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Cultural perceptions of public relations gender roles in Romania
Public Relations Review 37 (2011) 103–105
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Public Relations Review
Research in Brief
Cultural perceptions of public relations gender roles in Romania Antoaneta Vanc a , Candace White b,∗ a b
Department of Public Relations, Quinnipiac University, United States School of Advertising and Public Relations, The University of Tennessee, 476 Communications Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 27 September 2010 Received in revised form 30 November 2010 Accepted 8 December 2010 Keywords: International public relations Gender roles Attractiveness and source credibility Transitional public relations
a b s t r a c t This study examines attitudes about gender roles and their implications for public relations practice in Romania. Results reveal Romanians still hold traditional views, but women held a more liberal view of their role in society and in the workplace. The study supports that history and socio-cultural values are important factors in understanding the context in which attitudes about workplace roles are formed, which can increase understanding of public relations in transitional countries in Europe. © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction As a new profession in former communist countries, public relations is viewed not only as an organizational activity, but also as a social phenomenon (Van Ruler & Verˇciˇc, 2004). This study examines perceptions of gender roles in Romania and adopts the view that societal culture impacts the culture of organizations that operate within the society, congruent with the supposition of Sriramesh, Grunig, and Dozier (1996) that public relations practice is embedded in broader presuppositions about both organizational culture and society. Similar to other former communist countries, Romania is experiencing significant cultural changes as it moves to democracy and capitalism. A better understanding of the impact of traditions and culture on the profession will enable scholars to better understand public relations in transitional countries. 2. Theoretical framework Studies in different countries have found that traditional gender-role attitudes may cause people to aspire to sex-typical occupations and thus perpetuate occupational sex segregation (Liao & Cai, 1995). Socio-cultural conventions of division of jobs by gender may perpetuate sex-typical occupations for women and men. Credibility impacts the effectiveness of public relations. Source credibility has been linked to gender. Because of cultural expectations and socialization, men tend to be perceived higher on the prestige dimension of source credibility (Aries, 1987). Receivers tend to rank men higher in credibility because of the confidence men have in themselves as well as the power society affords them (Kenton, 1989). These contentions were supported by Whittaker and Meade (1967) who found men are perceived more honest, as doing a better job in giving the facts, and as better justifying the conclusions by the facts than women reading the same speech. Furthermore, because public relations is still a new profession in Romania,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 865 974 5112; fax: +1 865 974 2826. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. White). 0363-8111/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.003
104
A. Vanc, C. White / Public Relations Review 37 (2011) 103–105
there is misunderstanding regarding what public relations means. Consequently, the field has been stereotyped as seeking mostly beautiful and attractive people. Yoon, Kim, and Kim (1998) found perceived attractiveness of the endorser was more important than expertise and trustworthiness. 3. Method Three scales were used to measure men’s and women’s attitudes toward each other and themselves: Iazzo’s (1983) attitudes toward men scale, Parry’s (1983) attitudes toward women scale, and a third scale developed to measure gender role preference for spokespersons. The scales were translated into Romania by the researcher, for whom Romanian is a first language. The questionnaires were back-translated into English, then compared to the original questionnaires to ascertain that no meaning was lost in translation. The survey was administered in two Romanian cities, Timisoara and Bucharest, in various workplaces using a snowballing sampling method. 4. Results There were 150 respondents (65 men; 85 women) from 17 to 60 years of age. Men scored significantly higher than women on traditional attitudes about gender roles t(−2.378) = 147, p < .01. Women scored significantly higher on the measures of attitudes toward men, indicating an overall positive attitude toward men t(2.24) = 148, p < .02, but significantly lower on attitudes toward women. T tests revealed no statistically significant differences for men’s and women’s views regarding the perceived gender preferences for public relations spokespersons t(1.799) = 148, p = .074. The scales demonstrated internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = .70 for Iazzo’s scale, and Cronbach alpha = .80 for Parry’s scale; Cronbach alpha = .57 for the third scale). RQ1 . Do participants in the study believe the majority of positions in public relations departments are occupied by men? A slight majority of participants (58% men and 57% women) disagreed that the majority of public relations positions are occupied by men. Factor analysis was used to help explain the independent variables that determined the responses, and revealed statistically significant results. Respondents who considered that success is important to a man and that men have strong leadership qualities were most likely to believe that the majority of positions in public relations departments were occupied by men t(8.822), p < .0. Dichotomized for sexes, the results show that men who agreed that men have strong leadership qualities were more likely to agree that they occupy the majority of positions in public relations departments t(2.423), p < .01. However, women who agreed that men have strong leadership qualities were also more likely to agree with men on this issue t(2.181), p < .03. Women who believed that men consider that success is important to a man did not agree that the majority of positions in public relations departments are occupied by men t(−2.156), p < .03. RQ2 . Is there a difference between women and men participants regarding the perceived egalitarianism between sexes in a company? MANOVA showed significant differences t(2.401), p < .00 when comparing the mean variances between women and men with regard to egalitarianism between sexes. Factor analysis aggregated several questions. Results revealed that for the statements women should worry less about being equal with men and more about becoming good wives and mothers t(2.794), p < .00 and a woman’s place is in the home looking after her family, rather than following a career of her own t(3.361), p = 0.00, men scored significantly higher than women, indicating more traditional attitudes toward women. Results for the statement men and women are equal within any company showed statistically significant differences between women men and men t(2.330), p < .0. RQ3 . Will respondents perceive that when qualified women and men apply for managerial public relations positions, men will be considered more suitable for employment? The majority of participants (57% of men and 63% of women) agreed that men are considered more suitable for managerial public relations positions. RQ4 . Are there differences in how men and women view women as corporate spokespersons? The results of an ANOVA test show significant differences in responses between men and women F(7.486) = 1, p < .01. The majority of men (56%) believed women are better than men in spokesperson positions, but only 27 percent of women had a positive opinion about themselves as corporate spokesperson. An approximately equal percentage of women (63%) and men (60%) did not think men are more credible than women as public communicators. 5. Discussion The study found that attitudes in Romania are a blend of the old and new and are influenced by history and politics. During the nearly 50 years of communism, men were preferred for inclusion in elite groups of most organizations. After the Democratic Revolution, Romanians embraced the Orthodox Church, which had been controlled during the communist regime, and as a consequence regained respect for older traditions and customs that included high power distance and maledominated roles. The majority of male participants in the study still hold traditional views about gender roles in society. The results show that men who view women as having traditional roles in the family were also more likely to believe that traditional gender roles are appropriate in public relations departments. Women held a more liberal view of their role in the society than men had about them, and held a more positive attitude toward men than men had about themselves. Cultural transformation is apparent in the uniformity in responses with regard to importance of physical appearance for women. During communism, female body aesthetics were limited to prescribed gender norms that promoted a homogenous,
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desexualized image (Chin, 2008). The Communists disseminated images of women and men in almost similar uniforms, as women were constrained to look non-feminine and were usually portrayed in two roles (mothers and socialists heroes). Today, Western ideals that include images of beauty and femininity are prevalent. The results of this study show that new social expectations have influenced the responses regarding the importance of physical attractiveness for women in organizational settings. The study found men and women have about the same level of credibility as spokespersons, which also may indicate shifting cultural norms. While all countries in Central Europe have unique histories and cultures, they share a common process as they move from centrally planned, government-controlled systems to free market economies. Understanding how cultural transition affects roles in organizations can increase understanding of the process in other transitional countries in Europe. A copy of the complete study can be requested from the authors. References Aries, E. (1987). Gender and communication. In P. Shaver, & C. Hendrick (Eds.), Sex and gender (pp. 149–176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Chin, J. W. (2008). Global capitalism meets local post-communism: Tensions in transition as manifested through physical culture and the female body in Romania. Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland. Iazzo, A. N. (1983). The construction and validation of attitudes toward men scale. The Psychological Record, 33, 371–378. Kenton, S. B. (1989). Speaker credibility in persuasive business communication: A model which explains gender differences. The Journal of Communication, 26, 143–157. Liao, T. F., & Cai, Y. (1995). Socialization, life situations, and gender-role attitudes regarding the family among white American women. Sociological Perspectives, 38, 241–260. Parry, G. (1983). A British version of the attitudes toward women scale (AWS-B). The British Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 261–263. Sriramesh, K., Grunig, J. E., & Dozier, D. M. (1996). Observation and measurement of two dimensions of organizational culture and their relationship to public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 8, 229–261. Van Ruler, B., & Verˇciˇc, D. (2004). Public relations and communication management in Europe: A nation-by-nation introduction to public relations theory and practice. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Whittaker, J. O., & Meade, R. (1967). Sex of communicator as a variable in source credibility. Journal of Social Psychology, 66, 91–94. Yoon, K., Kim, C. H., & Kim, M. S. (1998). A cross-cultural comparison of the effects of source credibility on attitudes and behavioral intentions. Mass Communication Theory, 1(3/4), 153–173.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Public Relations Review
Research in Brief
Cultural perceptions of public relations gender roles in Romania Antoaneta Vanc a , Candace White b,∗ a b
Department of Public Relations, Quinnipiac University, United States School of Advertising and Public Relations, The University of Tennessee, 476 Communications Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 27 September 2010 Received in revised form 30 November 2010 Accepted 8 December 2010 Keywords: International public relations Gender roles Attractiveness and source credibility Transitional public relations
a b s t r a c t This study examines attitudes about gender roles and their implications for public relations practice in Romania. Results reveal Romanians still hold traditional views, but women held a more liberal view of their role in society and in the workplace. The study supports that history and socio-cultural values are important factors in understanding the context in which attitudes about workplace roles are formed, which can increase understanding of public relations in transitional countries in Europe. © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction As a new profession in former communist countries, public relations is viewed not only as an organizational activity, but also as a social phenomenon (Van Ruler & Verˇciˇc, 2004). This study examines perceptions of gender roles in Romania and adopts the view that societal culture impacts the culture of organizations that operate within the society, congruent with the supposition of Sriramesh, Grunig, and Dozier (1996) that public relations practice is embedded in broader presuppositions about both organizational culture and society. Similar to other former communist countries, Romania is experiencing significant cultural changes as it moves to democracy and capitalism. A better understanding of the impact of traditions and culture on the profession will enable scholars to better understand public relations in transitional countries. 2. Theoretical framework Studies in different countries have found that traditional gender-role attitudes may cause people to aspire to sex-typical occupations and thus perpetuate occupational sex segregation (Liao & Cai, 1995). Socio-cultural conventions of division of jobs by gender may perpetuate sex-typical occupations for women and men. Credibility impacts the effectiveness of public relations. Source credibility has been linked to gender. Because of cultural expectations and socialization, men tend to be perceived higher on the prestige dimension of source credibility (Aries, 1987). Receivers tend to rank men higher in credibility because of the confidence men have in themselves as well as the power society affords them (Kenton, 1989). These contentions were supported by Whittaker and Meade (1967) who found men are perceived more honest, as doing a better job in giving the facts, and as better justifying the conclusions by the facts than women reading the same speech. Furthermore, because public relations is still a new profession in Romania,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 865 974 5112; fax: +1 865 974 2826. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. White). 0363-8111/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.003
104
A. Vanc, C. White / Public Relations Review 37 (2011) 103–105
there is misunderstanding regarding what public relations means. Consequently, the field has been stereotyped as seeking mostly beautiful and attractive people. Yoon, Kim, and Kim (1998) found perceived attractiveness of the endorser was more important than expertise and trustworthiness. 3. Method Three scales were used to measure men’s and women’s attitudes toward each other and themselves: Iazzo’s (1983) attitudes toward men scale, Parry’s (1983) attitudes toward women scale, and a third scale developed to measure gender role preference for spokespersons. The scales were translated into Romania by the researcher, for whom Romanian is a first language. The questionnaires were back-translated into English, then compared to the original questionnaires to ascertain that no meaning was lost in translation. The survey was administered in two Romanian cities, Timisoara and Bucharest, in various workplaces using a snowballing sampling method. 4. Results There were 150 respondents (65 men; 85 women) from 17 to 60 years of age. Men scored significantly higher than women on traditional attitudes about gender roles t(−2.378) = 147, p < .01. Women scored significantly higher on the measures of attitudes toward men, indicating an overall positive attitude toward men t(2.24) = 148, p < .02, but significantly lower on attitudes toward women. T tests revealed no statistically significant differences for men’s and women’s views regarding the perceived gender preferences for public relations spokespersons t(1.799) = 148, p = .074. The scales demonstrated internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = .70 for Iazzo’s scale, and Cronbach alpha = .80 for Parry’s scale; Cronbach alpha = .57 for the third scale). RQ1 . Do participants in the study believe the majority of positions in public relations departments are occupied by men? A slight majority of participants (58% men and 57% women) disagreed that the majority of public relations positions are occupied by men. Factor analysis was used to help explain the independent variables that determined the responses, and revealed statistically significant results. Respondents who considered that success is important to a man and that men have strong leadership qualities were most likely to believe that the majority of positions in public relations departments were occupied by men t(8.822), p < .0. Dichotomized for sexes, the results show that men who agreed that men have strong leadership qualities were more likely to agree that they occupy the majority of positions in public relations departments t(2.423), p < .01. However, women who agreed that men have strong leadership qualities were also more likely to agree with men on this issue t(2.181), p < .03. Women who believed that men consider that success is important to a man did not agree that the majority of positions in public relations departments are occupied by men t(−2.156), p < .03. RQ2 . Is there a difference between women and men participants regarding the perceived egalitarianism between sexes in a company? MANOVA showed significant differences t(2.401), p < .00 when comparing the mean variances between women and men with regard to egalitarianism between sexes. Factor analysis aggregated several questions. Results revealed that for the statements women should worry less about being equal with men and more about becoming good wives and mothers t(2.794), p < .00 and a woman’s place is in the home looking after her family, rather than following a career of her own t(3.361), p = 0.00, men scored significantly higher than women, indicating more traditional attitudes toward women. Results for the statement men and women are equal within any company showed statistically significant differences between women men and men t(2.330), p < .0. RQ3 . Will respondents perceive that when qualified women and men apply for managerial public relations positions, men will be considered more suitable for employment? The majority of participants (57% of men and 63% of women) agreed that men are considered more suitable for managerial public relations positions. RQ4 . Are there differences in how men and women view women as corporate spokespersons? The results of an ANOVA test show significant differences in responses between men and women F(7.486) = 1, p < .01. The majority of men (56%) believed women are better than men in spokesperson positions, but only 27 percent of women had a positive opinion about themselves as corporate spokesperson. An approximately equal percentage of women (63%) and men (60%) did not think men are more credible than women as public communicators. 5. Discussion The study found that attitudes in Romania are a blend of the old and new and are influenced by history and politics. During the nearly 50 years of communism, men were preferred for inclusion in elite groups of most organizations. After the Democratic Revolution, Romanians embraced the Orthodox Church, which had been controlled during the communist regime, and as a consequence regained respect for older traditions and customs that included high power distance and maledominated roles. The majority of male participants in the study still hold traditional views about gender roles in society. The results show that men who view women as having traditional roles in the family were also more likely to believe that traditional gender roles are appropriate in public relations departments. Women held a more liberal view of their role in the society than men had about them, and held a more positive attitude toward men than men had about themselves. Cultural transformation is apparent in the uniformity in responses with regard to importance of physical appearance for women. During communism, female body aesthetics were limited to prescribed gender norms that promoted a homogenous,
A. Vanc, C. White / Public Relations Review 37 (2011) 103–105
105
desexualized image (Chin, 2008). The Communists disseminated images of women and men in almost similar uniforms, as women were constrained to look non-feminine and were usually portrayed in two roles (mothers and socialists heroes). Today, Western ideals that include images of beauty and femininity are prevalent. The results of this study show that new social expectations have influenced the responses regarding the importance of physical attractiveness for women in organizational settings. The study found men and women have about the same level of credibility as spokespersons, which also may indicate shifting cultural norms. While all countries in Central Europe have unique histories and cultures, they share a common process as they move from centrally planned, government-controlled systems to free market economies. Understanding how cultural transition affects roles in organizations can increase understanding of the process in other transitional countries in Europe. A copy of the complete study can be requested from the authors. References Aries, E. (1987). Gender and communication. In P. Shaver, & C. Hendrick (Eds.), Sex and gender (pp. 149–176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Chin, J. W. (2008). Global capitalism meets local post-communism: Tensions in transition as manifested through physical culture and the female body in Romania. Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland. Iazzo, A. N. (1983). The construction and validation of attitudes toward men scale. The Psychological Record, 33, 371–378. Kenton, S. B. (1989). Speaker credibility in persuasive business communication: A model which explains gender differences. The Journal of Communication, 26, 143–157. Liao, T. F., & Cai, Y. (1995). Socialization, life situations, and gender-role attitudes regarding the family among white American women. Sociological Perspectives, 38, 241–260. Parry, G. (1983). A British version of the attitudes toward women scale (AWS-B). The British Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 261–263. Sriramesh, K., Grunig, J. E., & Dozier, D. M. (1996). Observation and measurement of two dimensions of organizational culture and their relationship to public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 8, 229–261. Van Ruler, B., & Verˇciˇc, D. (2004). Public relations and communication management in Europe: A nation-by-nation introduction to public relations theory and practice. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Whittaker, J. O., & Meade, R. (1967). Sex of communicator as a variable in source credibility. Journal of Social Psychology, 66, 91–94. Yoon, K., Kim, C. H., & Kim, M. S. (1998). A cross-cultural comparison of the effects of source credibility on attitudes and behavioral intentions. Mass Communication Theory, 1(3/4), 153–173.