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Critical thinking and lifelong learning
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Critical thinking and lifelong learning Abstract: In the context of lifelong learning in museums, archives and libraries, and in digital information contexts, the need to be fluent in critical thinking has become more essential than ever, and is considered to be one of the most important elements of information literacy training. The imparting of critical thinking skills, however, needs to take into account cultural sensitivities, and different cultural backgrounds where critical thinking skills have not been present, in the context of cultural heritage learning. In this chapter, the key critical thinking skills are outlined, and an illustrative example of when cultural sensitivities were so offended that all critical debate and dialog was shut down is given in support of the indicated need for sensitivity in training. Theories of learning are explored – including the didactic expository theory of learning, the stimulus-response theory of learning, the constructivist theory of learning and the discovery theory of learning – as are learning outcomes and styles. The concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and worldview literacy are introduced as final factors to consider in the development of the model for information literacy and cultural heritage for lifelong learning. Key words: critical thinking, lifelong learning, cultural heritage, information literacy, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, generic learning outcomes.
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The role of critical thinking and lifelong learning From the overall exploration in this book so far – tracing the various perspectives on cultural heritage in the context of museums, archives and libraries, exploring digital information contexts and examining the main models of information literacy – it can be seen that two key competencies emerge as essential for any citizen living in the twenty-first century. These are the abilities to think critically and to follow a path of lifelong learning that is not necessarily accessed through formal educational institutions. In terms of lifelong learning, museums, archives and libraries are ideally placed to provide lifelong learning, and to impart critical thinking skills to a general public who may not have acquired them in schools or formal education. Kraeutler observed that potentially museums can be virtual as well as public spaces where individuals and groups can interact and connect in a way that they might not do otherwise. Thus, museums can be catalysts for public life, creativity, mobilizing individuals and groups to engage with topics, and facilitating the raising of awareness of problems in a manner that is both culturally sensitive and scientifically sound (Kraeutler, 2008a: 30). Kraeutler noted that the museum sees itself as a conduit for delivering education either virtually (with technology) or with traditional displays and exhibitions, but also noted that museums must be aware of the complexity of the natural, social and cultural environments within which they exist. Museums need to take into account the diversity of communication cultures, and the multiplicity of ethnic, cultural, religious and economic variations. Contextually, in a globalized world of simultaneity of events and synchronicity of consciousness, the key abilities required are constructive critical dialog, the
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exchange of experiences, exploring commonalities and cooperating in the development and sharing of methodologies. The museum is thus a generative learning organization that leads to the continuous cultivation of ideas, attitudes and abilities that constantly evolve (ibid.: 31). Kraeutler’s observations can be applied to archives and libraries as well, and summarize the key role that critical thinking and lifelong learning have in the twenty-first century.
Critical thinking skills and cultural sensitivities As was observed in Chapter 3, while most of the information literacy models emphasized the importance of being able to analyze and evaluate information critically, there was no further elaboration on what critical thinking skills actually are. In a tongue-in-cheek chapter entitled, “The fine art of baloney detection,” Carl Sagan outlined a set of tools for critical thinking, which he posited was a necessary ability to construct and understand reasoned arguments, and identify fraudulent or fallacious arguments in any evaluation of information. Among the tools he identified were: the need to independently verify any cited facts; that arguments from authorities do not often hold up, thus debate of evidence by people with all points of view should be engaged in, and hypotheses should be tested by means of trying to disprove them; that one should not get attached to one’s own hypotheses (Sagan, 1996: 197);
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that anything that could have a numerical quantity attached to it should be measured; that every link in a chain of argument should work; that when faced with two or more hypotheses that work equally well, one can apply Occam’s razor and choose the simplest; and to always ask whether a hypothesis can be falsified (ibid.: 198). Sagan further noted that especially in the fields of religion and politics one should be on the alert for fallacies of logic and rhetoric. He identified some of these to include: ad hominem (attacking the person doing the arguing, and not the argument itself) (ibid.: 199); argument from authority, whereby people take the word of authorities such as governments and religious authorities without question simply because they have authority; argument from adverse consequences (for example, if people say a law must pass because if it does not, then there will be adverse consequences); appeals to ignorance, whereby it is stated that if something has not been proven to be false then it must be true; special pleading arguments (usually to emotions), or claiming that a person does not understand a premise (ibid.: 200); begging the question, whereby causality is assumed but not proven; observational selection, where the arguer selects and cherry-picks favorable circumstances to support the argument; deliberately omitting other factors which exist that could refute the argument;
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using statistics of small numbers, or skewed sampling that is not sufficiently representative to support an argument (ibid.: 201); misunderstanding the nature of statistics; inconsistency in applying one standard to one argument but not applying the same standard to another; non sequitur, meaning that the argument does not follow logically; post hoc ergo propter hoc (where something happened afterwards, and the cause is assumed); false dichotomy, where only two extreme positions are considered and intermediate possibilities are ignored (ibid.: 202); the confusion of correlation and causation; straw man, which entails describing a position in such a way that it is easy to discredit; suppressing evidence, or engaging in half-truths (ibid.: 203); and what Sagan terms “weasel words,” which essentially entails redefining words to suit political agendas (ibid.: 204). One can immediately see how some of these tools would be problematic in some cultural contexts. In some cultures, questioning the word of political or religious authorities is considered treasonous or heretical, and this does not only apply to developing countries or indigenous cultures but is observable in contemporary, developed cultures in the context of current narratives around WikiLeaks, climate change and 9/11. People who reasonably question the narratives of authorities can suffer consequences ranging from being labeled “conspiracy nuts,” to threats upon their lives. Even scientific communities can marginalize and isolate their fellow scientists if a hypothesis is considered to
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be too far from accepted mainstream thought; the most wellknown example of this being the old scientific belief that the world was flat, an assertion which was proven to be false centuries later, following much hostility towards earlier scientists who had proposed that the earth was round. In her classic work on critical thinking skills, Cottrell noted that critical thinking uses the mind and mental processes and, as such, is a cognitive activity (Cottrell, 2005: 1). Despite this, critical thinking can elicit passionate emotional responses (ibid.: 5) and test our assumptions, preconceptions, biases, dislikes, beliefs and everything we have taken for granted (ibid.: 6). As a result, Cottrell proposed that it is essential to distinguish between text and theory and the person themselves positing the theory, and noted that people presenting theories can take criticism personally (ibid.: 9). It is thus essential to offer critical feedback in a constructive manner that helps to improve and clarify without personally offending the creator of the theory (ibid.: 10). In the context of cultural heritage this is so important that feedback itself will be delineated as one of the processes in the model. A potent example reflecting how one person can present a critique that leads to outrage and offense for a cultural group is the incident in South Africa surrounding a controversial painting by Brett Murray, entitled The Spear, which was showcased in the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg, South Africa, in early 2012. The painting depicted the current President of South Africa, Jacob Zuma, with his genitalia exposed, in an exhibition that critiqued the ruling African National Congress (ANC) political party. Van Graan (2012) noted that the intent of the exhibition as a whole was to critique the ruling party for corruption, and for putting the interests of the powerful elite ahead of the interests of the majority of people in South Africa. Van Graan also noted how Zwelinzima Vavi, leader of the trade union federation
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COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions), had himself criticized the ANC as being a predatory and powerful elite that used its power to enrich itself, but when it came to the painting, he described it as the work of a sick, hateful, racist mind (ibid.: 9). The inclusion of the painting in the exhibition led to the ANC filing court actions, to its defacement by two individuals who entered the gallery and covered it with paint, and to angry marches to the Goodman Gallery by crowds of citizens who protested against this assault on African culture and the perceived racist attack on black Africans by disrespecting their President. The incident led to a plethora of arguments, those defending the right of freedom of expression versus those defending the values of African traditional culture, and emotions ran high and were volatile. Only the removal of the painting altogether, even in its defaced form, would pacify the angry crowds, and it was impossible for the opposing sides to find common ground where debate could take place. De Vos lamented on how the outrage generated ignored what he considered to be the real social ills that plague South Africa, such as the failure by the Limpopo Department of Education to provide textbooks to learners in the province of Limpopo, and how there were several areas of neglect that deserved the outrage of the population. However, the population did not demonstrate outrage over these social issues, but rather focused their anger on a painting which he considered to be, ironically, a critique of the very poverty and social ills suffered by the many (De Vos, 2012: 8). It is thus clear from this example how cultural sensitivities can override critical thinking, and how injured feelings and high emotions can silence debate altogether. It is therefore imperative that any introduction of critical thinking into areas of cultural sensitivity heeds those sensitivities, and seeks to explore areas that are not as emotionally painful to
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a cultural group, in order to prevent that group from shutting down from critical thought completely. While this position may appear to be anathema to advocates of freedom of speech, thought and expression and opponents of censorship, it is nevertheless asserted here as an essential requirement when introducing critical thought to cultural groups that are not familiar with critical thought. For communities for whom critical thinking is an accepted norm, for whom there are no cultural “taboos,” more controversial elements of cultural heritage may be included in a model and training for information literacy and cultural heritage. Returning to Cottrell, and her comprehensive overview of critical thinking skills, a few of these are highlighted here to illustrate how essential it is to focus on critical thinking and evaluation in information literacy and cultural heritage learning. The illustrative example of The Spear in the South African context reinforces her observation that barriers to critical thinking include being emotionally distressed by a view that conflicts with deeply held religious, cultural or political beliefs. Other barriers include: misunderstanding the meaning of the criticism; a reluctance to criticize those perceived to have more expertise; lacking strategies for analysis; and having insufficient focus and detail. (Cottrell, 2005: 12) Abilities required for critical thinking include: the ability to focus and recognize important and fine details; the ability to see patterns, similarities and differences, and identify the presence and absence of information, order and sequence;
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the ability to use pattern recognition to compare, contrast and predict different outcomes; and the ability to sort items into groups, label and categorize them, and use understanding of these categories to identify new phenomena and make evaluative judgements about them. (Ibid.: 17) As Sagan has noted, understanding the nature of arguments is an essential component of critical and analytical thinking, and Cottrell provided a simple outline of the main thrust of understanding arguments. She noted that an argument presents a point of view, with reasons given to support the argument and persuade others to accept that point of view (ibid.: 40). She explained that a good argument has good internal consistency and should include consideration of alternative points of view, with counter-arguments to refute them (ibid.: 65). In analyzing arguments, it is essential to be able to identify hidden assumptions (underlying factors that are taken for granted and not examined) and test that the premises upon which the arguments are based are sound (ibid.: 85). In the field of cultural heritage, it is essential to be able to identify underlying beliefs and assumptions, since arguments with implicit assumptions that are not tested can be used to catch one unawares (advertising and propaganda appeals to the unconscious level), or persuade one to do something one does not really want to do, or plant an idea in someone’s mind, or create ideas of threatening circumstances (creating a perceived threat), or subtly undermine a person without them being aware of it, or mislead a person or group in a way that makes that person think they thought of it themselves. Implicit arguments are not often recognized as
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such since they are based on what is taken for granted in particular or different cultural groups (ibid.: 93). For example, in some religious societies there are arguments against women occupying roles as religious leaders, since there is a culturally-based assumption that leadership roles are divinely allocated to men only. Arguments can also contain connoted messages, where something is not explicitly discussed, but something else is discussed which implies a particular conclusion (ibid.: 95–6). An example of the last would be stating that a cultural artifact is valuable and then stating that a technological item recently acquired is priceless, which implies a connoted meaning that the technological item is worth more than the cultural artifact. In the field of cultural heritage, latent messages are especially prevalent since they depend on shared social, cultural and ideological values. Cottrell highlights some examples, including: the playing of patriotic music in the background of a campaign for a political party, which suggests that that political party is more patriotic than others; using an image of a bird flying in the sky to suggest freedom; and baking bread while showing people around a house for sale, giving a suggestion of homeliness. Also prevalent in the area of cultural heritage are stereotypes, where ideas or groups of people are linked to a set of associations, such as “Primitive people are …” or “Women are …” (ibid.: 96). Cottrell also outlined common flaws in arguments, including: confusing cause and effect; ad hominem; misrepresentation and emotive language (ibid.: 105); tricks of language (such as using “obviously” or “clearly” to imply something is already proven) (ibid.: 114); unwarranted leaps; castles of cards (if just one link in the argument is flawed, the whole castle of cards collapses); sleight of hand (subtle changes of wording) (ibid.: 116); emotive language
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(ibid.: 117); ignoring the main opposing reasons; presenting restricted options; misrepresenting a person (ibid.: 119); tautology (using different words to repeat the same thing); and that two wrongs do not make a right (ibid.: 120). Finally, a crucial point made by Cottrell which is intrinsic to cultural heritage is the role of eyewitness testimony. While eyewitness testimony can be used it is not always accurate, since eyewitnesses can lie (to protect someone, or to prevent the truth from being known, or out of fear of repercussions), they can lack expertise or insider knowledge, and they are subject to the limitations of memory such as errors in perception, errors in interpretation of what was seen, forgetting, remembering the event inaccurately, and composite memories (merging memories from different experiences into one). Due to these limitations, it is necessary to find corroborating evidence from various sources to support eyewitness testimony, including official records from the time, other witness testimony, television footage if available, newspapers, police, social or court records and photographs (ibid.: 142). In terms of oral history, Hamilton discussed the debates and questions surrounding the recording of oral histories which questioned their legitimacy, and she suggested that an approach of fluidity would be appropriate to assist the academic study of the past (Hamilton, 2002: 225). She outlined the two polarized views on oral history, one being that oral tradition as a source of history (she was referring specifically to African history, but this view is applicable to any form of oral history in other cultures as well) is a rich field to be mined for historical data, and the other view dismissing oral history as useless because of the interpretative nature of oral history. Hamilton proposed that these two polarized views can be resolved by exploring oral accounts in relation to associated material and objects (ibid.: 227),
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which reinforces Cottrell’s approach to solving the problem of eyewitness testimony. As Bearman noted in the context of archives, archives of disputed legitimacy are often a source of social conflict rather than a means to address such conflict, and this type of conflict is especially exacerbated where there is tension between citizens and the state (Bearman, 2002: 324). Critical thinking skills, while giving cognisance to cultural sensitivities, are thus an essential element in the formulation of a model to teach information literacy and cultural heritage.
Lifelong learning and learning styles Drawing from research in museums once again, the observations of Maranda – who noted how museums make personal learning available to the public – are pertinent to the context of lifelong learning. Maranda noted that visitors to museums can stand before an artifact, look at it, see how it was made, and be inspired and awed by it. Maranda distinguished between formal learning – which is usually verbal and written in the context of formal education where learning is structured, and is a shared group experience with examinations to test learning and qualifications to validate learning integration – and the informal learning that takes place in museums, where anyone can learn (Maranda, 2008: 18). Kraeutler elaborated on this point further, explaining that museums are ideally placed to facilitate lifelong learning (Kraeutler, 2008a: 20), and museum visitors are seen as active participants in the process, bringing with them diverse levels of knowledge, attitudes, cultural backgrounds and values (ibid.: 26). Kraeutler considered the museum to be an educational institution, tasked with imparting knowledge
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and concerned with indirect learning, where new data is connected to existing knowledge (ibid.: 28). Kraeutler noted how the constructivist approach to learning had become predominant in museums, and that museum exhibitions have been the traditional means of enabling interaction with collections, and delivering interpretation to users (ibid.: 29). With the development of new technology, which should be embraced, Kraeutler highlighted the need to exercise care in relation to issues of authorship, institutional authority and scientific honesty (ibid.: 30). Falk et al. (2006) noted that particularly in Western economies, knowledge and information are rapidly becoming the major economic product of society, and that while economics may be the engine driving the transformation of people’s lives in today’s networked society, the fuel that drives the engine is learning (ibid.: 323). They noted how the knowledge economy is founded on ideas, and that the rapidly evolving amount of new ideas requires learning skills in order to keep up, and, further, that learning is not only becoming a way of life, but a necessity. They considered that the learning strategy of choice will be free-choice learning, where people do not learn because they have to, but because they want to. Given that the majority of citizens (97 percent in Falk et al.’s estimatation) spend their lives outside of formal education systems, other arenas become venues to facilitate this free-choice, lifelong learning, and they focus on how museums in particular have an important role to play (ibid.: 324). Falk et al. also noted that traditional learning was based on a behaviorist conceptual framework, which in essence assumes that learners know nothing, experience an educational intervention, and then know something. As a result, behaviorist teaching strategies tend to be didactic and instructor centered, with the instructor providing the what, when and how of the learning experience.
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Although this approach has its merits, the model is now considered to be flawed. Falk et al. referred to the more recent approach, known as the constructivist model of learning, which frames learning as a more continuous, and highly personalized, process. This approach assumes that learners begin with different cognitive frameworks and life experiences, and that these need to be accommodated in the learning process (ibid.: 325). In considering the most suitable model for learning in the context of museums, Falk et al. proposed the contextual model of learning. They noted that the where and how of learning is important and that the setting of learning in museums is different from that of other places. The contextual model of learning thus adopts a contextually driven dialog that facilitates both the process and the product of the interactions between an individual’s sociocultural and physical personal background, with the venue of the museum as the place of learning (ibid.: 327). Since exhibitions and training programs facilitate learners along predetermined pathways, the new approach recognizes that learners need to be given the opportunity to discover and reveal the nature of their own learning (ibid.: 328). The type of learning that occurs in museums is free-choice learning, which is fundamentally different from that of the compulsory learning that takes place in schools and formal educational institutions. Falk et al. referred to a set of five characteristics which needed to be included in any freechoice learning program, developed by the Institute for Learning Innovation, and these are: allowing the individual’s own unique learning agenda to emerge; addressing the effect of time on learning;
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respecting that learning is always situated and contextualized; being open to a broad range of learning outcomes; and emphasizing validity over reliability. (Ibid.: 329) Falk et al. noted that when it came to the idea of the individual’s own unique learning experience, allowing the learner to raise what occurs in their thinking brings the museum closer to understanding the various ways in which people experience museums. The authors highlighted the fact that there is often a great disparity between how visitors view a museum and how museum professionals view that museum. With regard to the effect of time on learning, the authors observed that while museum visitors’ impressions can be captured when they exit the museum, visitors often need time to integrate and absorb the experience, and thus cannot always articulate it immediately (ibid.: 330). Citing Luke et al. (2001) and Falk et al. (2004), they noted that eight consistent learning outcomes from the museums’ experience had been mapped, and these were: knowledge skills interests values museum literacy social learning creativity awareness. (Ibid.: 331)
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With regard to preferring validity over reliability, Falk et al. explained that validity is the degree to which measures actually measure what they intend to measure, while reliability refers to whether a set of results found at one time can be repeated later and yield the same result (ibid.). They noted that while the behaviorist model favors reliability over validity, the constructivist approach favors validity more. In any research process both of these components are important, but there is always a tension between the two in a research design, and, thus, there is a trade-off between which of the two components is favored (ibid.: 332). In terms of measuring experiences in museums, Falk et al. examined concept mapping as a possible method but found two flaws, namely that the method requires learners to undertake training first, which was not practical in a freechoice setting, and that the scoring rubrics of concept mapping were based on a positivistic approach, and thus were reductionist, assuming that there was a single correct answer (ibid.). The authors thus took some aspects of concept mapping and integrated them into a new methodology which they named personal meaning mapping (PMM). PMM was designed to measure each individual’s unique learning experience, it did not assume that all learners have the same background knowledge, and it did not require a specific correct answer, rather it allowed for the multidimensionality of learning. The four dimensions measured are: the extent of a visitor’s knowledge and feelings; the breadth of a visitor’s understanding; the depth of understanding; and the mastery possessed by an individual on a given topic (ibid.: 333). This model is considered to be ideally suited for the measurement of outcomes in a generic model of information literacy and cultural heritage, and will be used in our model.
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Turning to theories of learning, Hein (2006) provided a useful overview and map of the various theories of education. He noted that they all fell along a juxtaposed continuum of theories of learning, and theories of knowledge. In essence, he found that theories of learning which posited that learning was incremental – with pieces added over time – and theories of knowledge where knowledge exists outside of the learner, fell into the didactic expository category. The incremental theory of learning, together with the theory that knowledge is constructed by the learner personally or socially, fell into the stimulus-response category. The theory that knowledge is constructed by the learner personally or socially combined with the theory of learning that considers learning to be active, leading to restructuring, falls into the constructivist category. The theory that knowledge exists outside of the learner, combined with the theory of learning that considers learning to be active, leading to restructuring, falls into the category of discovery (ibid.: 346). Hein further noted that the constructivist approach to learning and knowledge has a particular appeal to cultural institutions, but he pointed out some problems with the constructivist approach. He noted that with regard to exhibitions, the traditional curatorial voice of authority needs to be muted, and that this has been achieved in some museums by providing several different narrative interpretations, and/or allowing visitors to add their own as well (ibid.: 347). He also highlighted that in the context of museum learning, there has been a redefinition of learning and education as a meaningful experience, as opposed to the previous definition which regarded it in terms of specific content outcomes (ibid.: 348). Hein went on to outline how researchers in visitor studies are moving away from the behaviorist approach, to the constructivist approach, and
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are using social science research methods to analyze visitor experiences. He cautioned that only behavior can be measured using social science research tools, not mental experiences, and that social science research methods are analyzed and interpreted by humans who themselves have innate cultural biases (ibid.). He also noted that if museums use a constructivist theory of education, then the question is raised of what outcomes to measure (ibid.). Hein concluded that museum education converges with social responsibility, and that the social service provided by museums is education. With museums following the constructivist approach to education this necessarily puts an emphasis on social change (ibid.: 349). In exploring the role of museum interactives on thinking, Witcomb noted that museums have three basic understandings, namely that: the presence of some technological medium is required; an interactive is a physical exhibit which is added to the main display; and a device which a visitor can operate involving physical activity is required. Interactives are considered by museums as having an entertainment component (Witcomb, 2006: 354). Witcomb made an interesting exploration of the role of interactives in terms of the methods of pedagogy previously identified by Hein. In the didactic expository model, the museum sees itself as the sole authoritative source of knowledge, and thus didactical approaches to interactives would have a one-way flow of communication, from the museum to the visitor. In the stimulus-response method, the transmission of knowledge through interactives would rely on repetition, and would reward correct answers given by the visitor (for example, by congratulating them) when they push the right button, lift the appropriate flap, arrange the items in a correct sequence, or give the right answer on a touch screen (ibid.: 356). With the discovery method, which is based on a blend of realist
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epistemology and constructivist learning theory, communication in interactives is two way, between museum and visitor, and this method is the one most embraced by museums (ibid.: 357). Museums are less enthusiastic about the pure constructivist approach, but some have embraced this in their interactives, allowing the visitor to have their own cultural backgrounds represented, and allowing them to work in spaces of immersion and experience (ibid.: 359). Finally, the learning styles and preferences of different individuals need to be taken into account and accommodated. With a well-known and well-used system of providing training for different learning styles, McCarthy described the development of the 4MAT system in 1980, identifying four learning styles present in individuals: 1. Imaginative learning (founded on the key question of “Why?” and involving feeling, watching, seeking personal associations and meaning). 2. Analytic learning (with the key question of “What?” and involving listening to and thinking about information, seeking facts, thinking through ideas and learning what experts think). 3. Common-sense learning (where the key question is “How?” and which involves thinking and doing, experimenting and applying ideas). 4. Dynamic learning (where the key question is “If?” and which involves exploring, learning by trial and error, and seeking hidden possibilities). (McCarthy, 1980) Cassels also noted the importance of recognizing the different learning styles, and he referred to those that were developed by Bonnie Pitman, delineated as:
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imaginative (seeking personal meaning) analytical (seeking intellectual comprehension) commonsensical (seeking practicality) dynamic (seeking hidden possibilities). (Cassels, 1996: 38–45) It is therefore important for instructors in information literacy and cultural heritage to be cognisant of individuals’ different styles of learning, and ensure that they are accommodated within a group learning environment. In addition, in order to measure outcomes of training in an environment of lifelong learning, it is important to be cognisant of the different learning outcomes as well. Fuchs (2008) referred to the “Generic Learning Outcomes” document which was developed by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council in the United Kingdom (MLA, 2005), and found that it was ideally suited to lifelong learning and learning for pleasure as well as a useful strategic tool for evaluating learning impact. The five generic learning outcomes were as follows: 1. attitudes and values (including perceptions, attitudes and opinions towards other people, increased motivation and tolerance); 2. knowledge and understanding (learning facts, making sense of information, making links between things); 3. activity, behavior and progression (what people do, have done, or intend to do); 4. enjoyment, inspiration, creativity (having fun while learning and being inspired to create); and 5. skills (physical, communication and information management skills). (Fuchs, 2008: 152–3)
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For the development of a model of information literacy and cultural heritage it also seems important to highlight that in the field of educational psychology there exists a theory that there are two types of intelligence that can be developed in people. Cattell described the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, noting that crystallized intelligence loads culturally acquired judgemental skills, while fluid intelligence loads insightful performances where individual learning backgrounds make no difference (Cattell, 1967: 209). The development of fluid intelligence would be applicable to learning about cultural heritage, and thus would be a desirable outcome of the application of the model. In the context of learning about the cultural heritage of many different groups, another literacy that would be relevant is proposed, namely worldview literacy. Schlitz et al. (2011) described worldview literacy as being a competency that allows people to articulate their own worldviews while being able to experience and accept the worldviews of others, to have greater cognitive flexibility, to have an appreciation of diverse perspectives, to be comfortable with unfamiliarity, to be discerning, and to have the ability to hold multiple points of view simultaneously. Cultural heritage and information literacy training would thus aim to accept existing crystallized intelligence in learners, while aiming to develop fluid intelligence in learners so that they can develop worldview literacy.
Concluding comments This chapter was included to complement and expand the overview of information literacy models and pedagogies in Chapter 3, and once again drew from research in the fields of museums and archives, as well as from educational
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psychology and from writers on critical thinking skills. This research is considered to be relevant to the development of a model of information literacy and cultural heritage for lifelong learning. The key factors to bring to the model, and to the training programs developed from the model, include: training in critical thinking skills, while at the same time ensuring that this training is culturally sensitive; an awareness of the different theories and styles of learning in order to decide which is most suitable for learners to use; striving for specific outcomes in the context of free-choice learning (as opposed to learning in formal educational institutions such as schools); and the aim of developing fluid intelligence as a complement to existing crystallized intelligence, for worldview literacy. The development of PMM by Falk et al. (2006) will be used in the proposed generic model as a preferred method of outcomes measurement, given that information literacy performance measures are in general more applicable to formal learning environments such as schools and universities than to informal, free-choice learning environments such as museums, archives and public or national libraries, where the focus of the learning in the latter context will be on cultural heritage awareness. Public, academic, school, national and special libraries all deliver information literacy training where the various models of information literacy performance measures are applicable and relevant. If any of these institutions consider that traditional information literacy performance measures would still be applicable in a context of cultural heritage awareness for lifelong learning, the model does not prevent them from choosing these methods over PMM, but it does allow for the adaptation of the model in terms of contextual fluidity.
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Critical thinking and lifelong learning Abstract: In the context of lifelong learning in museums, archives and libraries, and in digital information contexts, the need to be fluent in critical thinking has become more essential than ever, and is considered to be one of the most important elements of information literacy training. The imparting of critical thinking skills, however, needs to take into account cultural sensitivities, and different cultural backgrounds where critical thinking skills have not been present, in the context of cultural heritage learning. In this chapter, the key critical thinking skills are outlined, and an illustrative example of when cultural sensitivities were so offended that all critical debate and dialog was shut down is given in support of the indicated need for sensitivity in training. Theories of learning are explored – including the didactic expository theory of learning, the stimulus-response theory of learning, the constructivist theory of learning and the discovery theory of learning – as are learning outcomes and styles. The concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and worldview literacy are introduced as final factors to consider in the development of the model for information literacy and cultural heritage for lifelong learning. Key words: critical thinking, lifelong learning, cultural heritage, information literacy, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, generic learning outcomes.
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The role of critical thinking and lifelong learning From the overall exploration in this book so far – tracing the various perspectives on cultural heritage in the context of museums, archives and libraries, exploring digital information contexts and examining the main models of information literacy – it can be seen that two key competencies emerge as essential for any citizen living in the twenty-first century. These are the abilities to think critically and to follow a path of lifelong learning that is not necessarily accessed through formal educational institutions. In terms of lifelong learning, museums, archives and libraries are ideally placed to provide lifelong learning, and to impart critical thinking skills to a general public who may not have acquired them in schools or formal education. Kraeutler observed that potentially museums can be virtual as well as public spaces where individuals and groups can interact and connect in a way that they might not do otherwise. Thus, museums can be catalysts for public life, creativity, mobilizing individuals and groups to engage with topics, and facilitating the raising of awareness of problems in a manner that is both culturally sensitive and scientifically sound (Kraeutler, 2008a: 30). Kraeutler noted that the museum sees itself as a conduit for delivering education either virtually (with technology) or with traditional displays and exhibitions, but also noted that museums must be aware of the complexity of the natural, social and cultural environments within which they exist. Museums need to take into account the diversity of communication cultures, and the multiplicity of ethnic, cultural, religious and economic variations. Contextually, in a globalized world of simultaneity of events and synchronicity of consciousness, the key abilities required are constructive critical dialog, the
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exchange of experiences, exploring commonalities and cooperating in the development and sharing of methodologies. The museum is thus a generative learning organization that leads to the continuous cultivation of ideas, attitudes and abilities that constantly evolve (ibid.: 31). Kraeutler’s observations can be applied to archives and libraries as well, and summarize the key role that critical thinking and lifelong learning have in the twenty-first century.
Critical thinking skills and cultural sensitivities As was observed in Chapter 3, while most of the information literacy models emphasized the importance of being able to analyze and evaluate information critically, there was no further elaboration on what critical thinking skills actually are. In a tongue-in-cheek chapter entitled, “The fine art of baloney detection,” Carl Sagan outlined a set of tools for critical thinking, which he posited was a necessary ability to construct and understand reasoned arguments, and identify fraudulent or fallacious arguments in any evaluation of information. Among the tools he identified were: the need to independently verify any cited facts; that arguments from authorities do not often hold up, thus debate of evidence by people with all points of view should be engaged in, and hypotheses should be tested by means of trying to disprove them; that one should not get attached to one’s own hypotheses (Sagan, 1996: 197);
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that anything that could have a numerical quantity attached to it should be measured; that every link in a chain of argument should work; that when faced with two or more hypotheses that work equally well, one can apply Occam’s razor and choose the simplest; and to always ask whether a hypothesis can be falsified (ibid.: 198). Sagan further noted that especially in the fields of religion and politics one should be on the alert for fallacies of logic and rhetoric. He identified some of these to include: ad hominem (attacking the person doing the arguing, and not the argument itself) (ibid.: 199); argument from authority, whereby people take the word of authorities such as governments and religious authorities without question simply because they have authority; argument from adverse consequences (for example, if people say a law must pass because if it does not, then there will be adverse consequences); appeals to ignorance, whereby it is stated that if something has not been proven to be false then it must be true; special pleading arguments (usually to emotions), or claiming that a person does not understand a premise (ibid.: 200); begging the question, whereby causality is assumed but not proven; observational selection, where the arguer selects and cherry-picks favorable circumstances to support the argument; deliberately omitting other factors which exist that could refute the argument;
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using statistics of small numbers, or skewed sampling that is not sufficiently representative to support an argument (ibid.: 201); misunderstanding the nature of statistics; inconsistency in applying one standard to one argument but not applying the same standard to another; non sequitur, meaning that the argument does not follow logically; post hoc ergo propter hoc (where something happened afterwards, and the cause is assumed); false dichotomy, where only two extreme positions are considered and intermediate possibilities are ignored (ibid.: 202); the confusion of correlation and causation; straw man, which entails describing a position in such a way that it is easy to discredit; suppressing evidence, or engaging in half-truths (ibid.: 203); and what Sagan terms “weasel words,” which essentially entails redefining words to suit political agendas (ibid.: 204). One can immediately see how some of these tools would be problematic in some cultural contexts. In some cultures, questioning the word of political or religious authorities is considered treasonous or heretical, and this does not only apply to developing countries or indigenous cultures but is observable in contemporary, developed cultures in the context of current narratives around WikiLeaks, climate change and 9/11. People who reasonably question the narratives of authorities can suffer consequences ranging from being labeled “conspiracy nuts,” to threats upon their lives. Even scientific communities can marginalize and isolate their fellow scientists if a hypothesis is considered to
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be too far from accepted mainstream thought; the most wellknown example of this being the old scientific belief that the world was flat, an assertion which was proven to be false centuries later, following much hostility towards earlier scientists who had proposed that the earth was round. In her classic work on critical thinking skills, Cottrell noted that critical thinking uses the mind and mental processes and, as such, is a cognitive activity (Cottrell, 2005: 1). Despite this, critical thinking can elicit passionate emotional responses (ibid.: 5) and test our assumptions, preconceptions, biases, dislikes, beliefs and everything we have taken for granted (ibid.: 6). As a result, Cottrell proposed that it is essential to distinguish between text and theory and the person themselves positing the theory, and noted that people presenting theories can take criticism personally (ibid.: 9). It is thus essential to offer critical feedback in a constructive manner that helps to improve and clarify without personally offending the creator of the theory (ibid.: 10). In the context of cultural heritage this is so important that feedback itself will be delineated as one of the processes in the model. A potent example reflecting how one person can present a critique that leads to outrage and offense for a cultural group is the incident in South Africa surrounding a controversial painting by Brett Murray, entitled The Spear, which was showcased in the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg, South Africa, in early 2012. The painting depicted the current President of South Africa, Jacob Zuma, with his genitalia exposed, in an exhibition that critiqued the ruling African National Congress (ANC) political party. Van Graan (2012) noted that the intent of the exhibition as a whole was to critique the ruling party for corruption, and for putting the interests of the powerful elite ahead of the interests of the majority of people in South Africa. Van Graan also noted how Zwelinzima Vavi, leader of the trade union federation
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COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions), had himself criticized the ANC as being a predatory and powerful elite that used its power to enrich itself, but when it came to the painting, he described it as the work of a sick, hateful, racist mind (ibid.: 9). The inclusion of the painting in the exhibition led to the ANC filing court actions, to its defacement by two individuals who entered the gallery and covered it with paint, and to angry marches to the Goodman Gallery by crowds of citizens who protested against this assault on African culture and the perceived racist attack on black Africans by disrespecting their President. The incident led to a plethora of arguments, those defending the right of freedom of expression versus those defending the values of African traditional culture, and emotions ran high and were volatile. Only the removal of the painting altogether, even in its defaced form, would pacify the angry crowds, and it was impossible for the opposing sides to find common ground where debate could take place. De Vos lamented on how the outrage generated ignored what he considered to be the real social ills that plague South Africa, such as the failure by the Limpopo Department of Education to provide textbooks to learners in the province of Limpopo, and how there were several areas of neglect that deserved the outrage of the population. However, the population did not demonstrate outrage over these social issues, but rather focused their anger on a painting which he considered to be, ironically, a critique of the very poverty and social ills suffered by the many (De Vos, 2012: 8). It is thus clear from this example how cultural sensitivities can override critical thinking, and how injured feelings and high emotions can silence debate altogether. It is therefore imperative that any introduction of critical thinking into areas of cultural sensitivity heeds those sensitivities, and seeks to explore areas that are not as emotionally painful to
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a cultural group, in order to prevent that group from shutting down from critical thought completely. While this position may appear to be anathema to advocates of freedom of speech, thought and expression and opponents of censorship, it is nevertheless asserted here as an essential requirement when introducing critical thought to cultural groups that are not familiar with critical thought. For communities for whom critical thinking is an accepted norm, for whom there are no cultural “taboos,” more controversial elements of cultural heritage may be included in a model and training for information literacy and cultural heritage. Returning to Cottrell, and her comprehensive overview of critical thinking skills, a few of these are highlighted here to illustrate how essential it is to focus on critical thinking and evaluation in information literacy and cultural heritage learning. The illustrative example of The Spear in the South African context reinforces her observation that barriers to critical thinking include being emotionally distressed by a view that conflicts with deeply held religious, cultural or political beliefs. Other barriers include: misunderstanding the meaning of the criticism; a reluctance to criticize those perceived to have more expertise; lacking strategies for analysis; and having insufficient focus and detail. (Cottrell, 2005: 12) Abilities required for critical thinking include: the ability to focus and recognize important and fine details; the ability to see patterns, similarities and differences, and identify the presence and absence of information, order and sequence;
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the ability to use pattern recognition to compare, contrast and predict different outcomes; and the ability to sort items into groups, label and categorize them, and use understanding of these categories to identify new phenomena and make evaluative judgements about them. (Ibid.: 17) As Sagan has noted, understanding the nature of arguments is an essential component of critical and analytical thinking, and Cottrell provided a simple outline of the main thrust of understanding arguments. She noted that an argument presents a point of view, with reasons given to support the argument and persuade others to accept that point of view (ibid.: 40). She explained that a good argument has good internal consistency and should include consideration of alternative points of view, with counter-arguments to refute them (ibid.: 65). In analyzing arguments, it is essential to be able to identify hidden assumptions (underlying factors that are taken for granted and not examined) and test that the premises upon which the arguments are based are sound (ibid.: 85). In the field of cultural heritage, it is essential to be able to identify underlying beliefs and assumptions, since arguments with implicit assumptions that are not tested can be used to catch one unawares (advertising and propaganda appeals to the unconscious level), or persuade one to do something one does not really want to do, or plant an idea in someone’s mind, or create ideas of threatening circumstances (creating a perceived threat), or subtly undermine a person without them being aware of it, or mislead a person or group in a way that makes that person think they thought of it themselves. Implicit arguments are not often recognized as
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such since they are based on what is taken for granted in particular or different cultural groups (ibid.: 93). For example, in some religious societies there are arguments against women occupying roles as religious leaders, since there is a culturally-based assumption that leadership roles are divinely allocated to men only. Arguments can also contain connoted messages, where something is not explicitly discussed, but something else is discussed which implies a particular conclusion (ibid.: 95–6). An example of the last would be stating that a cultural artifact is valuable and then stating that a technological item recently acquired is priceless, which implies a connoted meaning that the technological item is worth more than the cultural artifact. In the field of cultural heritage, latent messages are especially prevalent since they depend on shared social, cultural and ideological values. Cottrell highlights some examples, including: the playing of patriotic music in the background of a campaign for a political party, which suggests that that political party is more patriotic than others; using an image of a bird flying in the sky to suggest freedom; and baking bread while showing people around a house for sale, giving a suggestion of homeliness. Also prevalent in the area of cultural heritage are stereotypes, where ideas or groups of people are linked to a set of associations, such as “Primitive people are …” or “Women are …” (ibid.: 96). Cottrell also outlined common flaws in arguments, including: confusing cause and effect; ad hominem; misrepresentation and emotive language (ibid.: 105); tricks of language (such as using “obviously” or “clearly” to imply something is already proven) (ibid.: 114); unwarranted leaps; castles of cards (if just one link in the argument is flawed, the whole castle of cards collapses); sleight of hand (subtle changes of wording) (ibid.: 116); emotive language
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(ibid.: 117); ignoring the main opposing reasons; presenting restricted options; misrepresenting a person (ibid.: 119); tautology (using different words to repeat the same thing); and that two wrongs do not make a right (ibid.: 120). Finally, a crucial point made by Cottrell which is intrinsic to cultural heritage is the role of eyewitness testimony. While eyewitness testimony can be used it is not always accurate, since eyewitnesses can lie (to protect someone, or to prevent the truth from being known, or out of fear of repercussions), they can lack expertise or insider knowledge, and they are subject to the limitations of memory such as errors in perception, errors in interpretation of what was seen, forgetting, remembering the event inaccurately, and composite memories (merging memories from different experiences into one). Due to these limitations, it is necessary to find corroborating evidence from various sources to support eyewitness testimony, including official records from the time, other witness testimony, television footage if available, newspapers, police, social or court records and photographs (ibid.: 142). In terms of oral history, Hamilton discussed the debates and questions surrounding the recording of oral histories which questioned their legitimacy, and she suggested that an approach of fluidity would be appropriate to assist the academic study of the past (Hamilton, 2002: 225). She outlined the two polarized views on oral history, one being that oral tradition as a source of history (she was referring specifically to African history, but this view is applicable to any form of oral history in other cultures as well) is a rich field to be mined for historical data, and the other view dismissing oral history as useless because of the interpretative nature of oral history. Hamilton proposed that these two polarized views can be resolved by exploring oral accounts in relation to associated material and objects (ibid.: 227),
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which reinforces Cottrell’s approach to solving the problem of eyewitness testimony. As Bearman noted in the context of archives, archives of disputed legitimacy are often a source of social conflict rather than a means to address such conflict, and this type of conflict is especially exacerbated where there is tension between citizens and the state (Bearman, 2002: 324). Critical thinking skills, while giving cognisance to cultural sensitivities, are thus an essential element in the formulation of a model to teach information literacy and cultural heritage.
Lifelong learning and learning styles Drawing from research in museums once again, the observations of Maranda – who noted how museums make personal learning available to the public – are pertinent to the context of lifelong learning. Maranda noted that visitors to museums can stand before an artifact, look at it, see how it was made, and be inspired and awed by it. Maranda distinguished between formal learning – which is usually verbal and written in the context of formal education where learning is structured, and is a shared group experience with examinations to test learning and qualifications to validate learning integration – and the informal learning that takes place in museums, where anyone can learn (Maranda, 2008: 18). Kraeutler elaborated on this point further, explaining that museums are ideally placed to facilitate lifelong learning (Kraeutler, 2008a: 20), and museum visitors are seen as active participants in the process, bringing with them diverse levels of knowledge, attitudes, cultural backgrounds and values (ibid.: 26). Kraeutler considered the museum to be an educational institution, tasked with imparting knowledge
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and concerned with indirect learning, where new data is connected to existing knowledge (ibid.: 28). Kraeutler noted how the constructivist approach to learning had become predominant in museums, and that museum exhibitions have been the traditional means of enabling interaction with collections, and delivering interpretation to users (ibid.: 29). With the development of new technology, which should be embraced, Kraeutler highlighted the need to exercise care in relation to issues of authorship, institutional authority and scientific honesty (ibid.: 30). Falk et al. (2006) noted that particularly in Western economies, knowledge and information are rapidly becoming the major economic product of society, and that while economics may be the engine driving the transformation of people’s lives in today’s networked society, the fuel that drives the engine is learning (ibid.: 323). They noted how the knowledge economy is founded on ideas, and that the rapidly evolving amount of new ideas requires learning skills in order to keep up, and, further, that learning is not only becoming a way of life, but a necessity. They considered that the learning strategy of choice will be free-choice learning, where people do not learn because they have to, but because they want to. Given that the majority of citizens (97 percent in Falk et al.’s estimatation) spend their lives outside of formal education systems, other arenas become venues to facilitate this free-choice, lifelong learning, and they focus on how museums in particular have an important role to play (ibid.: 324). Falk et al. also noted that traditional learning was based on a behaviorist conceptual framework, which in essence assumes that learners know nothing, experience an educational intervention, and then know something. As a result, behaviorist teaching strategies tend to be didactic and instructor centered, with the instructor providing the what, when and how of the learning experience.
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Although this approach has its merits, the model is now considered to be flawed. Falk et al. referred to the more recent approach, known as the constructivist model of learning, which frames learning as a more continuous, and highly personalized, process. This approach assumes that learners begin with different cognitive frameworks and life experiences, and that these need to be accommodated in the learning process (ibid.: 325). In considering the most suitable model for learning in the context of museums, Falk et al. proposed the contextual model of learning. They noted that the where and how of learning is important and that the setting of learning in museums is different from that of other places. The contextual model of learning thus adopts a contextually driven dialog that facilitates both the process and the product of the interactions between an individual’s sociocultural and physical personal background, with the venue of the museum as the place of learning (ibid.: 327). Since exhibitions and training programs facilitate learners along predetermined pathways, the new approach recognizes that learners need to be given the opportunity to discover and reveal the nature of their own learning (ibid.: 328). The type of learning that occurs in museums is free-choice learning, which is fundamentally different from that of the compulsory learning that takes place in schools and formal educational institutions. Falk et al. referred to a set of five characteristics which needed to be included in any freechoice learning program, developed by the Institute for Learning Innovation, and these are: allowing the individual’s own unique learning agenda to emerge; addressing the effect of time on learning;
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respecting that learning is always situated and contextualized; being open to a broad range of learning outcomes; and emphasizing validity over reliability. (Ibid.: 329) Falk et al. noted that when it came to the idea of the individual’s own unique learning experience, allowing the learner to raise what occurs in their thinking brings the museum closer to understanding the various ways in which people experience museums. The authors highlighted the fact that there is often a great disparity between how visitors view a museum and how museum professionals view that museum. With regard to the effect of time on learning, the authors observed that while museum visitors’ impressions can be captured when they exit the museum, visitors often need time to integrate and absorb the experience, and thus cannot always articulate it immediately (ibid.: 330). Citing Luke et al. (2001) and Falk et al. (2004), they noted that eight consistent learning outcomes from the museums’ experience had been mapped, and these were: knowledge skills interests values museum literacy social learning creativity awareness. (Ibid.: 331)
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With regard to preferring validity over reliability, Falk et al. explained that validity is the degree to which measures actually measure what they intend to measure, while reliability refers to whether a set of results found at one time can be repeated later and yield the same result (ibid.). They noted that while the behaviorist model favors reliability over validity, the constructivist approach favors validity more. In any research process both of these components are important, but there is always a tension between the two in a research design, and, thus, there is a trade-off between which of the two components is favored (ibid.: 332). In terms of measuring experiences in museums, Falk et al. examined concept mapping as a possible method but found two flaws, namely that the method requires learners to undertake training first, which was not practical in a freechoice setting, and that the scoring rubrics of concept mapping were based on a positivistic approach, and thus were reductionist, assuming that there was a single correct answer (ibid.). The authors thus took some aspects of concept mapping and integrated them into a new methodology which they named personal meaning mapping (PMM). PMM was designed to measure each individual’s unique learning experience, it did not assume that all learners have the same background knowledge, and it did not require a specific correct answer, rather it allowed for the multidimensionality of learning. The four dimensions measured are: the extent of a visitor’s knowledge and feelings; the breadth of a visitor’s understanding; the depth of understanding; and the mastery possessed by an individual on a given topic (ibid.: 333). This model is considered to be ideally suited for the measurement of outcomes in a generic model of information literacy and cultural heritage, and will be used in our model.
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Turning to theories of learning, Hein (2006) provided a useful overview and map of the various theories of education. He noted that they all fell along a juxtaposed continuum of theories of learning, and theories of knowledge. In essence, he found that theories of learning which posited that learning was incremental – with pieces added over time – and theories of knowledge where knowledge exists outside of the learner, fell into the didactic expository category. The incremental theory of learning, together with the theory that knowledge is constructed by the learner personally or socially, fell into the stimulus-response category. The theory that knowledge is constructed by the learner personally or socially combined with the theory of learning that considers learning to be active, leading to restructuring, falls into the constructivist category. The theory that knowledge exists outside of the learner, combined with the theory of learning that considers learning to be active, leading to restructuring, falls into the category of discovery (ibid.: 346). Hein further noted that the constructivist approach to learning and knowledge has a particular appeal to cultural institutions, but he pointed out some problems with the constructivist approach. He noted that with regard to exhibitions, the traditional curatorial voice of authority needs to be muted, and that this has been achieved in some museums by providing several different narrative interpretations, and/or allowing visitors to add their own as well (ibid.: 347). He also highlighted that in the context of museum learning, there has been a redefinition of learning and education as a meaningful experience, as opposed to the previous definition which regarded it in terms of specific content outcomes (ibid.: 348). Hein went on to outline how researchers in visitor studies are moving away from the behaviorist approach, to the constructivist approach, and
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are using social science research methods to analyze visitor experiences. He cautioned that only behavior can be measured using social science research tools, not mental experiences, and that social science research methods are analyzed and interpreted by humans who themselves have innate cultural biases (ibid.). He also noted that if museums use a constructivist theory of education, then the question is raised of what outcomes to measure (ibid.). Hein concluded that museum education converges with social responsibility, and that the social service provided by museums is education. With museums following the constructivist approach to education this necessarily puts an emphasis on social change (ibid.: 349). In exploring the role of museum interactives on thinking, Witcomb noted that museums have three basic understandings, namely that: the presence of some technological medium is required; an interactive is a physical exhibit which is added to the main display; and a device which a visitor can operate involving physical activity is required. Interactives are considered by museums as having an entertainment component (Witcomb, 2006: 354). Witcomb made an interesting exploration of the role of interactives in terms of the methods of pedagogy previously identified by Hein. In the didactic expository model, the museum sees itself as the sole authoritative source of knowledge, and thus didactical approaches to interactives would have a one-way flow of communication, from the museum to the visitor. In the stimulus-response method, the transmission of knowledge through interactives would rely on repetition, and would reward correct answers given by the visitor (for example, by congratulating them) when they push the right button, lift the appropriate flap, arrange the items in a correct sequence, or give the right answer on a touch screen (ibid.: 356). With the discovery method, which is based on a blend of realist
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epistemology and constructivist learning theory, communication in interactives is two way, between museum and visitor, and this method is the one most embraced by museums (ibid.: 357). Museums are less enthusiastic about the pure constructivist approach, but some have embraced this in their interactives, allowing the visitor to have their own cultural backgrounds represented, and allowing them to work in spaces of immersion and experience (ibid.: 359). Finally, the learning styles and preferences of different individuals need to be taken into account and accommodated. With a well-known and well-used system of providing training for different learning styles, McCarthy described the development of the 4MAT system in 1980, identifying four learning styles present in individuals: 1. Imaginative learning (founded on the key question of “Why?” and involving feeling, watching, seeking personal associations and meaning). 2. Analytic learning (with the key question of “What?” and involving listening to and thinking about information, seeking facts, thinking through ideas and learning what experts think). 3. Common-sense learning (where the key question is “How?” and which involves thinking and doing, experimenting and applying ideas). 4. Dynamic learning (where the key question is “If?” and which involves exploring, learning by trial and error, and seeking hidden possibilities). (McCarthy, 1980) Cassels also noted the importance of recognizing the different learning styles, and he referred to those that were developed by Bonnie Pitman, delineated as:
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imaginative (seeking personal meaning) analytical (seeking intellectual comprehension) commonsensical (seeking practicality) dynamic (seeking hidden possibilities). (Cassels, 1996: 38–45) It is therefore important for instructors in information literacy and cultural heritage to be cognisant of individuals’ different styles of learning, and ensure that they are accommodated within a group learning environment. In addition, in order to measure outcomes of training in an environment of lifelong learning, it is important to be cognisant of the different learning outcomes as well. Fuchs (2008) referred to the “Generic Learning Outcomes” document which was developed by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council in the United Kingdom (MLA, 2005), and found that it was ideally suited to lifelong learning and learning for pleasure as well as a useful strategic tool for evaluating learning impact. The five generic learning outcomes were as follows: 1. attitudes and values (including perceptions, attitudes and opinions towards other people, increased motivation and tolerance); 2. knowledge and understanding (learning facts, making sense of information, making links between things); 3. activity, behavior and progression (what people do, have done, or intend to do); 4. enjoyment, inspiration, creativity (having fun while learning and being inspired to create); and 5. skills (physical, communication and information management skills). (Fuchs, 2008: 152–3)
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For the development of a model of information literacy and cultural heritage it also seems important to highlight that in the field of educational psychology there exists a theory that there are two types of intelligence that can be developed in people. Cattell described the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, noting that crystallized intelligence loads culturally acquired judgemental skills, while fluid intelligence loads insightful performances where individual learning backgrounds make no difference (Cattell, 1967: 209). The development of fluid intelligence would be applicable to learning about cultural heritage, and thus would be a desirable outcome of the application of the model. In the context of learning about the cultural heritage of many different groups, another literacy that would be relevant is proposed, namely worldview literacy. Schlitz et al. (2011) described worldview literacy as being a competency that allows people to articulate their own worldviews while being able to experience and accept the worldviews of others, to have greater cognitive flexibility, to have an appreciation of diverse perspectives, to be comfortable with unfamiliarity, to be discerning, and to have the ability to hold multiple points of view simultaneously. Cultural heritage and information literacy training would thus aim to accept existing crystallized intelligence in learners, while aiming to develop fluid intelligence in learners so that they can develop worldview literacy.
Concluding comments This chapter was included to complement and expand the overview of information literacy models and pedagogies in Chapter 3, and once again drew from research in the fields of museums and archives, as well as from educational
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psychology and from writers on critical thinking skills. This research is considered to be relevant to the development of a model of information literacy and cultural heritage for lifelong learning. The key factors to bring to the model, and to the training programs developed from the model, include: training in critical thinking skills, while at the same time ensuring that this training is culturally sensitive; an awareness of the different theories and styles of learning in order to decide which is most suitable for learners to use; striving for specific outcomes in the context of free-choice learning (as opposed to learning in formal educational institutions such as schools); and the aim of developing fluid intelligence as a complement to existing crystallized intelligence, for worldview literacy. The development of PMM by Falk et al. (2006) will be used in the proposed generic model as a preferred method of outcomes measurement, given that information literacy performance measures are in general more applicable to formal learning environments such as schools and universities than to informal, free-choice learning environments such as museums, archives and public or national libraries, where the focus of the learning in the latter context will be on cultural heritage awareness. Public, academic, school, national and special libraries all deliver information literacy training where the various models of information literacy performance measures are applicable and relevant. If any of these institutions consider that traditional information literacy performance measures would still be applicable in a context of cultural heritage awareness for lifelong learning, the model does not prevent them from choosing these methods over PMM, but it does allow for the adaptation of the model in terms of contextual fluidity.
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