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Cuba's polygon program — agricultural land rehabilitation
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ScienceDirect Cuba’s polygon program — agricultural land rehabilitation Yulaidis Aguilar1, Bernardo Calero1, Dagoberto Rodriguez2 and Olegario Muniz1 Cuba’s agricultural system has seen many structural changes over the past decades. A development from small-scale to large-scale, industrial monoculture practices was followed by a return to small-scale farming. To combat soil degradation from the previous decades of monocultures, Cuba has initiated a country-wide program, based on the principles of sustainable land management (SLM). Since 2009, SLM demonstration areas (so-called ‘polygons’) have been introduced to ensure the implementation of integrated conservation and melioration technologies for soil, forest and water resources at a farm production level. In 2010, seventeen of these areas in different soil and climatic regions of the country were established as demonstration units and another seventeen are in progress. Initial insights into the social and biophysical conditions of these demonstration units provide evidence of their effects in terms of sustainable development. Addresses 1 The Soil Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Boyeros, Havana, CP 10800, Cuba 2 State Soil Service Director, Ministry of Agriculture, CP 10800, Havana, Cuba Corresponding author: Muniz, Olegario ([email protected])
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78 This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental change issues Edited by Jes Weigelt, Hannah Janetschek, Alexander Mu¨ller and Klaus To¨pfer For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial Received: 11 August 2015; Revised: 11 September 2015; Accepted: 15 September 2015 Available online 30th October 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.09.003 1877-3435/# 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction: structural changes and their effects on agricultural land rehabilitation With an ever-growing world population in the coming decades, extra stress will be put on agricultural production due to rising demand for food. This rising food demand is confronted with increasing soil degradation processes worldwide [1]. To meet the demands of future generations and to provide for resilient food systems, we need to Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
move beyond agricultural intensification and to also concentrate on conservation and rehabilitation measures for degraded agricultural land to consolidate the system of small-scale, subsistence farming. The archipelago of Cuba has undergone a process of transformation from an intensive and industrial agricultural system to one driven by traditional knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices. Hence, this article will introduce the Cuban example to show how a transformation towards more sustainable agriculture practices via land rehabilitation might look like. Before the collapse of the socialist system in 1989, Cuba’s government favored large-scale monocultures and a dependence on importing agricultural products. These large-scale monocultures only reinforced unsustainable agricultural production, which had a negative impact on the resilience of local livelihoods and hindered the food sovereignty of Cuban farmers. At the beginning of the 1990s, Cuba’s government acknowledged the need to prioritize diversified agriculture in order to achieve self-sufficiency in food production [2]. This government-driven agricultural change in Cuba resulted in the diversification of agricultural products, the fostering of multi-functional ecosystems, support for local market structures, and the downsizing of the previously large-scale, monoculture and industrial state farms. This structural change also implied changes in land tenure, an orientation towards cooperative and collective farming systems, and a substantial reduction in the number of state-run farms. Cuba’s government utilized the traditional practices of the few remaining small-scale farmers in Cuba — crop rotation, intercropping, and seed conservation — in this transformation process. This knowledge of traditional practices supported the process of downsizing the large-scale monoculture farms. Nowadays, a diverse array of agricultural products such as vegetables, fruits, beans, roots, and tubers can be found on domestic markets and has decreased Cuba’s dependence on imported agricultural goods [3,4]. This article provides insights into the Cuban government initiative to combat desertification by establishing agricultural land rehabilitation programs on a large scale. We have just given an overview of the historical development of agriculture in Cuba. The next section briefly introduces different types of land rehabilitation measures. Section www.sciencedirect.com
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three describes the environmental and political conditions in which the demonstration units program is embedded. After that, the establishment of the polygon program and its initial effects on the economic and social conditions of small-scale family farmers are discussed. Finally, this article illustrates how these outcomes and impacts may be measured over time and across different cases.
Soil degradation and rehabilitation Climate change is one major cause of soil degradation and, conversely, degradation impacts climate change. Moreover, agricultural practices or large-scale industrial operations have an adverse effect on soil. Depending on the degree and the area of degraded land we can differentiate four types of soil rehabilitation measures [5]: Vegetative measures cover techniques that plant physical barriers (such as bushes, trees and grass) to stop the runoff of water, restore existing gullies, and provide for a long-lasting impact [6,7]. Agronomic measures aim to reduce erosion by using different systems to grow the crop and restore soil fertility through practices such as intercropping or rotational cropping [8]. Structural measures aim to reduce erosion by erecting physical soil or stone barriers and are applicable in dryland and hilly areas to prevent scarce water showers from immediate run-off [6]. Socio-economic and management measures aim to fundamentally change land-use patterns by integrating rotational grazing with rotational cropping approaches to allow vegetation different phases of recovery and to empower smallholder farmers to build resilient landscapes [9,10]. This aims to integrate all the aforementioned measures to provide for a holistic land-use and rehabilitation approach to agricultural land. Besides these different rehabilitation measures, it is farmers and stakeholders themselves that ensure effective rehabilitation programs [11,12]. A combination of physical measures and the motivation to adopt rehabilitation measures is needed to achieve positive results on land rehabilitation and soil conservation. The motivation and moral value to implement and adopt these rehabilitation measures are an important element of the substantial transformation of degraded or degradationprone areas. sustainable land management (SLM) is defined as: ‘the use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions’ [13] and is based on the principles of participatory and land-use driven approaches. The latter integrate different uses and management of resources, www.sciencedirect.com
foster multi-stakeholder engagement, and favor policies and regulatory frameworks towards the adoption of these measures [14,15]. As illustrated with evidence from other regions, the adoption of rehabilitation and sustainable land management (SLM) practices demands further research [15–17].
Agricultural practices, climate and land degradation in Cuba Cuba’s agricultural system has always been characterized by a combination of agroecology and industrial agriculture. While agroecology aims to maximize the benefits for environment, industrial agriculture relies on technologically and chemically sophisticated methods to maximize food production and reduce external inputs (cf. [4]). This large-scale industrial agriculture and natural hazards are the main drivers of land degradation in Cuba’s most exposed areas along the north coast and in the dry and hot south region of Guantanamo. In these areas, the overexploitation of natural resources, combined with the impacts of climate change, severely impacts the resilience of land. Low precipitation, strong winds or droughts substantially compound the existing degradation and erosion processes. Human activities and climate change impacts are the drivers of the ongoing land degradation in Cuba. The archipelago of Cuba has a total land area of 109 884 km2; in this area the mainland and the adjacent Keys are included. The total area of productive agricultural land in Cuba is equivalent to 62.7% of the total land area. Of this, 55.4% is currently used as agricultural land. The average annual rainfall is 1296 mm, with a marked seasonal variation between the driest months (November–April), when 26% of rainfall occurs, and the wettest (May–October), when 74% occurs [18]. Rainfall also varies from 300 mm annually in the southern areas of Guanta´namo to over 3000 mm in the north of the same territory [17]. The average annual temperature ranges from 24 8C in the plains to 26 8C and higher on the eastern coast; in mountainous areas temperatures are lower than 20 8C [19]. Cuba has high levels of evaporation, reaching up to 2300 mm in the Cauto Valley and on the south coast of Guanta´namo. The lowest figures were recorded in mountain areas (1100 mm per year). In general, evaporation increases from west to east, and its space-time distribution is influenced, for example, by the latitude and structure of the terrain relief, the distance from the coast, and the degree of exposure to wind, and is closely linked to the soil conditions of the respective areas [20]. Cuba’s ecosystem imbalance was caused by the intensive felling of trees for construction. The extension of monoculture sugarcane areas and livestock losses reduced its agricultural area to 13.2% of Cuba’s entire land area. Deforestation in the eastern region caused the breakdown Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
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of the climatological soil-vegetation equilibrium. It also led to the salinization of soils in fragile ecosystems and decreased the degree of fertility for agricultural production. The sudden loss of organic matter caused even more damage to the microbial flora of soil and biodiversity [21]. In Cuba, 76.8% of productive soil areas are affected by at least one limiting factor, such as erosion, compaction, low organic matter, salinity, acidity, poor drainage, which impinge on soil productivity [22]. In 1989, the Soil Institute reported that 2.9 million hectares were affected by strong to medium soil erosion; 1 million hectares by salinity; 1.6 million hectares by compaction; 3.4 million hectares by acidity, and 4.7 and 3.0 million hectares, respectively, by loss of organic matter and fertility [23]. Drylands increased in Cuba by 146 000 ha over 30 years, mainly due to droughts, which may become worse under climate change [24]. Because of this weakening of the entire ecosystem, the resilience of soils is lost; they are prone to environmental hazards and hence soil degradation remains a huge challenge for Cuba’s agricultural production and food security. Water losses are considerable in the process of transmission and distribution due to the poor state of technical networks and the use of inappropriate technologies for the irrigation of agricultural crops [25]. A marked decrease in rainfall in the rainy period has been noted in the eastern region due to the frequency of droughts. The intensity of agricultural droughts in Cuba increases from west to east, becoming most severe in the non-mountainous areas of the eastern region [25]. Their frequency increased significantly in the period from 1961 to 1990 by comparison with the period from 1931 to 1960 [19]. This resulted in lower food production, inadequate grazing conditions, low profitability of agricultural work and investment, reduced availability of wood for combustion, increased risk of wildfires, increased risk of desertification, and social and economic consequences of drought, including food insecurity [26]. Additionally, the number and intensity of hurricanes originating in the Caribbean continues to increase [19]. The combination of a changing climate, the lack of a technical irrigation infrastructure, and mismanagement of degraded land affects water security as well as soil degradation and hence food security and the resilience of livelihoods.
Policy framework for soil conservation and melioration in Cuba As part of a range of decentralization policies for agricultural production in Cuba, the government encouraged through its legal and policy framework the increase in small-scale farming on individually or cooperative-led farms. This political shift in land redistribution and support for local, accompanying research has strengthened small-scale farmers. Their empowerment resulted in the growth in a number of associations that favor traditional, agroecology farming based on the adoption Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
of SLM principles. The political influence of these associations, such as the National Association of Small Scale Farmers (ANAP, Asociacio´n Nacional de Agricultores Pequen˜os) supported the systemic shift away from large-scale monoculture practices towards traditional, small-scale agricultural production [4,27]. For example, in 2000, the National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM) was created with the aim of implementing a set of simple soil conservation activities to stop or minimize soil degradation processes. This program is financially supported by Cuban Government with the technical support of the Soil Institute of Cuba [28]. Over the last 15 years, the program has benefited from temporary and permanent measures carried out on over 750 000 ha of land across the island, at a cost of around 20 million dollars per year. The NPSCM strives for the sustainable use of natural resources as well as actions to combat land degradation, increase forested area, and fight against drought and water shortages. These programs at watershed scale have contributed to the conservation and melioration of ecosystems and agricultural land. There are others programs, like the National Program to Combat Desertification and Drought (NPCDD) and the National Forestry Development Program, that have helped to achieve an increase in forest coverage from 13.2% in 1959 to 28.0% in 2014. Cuba is developing the Country Partnership Program (CPP) a mega program with a 10 million USD budget supported by Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as implementing leader agency and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), participating too as implementing agencies. The Cuban Government supported with an 80 million USD budget. The Environment Agency (AMA) of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (CITMA) in Cuba is responsible for national coordination of the CPP. The program has the participation of several national institutions [17]. The CPP aims to reduce land degradation in order to allow Cuba achieve sustainable development and increase food security [29]. These programs focus mainly on water resources, increasing forest area, soil conservation and melioration, the reduction of contaminant top soil, surveillance and protection of natural resources, environmental investments in watershed and environmental education, among other things [30]. The integrated management of resources combines synergies from agricultural diversity practices, forestation, and livestock production to enhance integrated nutrition management to benefit the entire watershed ecosystem. www.sciencedirect.com
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Soil conservation polygons: a working platform for the rehabilitation and conservation of agricultural land, water and forests In conventional Cuban agriculture, the agronomic approach is prioritized over the ecological approach in soil use and management. Fertilizers are the preferred option to compensate for loss of fertility and complex and aggressive machines are used to improve the efficiency of farming. These practices predominate among Cuban farmers. But the long-term effects of this kind of soil exploitation were not appreciated [31]. Several studies in Cuba have shown that erosion progressed in parallel to the development of mechanization and irrigation, since the introduction of these technologies was not accompanied by the appropriate technologies to deal with potentially erodible areas [23,28,31–33]. In 2010, Cuba established the so-called ‘polygons’ as demonstrative areas for the conservation of soil, water and forests with the aim of giving priority to the problem of soil degradation. Polygons are sites that encompass several, usually not big cooperative farms that adopt the integrated management of natural resources with the participation of scientific institutions dedicated to studying it, taking the watershed as a geographical unit to protect soil, water, forestry and plant health. They usually receive financial support from the aforementioned National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM). The selection of the polygons program areas were based on three criteria: (1) strong soil degradation in adverse terrain conditions; (2) a diversified agricultural production suited to the implementation of an integrated package system; and (3) predictable outcomes in the short, medium, and long term. Since its inception, this polygon program has involved all stakeholders, from producers and experts to decision-makers, to ensure the comprehensive implementation of integrated conservation technologies and soil improvement systems. In order to halt the processes leading to desertification and mitigate the effects of drought as a way of coping and adaptation to climate change, SLM practices have been adopted. This approach prioritizes the holistic ecosystem view over the sectorial view and emphasizes that the improvement of natural resources cannot be perceived in isolation but must be conceived under the principles outlined in the concept of sustainable land management (SLM). SLM is a working model that can be adapted to the conditions of a specific environment. Here, the available resources are used to promote socio-economic development, thus ensuring that the growing needs of society are met and the capabilities and resilience of ecosystems maintained [17]). www.sciencedirect.com
In the period from 2010 to 2014, Cuba established 34 polygons covering an area of 12 380 ha with 845 farms, which represented the country’s main soil and climatic regions and most important crops. These sites are located in 9 agricultural Production Cooperatives (CPA); 12 Credit and Service Cooperatives (CCS); 11 Basic Cooperative Production Units (UBPCs); and 6 state farms. The idea of starting this program was initially driven by two government representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture in Cuba. The achievements and difficulties of the polygons program are closely followed by a monitoring and accountability mechanism to ensure learning at individual farm level and across the program. A comprehensive set of economic, social, technological, and environmental indicators (Table 1) form part of a mechanism to monitor and hold stakeholders accountable over time regarding the results of the program [34,35].
Preliminary achievements of the polygons program A preliminary analysis of the main outcomes of the implementation of these measures is provided in the technical report on the project carried out by the Soil Institute [35]. This review of the outcomes was the result of a combination of stakeholder consultations, interviews, biophysical soil and water analysis, and an assessment of economic results at farm level. Two years after the first polygon demonstration areas came into existence preliminary insights into the economic, social, environmental, and technical conditions confirm initial tendencies of sustainable development. Economically, 79% of polygon production units are successful and have improved their economic balance by average reduction of production costs of 18 cents (cost per peso/CUP) and increasing the income per worker by 191 CUP. Moreover, by the end of 2013, the total workforce had increased by 36 workers with a better gender balance (increase of 46 women and a decrease of 10 men relative to the baseline). Improvements to social services were achieved through the improved performance of productive units, the larger capacities of farmers, and local extension services to the family farm system. Significant changes in infrastructure for communities were achieved by creating 29 new homes and 28 km of roads. Eight selling points for fresh products and four mini industries increased market access for the demonstration units. These changes indicate the tendency of the program to foster resilience of local livelihoods and contribute to food sovereignty. Eighty-seven agricultural species (mango, guava, mamey, moringa, pine, mahogany, tomatoes and corn), including 34 fruit trees, 20 forest trees and 33 other plants (tubers Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
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Table 1 Outcome indicators of soil conservation polygons in Cuba. Category
Outcomes
Indicators a
Economical
Increased efficiency in production and services
– Cost per Peso (from the economic balance of each production unit) – Agricultural yield of main crops
Social
Improving social indicators
– – – – –
Workforce (total workforce by gender) Monthly average personal income (salaries) Social services to the community (generated by the production unit) Units integrated into the polygon (unit) Contribution to vocational and technical training Technologies for improvement of soil Conservation (Benefited Area) Water productivity Water harvest and retention Pest control alternatives Use of renewable energy sources
Integration of actors Technological
Implementation of the principles of sustainable land management (SLM)
– – – – – –
Environmental
Improvement of the Soil Quality Index
– Saline and pH stress on the soil – Degree of compaction – Organic matter quality and nutrient content – Anti-erosive activities established – Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides – Production and use of organic manures and bio fertilizers – Water quality for irrigation – Management of forest plantations. reforested area – Floristic composition and plant species of economic importance – Fauna compositionNumber of fires and controlled fires – Areas with invasive species handled
Decreased soil erosion Reduction of the use of pollutants
Biodiversity improvement
a
Peso = CUP (The Cuban Peso); own compilation of the authors [34].
and roots, vegetables, legumes, ornamentals and others) were introduced. This agricultural diversification and ecological restoration resulted in greater profits from agricultural production. 78% of the Polygon units increased their annual average yields on 3 cultivars of cereals, 5 of roots and tubers, 5 of vegetables, and 5 of fruit, thereby increasing the harvest by 0.44, 1.11, 2.52 and 1.56 t ha 1 respectively. The use of bio pesticides, mostly prepared from Bacillus sp., Bauveria sp., and Trichoderma sp., and biological control alternatives was increased, which resulted in improved soil fertility. Ecologically, improvements can be seen in reforested areas and an increase of biodiversity due to the Polygon program. In the 40 farms in 10 provinces, 41 tree species and 26 fruit species were planted. The reforested area increased from 2.85 to 175.62 ha [34]. Approximately 652 ha of land benefited from the polygon program with financial support of 1.6 million CUP. Improvements in the economic, ecological, and social dimension confirm that substantial progress towards soil rehabilitation and social and economic stability were achieved. However, the long-term improvement of the soil quality will take some more time and the coming years will show the real contribution of such agricultural land rehabilitation programs to sustainable and equitable development. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
Conclusion Following a long history of substantial systemic changes to the political system that also impacted land use and agricultural production, Cuba is today successful in landscape rehabilitation and sustainable agricultural practices. The Cuban government created the legal and financial framework to tackle the problem of degraded soils. The National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM) in Cuba, and more recently the platform of polygons for soil, water and forest conservation, have reaped rewards for 750 000 ha across the country over the last years. This major achievement suggests that the adoption of SLM measures has played a major role in addressing biophysical, social and economic challenges in rural and degraded areas. The economic, technological, social and environmental indicators in the outcome assessments of the program provide comparative insights into the achievements and setbacks over time and across cases. The first outcomes and positive results of this program suggest that there is a trend towards improved economic, social and ecologic development of agricultural areas and production in Cuba. To achieve substantial changes in soil fertility in degraded areas and make a meaningful contribution to overall soil and landscape conditions, the program will need to continue in the longer term. Substantial and large-scale soil rehabilitation and the creation www.sciencedirect.com
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of soil organic matter requires decades. The favorable legal, institutional and policy framework in Cuba allowed the establishment of a program that demonstrates immediate positive results for the social and economic conditions of small-scale family farms and provides a glimpse of how the adoption of SLM measures will substantially improve the conditions of agricultural landscapes and soils.
Acknowledgements We are deeply indebted to an external COSUST reviewer, as well as Hannah Janetschek and Anne Boden from the IASS for their extensive comments and suggestions, which substantially improved the quality of this paper. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Country Partnership Program CPP-OP-15 and its support of our research activities associated with this project.
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cultivo de tabaco. Universidad de Pinar del Rio Hermano Saiz; 1999. 33. Orellana R, Moreno V: Susceptibilidad de los cubanos a la degradacio´n. Memorias XV Congreso de las Ciencias del suelos. Ciudad de La Habana; 2001. 34. Calero BJ, Ginebra M, Rodrı´guez A, Rodrı´guez D, Aguilar Y, Rodrı´guez M, Font L, Forbes T, Castellano N, Sosa I, Renda A, Rudy De la Masa R, Alema´n C: Set de indicadores e impactos generados por la introduccio´n de principios de manejo sostenible
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de tierras en los polı´gonos demostrativos para la conservacio´n del suelo, el agua y el bosque en cuba. Congreso Suelos 2015, Palacio. 2015. 35. Calero BJ: Informe te´cnico del cierre del an˜o 2014 del proyecto ‘‘Evaluacio´n de impactos econo´micos, tecnolo´gicos, sociales y ambientales en a´reas de los Polı´gonos Demostrativos para la Conservacio´n de los Recursos Naturales’’. Instituto de Suelos; 2014. The article provides detailed overview on the achievements of the program and hence gives pathways of how to design land rehabilitation measures within given legal and policy frameworks at a large-scale.
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ScienceDirect Cuba’s polygon program — agricultural land rehabilitation Yulaidis Aguilar1, Bernardo Calero1, Dagoberto Rodriguez2 and Olegario Muniz1 Cuba’s agricultural system has seen many structural changes over the past decades. A development from small-scale to large-scale, industrial monoculture practices was followed by a return to small-scale farming. To combat soil degradation from the previous decades of monocultures, Cuba has initiated a country-wide program, based on the principles of sustainable land management (SLM). Since 2009, SLM demonstration areas (so-called ‘polygons’) have been introduced to ensure the implementation of integrated conservation and melioration technologies for soil, forest and water resources at a farm production level. In 2010, seventeen of these areas in different soil and climatic regions of the country were established as demonstration units and another seventeen are in progress. Initial insights into the social and biophysical conditions of these demonstration units provide evidence of their effects in terms of sustainable development. Addresses 1 The Soil Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Boyeros, Havana, CP 10800, Cuba 2 State Soil Service Director, Ministry of Agriculture, CP 10800, Havana, Cuba Corresponding author: Muniz, Olegario ([email protected])
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78 This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental change issues Edited by Jes Weigelt, Hannah Janetschek, Alexander Mu¨ller and Klaus To¨pfer For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial Received: 11 August 2015; Revised: 11 September 2015; Accepted: 15 September 2015 Available online 30th October 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.09.003 1877-3435/# 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction: structural changes and their effects on agricultural land rehabilitation With an ever-growing world population in the coming decades, extra stress will be put on agricultural production due to rising demand for food. This rising food demand is confronted with increasing soil degradation processes worldwide [1]. To meet the demands of future generations and to provide for resilient food systems, we need to Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
move beyond agricultural intensification and to also concentrate on conservation and rehabilitation measures for degraded agricultural land to consolidate the system of small-scale, subsistence farming. The archipelago of Cuba has undergone a process of transformation from an intensive and industrial agricultural system to one driven by traditional knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices. Hence, this article will introduce the Cuban example to show how a transformation towards more sustainable agriculture practices via land rehabilitation might look like. Before the collapse of the socialist system in 1989, Cuba’s government favored large-scale monocultures and a dependence on importing agricultural products. These large-scale monocultures only reinforced unsustainable agricultural production, which had a negative impact on the resilience of local livelihoods and hindered the food sovereignty of Cuban farmers. At the beginning of the 1990s, Cuba’s government acknowledged the need to prioritize diversified agriculture in order to achieve self-sufficiency in food production [2]. This government-driven agricultural change in Cuba resulted in the diversification of agricultural products, the fostering of multi-functional ecosystems, support for local market structures, and the downsizing of the previously large-scale, monoculture and industrial state farms. This structural change also implied changes in land tenure, an orientation towards cooperative and collective farming systems, and a substantial reduction in the number of state-run farms. Cuba’s government utilized the traditional practices of the few remaining small-scale farmers in Cuba — crop rotation, intercropping, and seed conservation — in this transformation process. This knowledge of traditional practices supported the process of downsizing the large-scale monoculture farms. Nowadays, a diverse array of agricultural products such as vegetables, fruits, beans, roots, and tubers can be found on domestic markets and has decreased Cuba’s dependence on imported agricultural goods [3,4]. This article provides insights into the Cuban government initiative to combat desertification by establishing agricultural land rehabilitation programs on a large scale. We have just given an overview of the historical development of agriculture in Cuba. The next section briefly introduces different types of land rehabilitation measures. Section www.sciencedirect.com
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three describes the environmental and political conditions in which the demonstration units program is embedded. After that, the establishment of the polygon program and its initial effects on the economic and social conditions of small-scale family farmers are discussed. Finally, this article illustrates how these outcomes and impacts may be measured over time and across different cases.
Soil degradation and rehabilitation Climate change is one major cause of soil degradation and, conversely, degradation impacts climate change. Moreover, agricultural practices or large-scale industrial operations have an adverse effect on soil. Depending on the degree and the area of degraded land we can differentiate four types of soil rehabilitation measures [5]: Vegetative measures cover techniques that plant physical barriers (such as bushes, trees and grass) to stop the runoff of water, restore existing gullies, and provide for a long-lasting impact [6,7]. Agronomic measures aim to reduce erosion by using different systems to grow the crop and restore soil fertility through practices such as intercropping or rotational cropping [8]. Structural measures aim to reduce erosion by erecting physical soil or stone barriers and are applicable in dryland and hilly areas to prevent scarce water showers from immediate run-off [6]. Socio-economic and management measures aim to fundamentally change land-use patterns by integrating rotational grazing with rotational cropping approaches to allow vegetation different phases of recovery and to empower smallholder farmers to build resilient landscapes [9,10]. This aims to integrate all the aforementioned measures to provide for a holistic land-use and rehabilitation approach to agricultural land. Besides these different rehabilitation measures, it is farmers and stakeholders themselves that ensure effective rehabilitation programs [11,12]. A combination of physical measures and the motivation to adopt rehabilitation measures is needed to achieve positive results on land rehabilitation and soil conservation. The motivation and moral value to implement and adopt these rehabilitation measures are an important element of the substantial transformation of degraded or degradationprone areas. sustainable land management (SLM) is defined as: ‘the use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions’ [13] and is based on the principles of participatory and land-use driven approaches. The latter integrate different uses and management of resources, www.sciencedirect.com
foster multi-stakeholder engagement, and favor policies and regulatory frameworks towards the adoption of these measures [14,15]. As illustrated with evidence from other regions, the adoption of rehabilitation and sustainable land management (SLM) practices demands further research [15–17].
Agricultural practices, climate and land degradation in Cuba Cuba’s agricultural system has always been characterized by a combination of agroecology and industrial agriculture. While agroecology aims to maximize the benefits for environment, industrial agriculture relies on technologically and chemically sophisticated methods to maximize food production and reduce external inputs (cf. [4]). This large-scale industrial agriculture and natural hazards are the main drivers of land degradation in Cuba’s most exposed areas along the north coast and in the dry and hot south region of Guantanamo. In these areas, the overexploitation of natural resources, combined with the impacts of climate change, severely impacts the resilience of land. Low precipitation, strong winds or droughts substantially compound the existing degradation and erosion processes. Human activities and climate change impacts are the drivers of the ongoing land degradation in Cuba. The archipelago of Cuba has a total land area of 109 884 km2; in this area the mainland and the adjacent Keys are included. The total area of productive agricultural land in Cuba is equivalent to 62.7% of the total land area. Of this, 55.4% is currently used as agricultural land. The average annual rainfall is 1296 mm, with a marked seasonal variation between the driest months (November–April), when 26% of rainfall occurs, and the wettest (May–October), when 74% occurs [18]. Rainfall also varies from 300 mm annually in the southern areas of Guanta´namo to over 3000 mm in the north of the same territory [17]. The average annual temperature ranges from 24 8C in the plains to 26 8C and higher on the eastern coast; in mountainous areas temperatures are lower than 20 8C [19]. Cuba has high levels of evaporation, reaching up to 2300 mm in the Cauto Valley and on the south coast of Guanta´namo. The lowest figures were recorded in mountain areas (1100 mm per year). In general, evaporation increases from west to east, and its space-time distribution is influenced, for example, by the latitude and structure of the terrain relief, the distance from the coast, and the degree of exposure to wind, and is closely linked to the soil conditions of the respective areas [20]. Cuba’s ecosystem imbalance was caused by the intensive felling of trees for construction. The extension of monoculture sugarcane areas and livestock losses reduced its agricultural area to 13.2% of Cuba’s entire land area. Deforestation in the eastern region caused the breakdown Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
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of the climatological soil-vegetation equilibrium. It also led to the salinization of soils in fragile ecosystems and decreased the degree of fertility for agricultural production. The sudden loss of organic matter caused even more damage to the microbial flora of soil and biodiversity [21]. In Cuba, 76.8% of productive soil areas are affected by at least one limiting factor, such as erosion, compaction, low organic matter, salinity, acidity, poor drainage, which impinge on soil productivity [22]. In 1989, the Soil Institute reported that 2.9 million hectares were affected by strong to medium soil erosion; 1 million hectares by salinity; 1.6 million hectares by compaction; 3.4 million hectares by acidity, and 4.7 and 3.0 million hectares, respectively, by loss of organic matter and fertility [23]. Drylands increased in Cuba by 146 000 ha over 30 years, mainly due to droughts, which may become worse under climate change [24]. Because of this weakening of the entire ecosystem, the resilience of soils is lost; they are prone to environmental hazards and hence soil degradation remains a huge challenge for Cuba’s agricultural production and food security. Water losses are considerable in the process of transmission and distribution due to the poor state of technical networks and the use of inappropriate technologies for the irrigation of agricultural crops [25]. A marked decrease in rainfall in the rainy period has been noted in the eastern region due to the frequency of droughts. The intensity of agricultural droughts in Cuba increases from west to east, becoming most severe in the non-mountainous areas of the eastern region [25]. Their frequency increased significantly in the period from 1961 to 1990 by comparison with the period from 1931 to 1960 [19]. This resulted in lower food production, inadequate grazing conditions, low profitability of agricultural work and investment, reduced availability of wood for combustion, increased risk of wildfires, increased risk of desertification, and social and economic consequences of drought, including food insecurity [26]. Additionally, the number and intensity of hurricanes originating in the Caribbean continues to increase [19]. The combination of a changing climate, the lack of a technical irrigation infrastructure, and mismanagement of degraded land affects water security as well as soil degradation and hence food security and the resilience of livelihoods.
Policy framework for soil conservation and melioration in Cuba As part of a range of decentralization policies for agricultural production in Cuba, the government encouraged through its legal and policy framework the increase in small-scale farming on individually or cooperative-led farms. This political shift in land redistribution and support for local, accompanying research has strengthened small-scale farmers. Their empowerment resulted in the growth in a number of associations that favor traditional, agroecology farming based on the adoption Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
of SLM principles. The political influence of these associations, such as the National Association of Small Scale Farmers (ANAP, Asociacio´n Nacional de Agricultores Pequen˜os) supported the systemic shift away from large-scale monoculture practices towards traditional, small-scale agricultural production [4,27]. For example, in 2000, the National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM) was created with the aim of implementing a set of simple soil conservation activities to stop or minimize soil degradation processes. This program is financially supported by Cuban Government with the technical support of the Soil Institute of Cuba [28]. Over the last 15 years, the program has benefited from temporary and permanent measures carried out on over 750 000 ha of land across the island, at a cost of around 20 million dollars per year. The NPSCM strives for the sustainable use of natural resources as well as actions to combat land degradation, increase forested area, and fight against drought and water shortages. These programs at watershed scale have contributed to the conservation and melioration of ecosystems and agricultural land. There are others programs, like the National Program to Combat Desertification and Drought (NPCDD) and the National Forestry Development Program, that have helped to achieve an increase in forest coverage from 13.2% in 1959 to 28.0% in 2014. Cuba is developing the Country Partnership Program (CPP) a mega program with a 10 million USD budget supported by Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as implementing leader agency and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), participating too as implementing agencies. The Cuban Government supported with an 80 million USD budget. The Environment Agency (AMA) of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (CITMA) in Cuba is responsible for national coordination of the CPP. The program has the participation of several national institutions [17]. The CPP aims to reduce land degradation in order to allow Cuba achieve sustainable development and increase food security [29]. These programs focus mainly on water resources, increasing forest area, soil conservation and melioration, the reduction of contaminant top soil, surveillance and protection of natural resources, environmental investments in watershed and environmental education, among other things [30]. The integrated management of resources combines synergies from agricultural diversity practices, forestation, and livestock production to enhance integrated nutrition management to benefit the entire watershed ecosystem. www.sciencedirect.com
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Soil conservation polygons: a working platform for the rehabilitation and conservation of agricultural land, water and forests In conventional Cuban agriculture, the agronomic approach is prioritized over the ecological approach in soil use and management. Fertilizers are the preferred option to compensate for loss of fertility and complex and aggressive machines are used to improve the efficiency of farming. These practices predominate among Cuban farmers. But the long-term effects of this kind of soil exploitation were not appreciated [31]. Several studies in Cuba have shown that erosion progressed in parallel to the development of mechanization and irrigation, since the introduction of these technologies was not accompanied by the appropriate technologies to deal with potentially erodible areas [23,28,31–33]. In 2010, Cuba established the so-called ‘polygons’ as demonstrative areas for the conservation of soil, water and forests with the aim of giving priority to the problem of soil degradation. Polygons are sites that encompass several, usually not big cooperative farms that adopt the integrated management of natural resources with the participation of scientific institutions dedicated to studying it, taking the watershed as a geographical unit to protect soil, water, forestry and plant health. They usually receive financial support from the aforementioned National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM). The selection of the polygons program areas were based on three criteria: (1) strong soil degradation in adverse terrain conditions; (2) a diversified agricultural production suited to the implementation of an integrated package system; and (3) predictable outcomes in the short, medium, and long term. Since its inception, this polygon program has involved all stakeholders, from producers and experts to decision-makers, to ensure the comprehensive implementation of integrated conservation technologies and soil improvement systems. In order to halt the processes leading to desertification and mitigate the effects of drought as a way of coping and adaptation to climate change, SLM practices have been adopted. This approach prioritizes the holistic ecosystem view over the sectorial view and emphasizes that the improvement of natural resources cannot be perceived in isolation but must be conceived under the principles outlined in the concept of sustainable land management (SLM). SLM is a working model that can be adapted to the conditions of a specific environment. Here, the available resources are used to promote socio-economic development, thus ensuring that the growing needs of society are met and the capabilities and resilience of ecosystems maintained [17]). www.sciencedirect.com
In the period from 2010 to 2014, Cuba established 34 polygons covering an area of 12 380 ha with 845 farms, which represented the country’s main soil and climatic regions and most important crops. These sites are located in 9 agricultural Production Cooperatives (CPA); 12 Credit and Service Cooperatives (CCS); 11 Basic Cooperative Production Units (UBPCs); and 6 state farms. The idea of starting this program was initially driven by two government representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture in Cuba. The achievements and difficulties of the polygons program are closely followed by a monitoring and accountability mechanism to ensure learning at individual farm level and across the program. A comprehensive set of economic, social, technological, and environmental indicators (Table 1) form part of a mechanism to monitor and hold stakeholders accountable over time regarding the results of the program [34,35].
Preliminary achievements of the polygons program A preliminary analysis of the main outcomes of the implementation of these measures is provided in the technical report on the project carried out by the Soil Institute [35]. This review of the outcomes was the result of a combination of stakeholder consultations, interviews, biophysical soil and water analysis, and an assessment of economic results at farm level. Two years after the first polygon demonstration areas came into existence preliminary insights into the economic, social, environmental, and technical conditions confirm initial tendencies of sustainable development. Economically, 79% of polygon production units are successful and have improved their economic balance by average reduction of production costs of 18 cents (cost per peso/CUP) and increasing the income per worker by 191 CUP. Moreover, by the end of 2013, the total workforce had increased by 36 workers with a better gender balance (increase of 46 women and a decrease of 10 men relative to the baseline). Improvements to social services were achieved through the improved performance of productive units, the larger capacities of farmers, and local extension services to the family farm system. Significant changes in infrastructure for communities were achieved by creating 29 new homes and 28 km of roads. Eight selling points for fresh products and four mini industries increased market access for the demonstration units. These changes indicate the tendency of the program to foster resilience of local livelihoods and contribute to food sovereignty. Eighty-seven agricultural species (mango, guava, mamey, moringa, pine, mahogany, tomatoes and corn), including 34 fruit trees, 20 forest trees and 33 other plants (tubers Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
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Table 1 Outcome indicators of soil conservation polygons in Cuba. Category
Outcomes
Indicators a
Economical
Increased efficiency in production and services
– Cost per Peso (from the economic balance of each production unit) – Agricultural yield of main crops
Social
Improving social indicators
– – – – –
Workforce (total workforce by gender) Monthly average personal income (salaries) Social services to the community (generated by the production unit) Units integrated into the polygon (unit) Contribution to vocational and technical training Technologies for improvement of soil Conservation (Benefited Area) Water productivity Water harvest and retention Pest control alternatives Use of renewable energy sources
Integration of actors Technological
Implementation of the principles of sustainable land management (SLM)
– – – – – –
Environmental
Improvement of the Soil Quality Index
– Saline and pH stress on the soil – Degree of compaction – Organic matter quality and nutrient content – Anti-erosive activities established – Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides – Production and use of organic manures and bio fertilizers – Water quality for irrigation – Management of forest plantations. reforested area – Floristic composition and plant species of economic importance – Fauna compositionNumber of fires and controlled fires – Areas with invasive species handled
Decreased soil erosion Reduction of the use of pollutants
Biodiversity improvement
a
Peso = CUP (The Cuban Peso); own compilation of the authors [34].
and roots, vegetables, legumes, ornamentals and others) were introduced. This agricultural diversification and ecological restoration resulted in greater profits from agricultural production. 78% of the Polygon units increased their annual average yields on 3 cultivars of cereals, 5 of roots and tubers, 5 of vegetables, and 5 of fruit, thereby increasing the harvest by 0.44, 1.11, 2.52 and 1.56 t ha 1 respectively. The use of bio pesticides, mostly prepared from Bacillus sp., Bauveria sp., and Trichoderma sp., and biological control alternatives was increased, which resulted in improved soil fertility. Ecologically, improvements can be seen in reforested areas and an increase of biodiversity due to the Polygon program. In the 40 farms in 10 provinces, 41 tree species and 26 fruit species were planted. The reforested area increased from 2.85 to 175.62 ha [34]. Approximately 652 ha of land benefited from the polygon program with financial support of 1.6 million CUP. Improvements in the economic, ecological, and social dimension confirm that substantial progress towards soil rehabilitation and social and economic stability were achieved. However, the long-term improvement of the soil quality will take some more time and the coming years will show the real contribution of such agricultural land rehabilitation programs to sustainable and equitable development. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 15:72–78
Conclusion Following a long history of substantial systemic changes to the political system that also impacted land use and agricultural production, Cuba is today successful in landscape rehabilitation and sustainable agricultural practices. The Cuban government created the legal and financial framework to tackle the problem of degraded soils. The National Program for Soil Conservation and Melioration (NPSCM) in Cuba, and more recently the platform of polygons for soil, water and forest conservation, have reaped rewards for 750 000 ha across the country over the last years. This major achievement suggests that the adoption of SLM measures has played a major role in addressing biophysical, social and economic challenges in rural and degraded areas. The economic, technological, social and environmental indicators in the outcome assessments of the program provide comparative insights into the achievements and setbacks over time and across cases. The first outcomes and positive results of this program suggest that there is a trend towards improved economic, social and ecologic development of agricultural areas and production in Cuba. To achieve substantial changes in soil fertility in degraded areas and make a meaningful contribution to overall soil and landscape conditions, the program will need to continue in the longer term. Substantial and large-scale soil rehabilitation and the creation www.sciencedirect.com
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of soil organic matter requires decades. The favorable legal, institutional and policy framework in Cuba allowed the establishment of a program that demonstrates immediate positive results for the social and economic conditions of small-scale family farms and provides a glimpse of how the adoption of SLM measures will substantially improve the conditions of agricultural landscapes and soils.
Acknowledgements We are deeply indebted to an external COSUST reviewer, as well as Hannah Janetschek and Anne Boden from the IASS for their extensive comments and suggestions, which substantially improved the quality of this paper. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Country Partnership Program CPP-OP-15 and its support of our research activities associated with this project.
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de tierras en los polı´gonos demostrativos para la conservacio´n del suelo, el agua y el bosque en cuba. Congreso Suelos 2015, Palacio. 2015. 35. Calero BJ: Informe te´cnico del cierre del an˜o 2014 del proyecto ‘‘Evaluacio´n de impactos econo´micos, tecnolo´gicos, sociales y ambientales en a´reas de los Polı´gonos Demostrativos para la Conservacio´n de los Recursos Naturales’’. Instituto de Suelos; 2014. The article provides detailed overview on the achievements of the program and hence gives pathways of how to design land rehabilitation measures within given legal and policy frameworks at a large-scale.
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