newton, Anne, Kathleen Yaskia Perl and Eugene Doleschal. Information Sources in Criminal Justice, An Annotated Guide to Directories, Journals, Newsletters. Hackensack, N J: National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1976. Parker, L. Craig, Jr. and Eileen Goldfeder. "Productivity Ratings of Graduate Programs in Criminal Justice Based on Publications in Ten Critical Journals." Journal of Criminal Justice, 7: 125133, 1979. Rank, Richard. "Criminal Law and Criminology: A Bibliography of Periodicals." Law Library Journal, 60:249-271, 1967. Regoli, Robert M., Eric D. Poole and Andrew W. Miracle, Jr. "Assessing the Prestige of Journals in Criminal Justice: A Research Note." Journal of Criminal Justice, 10: 57-67, 1981. Rockefeller, Nelson A. 1964. "Annual Message to the Legislature," 8 January 1964. In McKinney's Session Laws of New York, 1964: 1,927-1,944. Rowland, J.F.B. 1981. "Why Are New Journals Founded;" Journal of Documentation, 37 : 36-40. Shichor, David, Robert M. O'Brien, and David L. Decker. 1981. "Prestige of Journals in Criminology and Criminal Justice." Criminology, 19: 461-469. Stephens, Gene. 1976. "Criminal Justice Education: Past, Present and Future." Criminal Justice Review, 1: 91-120. Winkler, Kenneth E. Jr. 1983. "Criminal Justice Criminology Journal Rankings: ASC Versus ACJS." Journal of Criminal Justice, 11: 369375. @ i

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