Current approaches and future directions for contaminant-related impact assessments in coastal environments: Brazilian perspective

Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 3 (2000) 433±447

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Current approaches and future directions for contaminant-related impact assessments in coastal environments: Brazilian perspective M. Nipper* Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University Ð Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, NRC, Suite 3200, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA

Abstract Coastal ecosystems are subject to the discharge of contaminants via sewage, industrial ef¯uents, storm water runoff, dredged material and accidental chemical spills. The majority of contaminants reaching the ocean tend to be adsorbed to particulate matter and eventually settle on the ocean ¯oor, where they can deleteriously affect the sediment-associated community. The degree to which a receiving body is impacted is usually assessed by the analysis of the sediments from the area of concern. If chemical data generated by monitoring programs are available, they can be compared to Sediment Quality Guidelines to help identify a potential problem. A more cost-effective approach involves the use of a sensitive toxicity test to identify areas of concern, with comprehensive chemical analyses conducted at a later stage and focusing on the toxic sites identi®ed in the initial screening survey. More complex studies involve the assessment of the benthic communities, in addition to toxicity tests and chemical analyses can be conducted. While methodologies for chemical and benthic community assessments are relatively well established, several approaches can be used to determine sediment toxicity, including acute or chronic tests, conducted in the laboratory or in situ, on the whole sediment or the liquid phase. Several factors should be considered when interpreting toxicity test results, such as the enhancement of toxicity by the photo-oxidation of organic chemicals by ultraviolet light (UV), and confounding factors such as salinity, ammonia, sul®des, particle size distribution, organic matter content, and acid volatile sul®des (AVS). Once an impact has been identi®ed, toxicity identi®cation evaluation (TIE) procedures can be applied to help establish the chemical or classes of chemicals responsible for the observed adverse effects. The international and Brazilian scienti®c literatures are reviewed to illustrate these approaches. q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and AEHMS. All rights reserved. Keywords: Toxicity test; Sediment quality guidelines; Pore water; Bioaccumulation; Benthic; Toxicity identi®cation evaluation

1. Introduction Coastal areas are subject to the impact of numerous anthropogenic activities, which lead to the discharge of an immense variety of xenobiotic materials into the ocean through point and non-point sources, such as the discharge of sewage, industrial ef¯uents and dredged material, accidental chemical spills, oil drilling, urban and agricultural storm water runoff, and atmospheric deposition of contaminants originating

from land-based activities. Concern with the health of coastal ecosystems has led to worldwide research efforts focusing on the biological effects of such materials on marine biota. Brazil is a country of roughly 160 million inhabitants and 7491 km of coastline, with thirteen state capitals and other major cities (e.g. Santos, state of SaÄo Paulo (SP); Rio Grande, state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS); and NiteroÂi, state of Rio de Janeiro (RJ)); as well as some major industrial parks (e.g. CubataÄo, SP;

* Tel.: 11-361-825-3045; fax: 11-361-825-3270. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Nipper). 1463-4988/00/$20.00 q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and AEHMS. All rights reserved. PII: S 1463-498 8(00)00046-4

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CamacËari, state of Bahia (BA); Rio Grande, RS) located adjacent to coastal and estuarine areas. Industrialization, agriculture, urbanization, and oil extraction and transportation, which generate discharges of sewage, industrial ef¯uents, and urban and agricultural storm water runoff, are some of the main coastal pollution problems in the country (Tommasi, 1987). The largest South American commercial harbor is in Brazil (Santos, SP), as well as numerous other harbors and oil terminals. These areas are sources of environmental impacts caused by dredging activities, ship maintenance, and accidental chemical spills. Pollution problems related to the environmental impacts of oil exploitation and dredging activities, and the effects of contaminants on benthic organisms have been discussed by Paiva (1982) and Nipper (1990). A review paper describing the problem of oil pollution on coastal ecosystems in Brazil and its effects on biological communities was published relatively recently (Silva et al., 1997). Marine contamination by crude oil and its sub-products occurs at a chronic level, as a result of routine maintenance procedures of oil tankers (Nipper, 1985) and of ef¯uent discharges from oil re®neries and oil rigs (Reynier, 1996), and at acute levels through oil spills. An impact index (Silva et al., 1982) was generated after the analysis of the effects of a large oil spill on the coast of SP, in 1978. This index was based on the biomass and average annual cost of species of commercial interest in the affected area, benthic organisms, planktonic production, damage to mangroves, costs of the oil spill response team and activities, and indirect costs. Some of the major oil spills on the Brazilian coast have been reported by FalcaÄo (1996). Several contaminants reaching coastal environments, such as hydrophobic organic chemicals and metals originated from anthropogenic sources, tend to adsorb to particulate matter and eventually settle on the ocean ¯oor. Once incorporated into the sediment, contaminants can deleteriously affect the sediment-associated community, as well as be resuspended into the water column (Burgess and Scott, 1992). While water quality standards in Brazil are in place for freshwater, marine and estuarine waters, no sediment quality standards or regulations are yet available (Abessa et al., 1998b).

Some of the most common methods used to assess the biological impacts caused by marine contamination include toxicity tests and benthic community analyses (e.g. Swartz et al., 1985b; Becker et al., 1990; Maxon et al., 1997; Nipper et al., 1998). Chemical measurements of the levels of contaminants aid in the interpretation of biological data but are not suf®cient to establish the occurrence of a biological impact. Often, chemical data are taken as part of ongoing monitoring programs, and in these cases the use of Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG) (see review by Nipper, 1998) is recommended as a screening tool to help identify the sites of most concern. Biological impact analyses can then be conducted at those sites. Ideally, biological effects would be assessed prior to chemical contamination analyses, since the latter tend to be more expensive and less representative of environmental impacts. A cost-effective tiered approach involves the use of sensitive sediment toxicity tests to identify areas of concern, followed by comprehensive chemical analyses focusing on the toxic sites identi®ed in the initial screening survey. Sensitive sediment toxicity test methods can involve the use of porewater or of whole sediment toxicity tests. Porewater tests are usually conducted with early-life stages of marine and estuarine organisms such as echinoderm gametes and embryos, mollusk embryos, copepods, polychaetes, algae and ®sh embryos and larvae (see review by Carr, 1998). Whole sediment toxicity tests are conducted with benthic organisms such as amphipods, polychaetes, and bivalve mollusks (see review by Traunspurger and Drews, 1996). The sediment±water interface is also recognized as a route of exposure to sediment contaminants (Burgess et al., 1993), and methods have been developed for exposing organisms at the interface (Anderson et al., 1996). The most common whole sediment toxicity tests are the 10-day acute survival methods using amphipods, but these tend to be less sensitive than the porewater tests mentioned above (Nipper and Carr, 1997), and might therefore be under-protective if results are intended for regulatory purposes. Porewater toxicity test results, due to their high sensitivity to contaminants available in the sediment's liquid phase, should be interpreted as an early warning signal of potential contamination impacts on the benthic biota. However, the role of sediment ingestion, which should not be

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underestimated, has been identi®ed as an important route of uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by deposit-feeding benthic organisms, as shown in experiments with polychaete worms, using ¯uoranthene-, phenanthrene- and benzo[a]pyrenecontaminated sediments (Forbes et al., 1998; Weston and Mayer, 1998). This variety of pathways of toxicity and sensitivity of different methods shows the importance of using several types of exposures and organisms in toxicity assessments. The effects of confounding factors such as salinity (e.g. Redmond et al., 1996), ammonia (e.g. Carr et al., 1996b; Moore et al., 1997), sul®des (e.g. Thompson et al., 1991; Knezovich et al., 1996), particle size distribution (e.g. DeWitt et al., 1988; Nipper and Roper, 1995; Tay et al., 1998), organic matter content (e.g. DeWitt et al., 1992; Mahony et al., 1996; Meador et al., 1997), and acid volatile sul®des (AVS) (e.g. DiToro et al., 1990; Hansen et al., 1996; Long et al., 1998) must also be taken into account when interpreting the results of porewater and sediment toxicity tests. In addition to these factors, the enhancement of toxicity by the photo-oxidation of PAHs and other organic chemicals by ultraviolet (UV) light, primarily a ®eld-related phenomenon, has not been well studied in standard laboratory tests (e.g. Swartz et al., 1997). In situ toxicity test methods are currently under development (e.g. DeWitt et al., 1999) with a view to increase the degree of realism of sediment toxicity tests. For a more thorough understanding of the effects of sediment contamination, more complex studies involving the assessment of the benthic community, in addition to toxicity tests and chemical analyses, can be conducted (e.g. Becker et al., 1990) in an approach known as the sediment quality triad (e.g. Chapman, 1986; Carr et al., 1996a). Once an impact has been established, the identi®cation of the category(ies) of contaminants responsible for toxic effects or observed benthic community degradation is desirable. Toxicity Identi®cation Evaluation (TIE) procedures, originally developed for application with liquid ef¯uents (Burgess et al., 1996), can also be applied using sediment pore water (Ho et al., 1997, 1999). Marine environmental research in Brazil in the last two decades has focused on several of the aspects summarized above. The objective of this present paper is to present a brief review of the scienti®c

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literature on the approaches used for the evaluation of contaminant-related impacts on coastal environments, with an assessment of the Brazilian situation relative to the global picture. 2. Bioavailability of contaminants 2.1. Biogeochemistry Most biogeochemical studies in Brazil have been conducted with heavy metals of anthropogenic origin, that is, introduced by human activities and occurring above background levels in marine sediments. Research has been conducted to identify the anthropogenic sources of heavy metals, their cycling in coastal systems, and to understand the biogeochemical processes involved in the mobilization of contaminants in sediments on the Brazilian coast (e.g. Lacerda et al., 1988, 1993, 1997; Barcellos and Lacerda, 1994). The knowledge of the total concentrations of metals in coastal sediments is not suf®cient for the understanding of contamination, since their availability depends on the strength of the binding with sedimentary phases (Marins et al., 1998). Biogeochemical processes can permit the release of heavy metals from sediments back into the pore water and into the overlying water (Marins et al., 1997). An analysis of the role of plant cover on salt marshes suggests that in the presence of a Spartina alterni¯ora cover it would be impossible to correlate sediment concentrations with metal loading rates, because of the rate of mobilization of trace metals after deposition (Lacerda et al., 1997; Marins et al., 1997). 2.2. Bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation studies can help identify the bioavailability of chemicals in marine sediments and waters, since unlike chemical analyses, bioaccumulation provides a measurement of bioavailable contaminants (Furley and Niencheski, 1993; Furley and Oliveira, 1997). Brazil is an active participant in the International Mussel Watch Program (Taniguchi et al., 1998), and several authors have also conducted independent bioaccumulation studies with bivalves. The species most commonly used for this purpose were the dominant and most common benthic bivalve of the Brazilian coast, the

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clam Anomalocardia brasiliana, the preferred edible mussel, Perna perna, and the mangrove oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae. A. brasiliana was suggested as an adequate bioindicator of organic pollutants, based on studies of the bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons, polycyclic biphenyls (PCBs) and DDT from the Bay of Todos os Santos, near Salvador, BA (Tavares et al., 1988). Gut depuration proved to be an essential step in metals bioaccumulation studies with this species in order to avoid false results due to the presence of metal-containing particulate material in the bivalves' guts (Wallner-Kersanach et al., 1994). P. perna was used to establish the levels of contamination and bioavailability of metals on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul (Furley and Niencheski, 1993), as well as bioaccumulation of metals and organochlorinated compounds in the vicinity of a pulp and paper mill ef¯uent outfall near VitoÂria, EspõÂrito Santo (Furley and Oliveira, 1997). C. rhizophorae was used for the assessment of longterm changes in mercury in a contaminated estuary near Recife, PE (Meyer et al., 1998). Bioaccumulation assessments conducted in the highly polluted Guanabara Bay, RJ, using the oyster Crassostrea brasiliana, the gastropod Tegula viridula, the barnacles Balanus sp. and Megabalanus sp., and the macro-alga Ulva fasciata, indicated low bioavailability of heavy metals in the bay, probably due to the anoxic condition of the sediments (Carvalho et al., 1991; Gomes et al., 1991; Carvalho and Lacerda, 1992). In southern Brazil, the barnacle Balanus improvisus, was used for metal bioaccumulation assessments in the estuary of the Lagoa dos Patos, (Baumgarten and Niencheski, 1990), and euryhaline crabs were assessed for bioaccumulation studies with mercury, under different salinity regimes (Bianchini and Gilles, 1996). Nuclear contamination from the only nuclear power plant in Brazil was analyzed by bioaccumulation studies of 60Co by the gastropod Strombus pugilis (Moraes et al., 1992), and of Sr and Ca by macroalgae (Azevedo et al., 1982). It was suggested that phaeophytes, particularly Sargassum, would be the best macro-algal indicator species, since they concentrate Sr and discriminate Ca signi®cantly in its favor. Benthic macro-algae are among the marine organisms with the highest bioaccumulation factors for heavy metals, and a variety of species were used for the assessment of the presence of heavy metals in the

industrialized areas of the coast of the states of Bahia (Amado et al., 1997a), CearaÂ, Alagoas and Rio de Janeiro (GuimaraÄes et al., 1982; Lacerda et al., 1985; Wallner et al., 1986). The macro-alga Padina gymnospora was extensively assessed as a biomonitoring species for heavy metals (Karez et al., 1994a,b; Karez and Pereira, 1995; Amado et al., 1996), having been suggested, along with Sargassum ®lipendula, as a good heavy metal biomonitoring species for tropical coastal areas (Amado et al., 1997b). GuimaraÄes et al. (1982) suggested that Galaxaura marginata and Caulerpa racemosa would serve this same purpose. The examples above show a capability for biogeochemical and bioaccumulations studies in Brazil. Therefore, it is presently possible to obtain a deeper understanding of the processes that control chemical contaminants (especially heavy metals) and their bioavailability, in coastal environments. The understanding of biological effects, however, depends on the sensitivity of individual populations and communities to the bioavailable contaminants, and laboratory and ®eld assessments need to be done to elucidate this aspect. Some of the methods that can provide an understanding of biological effects of contaminants will now be presented.

3. Marine toxicity tests 3.1. Aquatic samples The development of marine toxicity tests in Brazil, with a view to their use with regulatory purposes, started in the late 1970s because of the need to understand the environmental impacts of the use of chemical oil dispersants. Initially, acute toxicity tests with brine shrimp (Artemia sp.) nauplii were used for this purpose (ArauÂjo et al., 1987). Numerous acute and short-term chronic marine toxicity test methods with native Brazilian planktonic and benthic organisms have been developed in the last few decades. The sensitivity of acute survival tests with the copepods Acartia tonsa and Temora stylifera, with the mysid shrimp Mysidopsis juniae, and of sub-lethal tests with gametes and embryos of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus was found to be in a similar

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range to that of equivalent methods described in the international literature (Nipper et al., 1993a,b). These methods were successfully applied in toxicity assessments with industrial ef¯uents from CubataÄo, SP (ProÂsperi, 1993), and with environmental samples from the SaÄo SebastiaÄo channel, SP (BadaroÂ-Pedroso, 1993; Zamboni, 1993). The early-life stage test methods with L. variegatus were also used for the toxicity assessment of sewage samples (Rachid et al., 1998), surfactants (Mastroti, 1997), and dredged material (ProÂsperi et al., 1998). Embryological development tests with the mangrove oyster C. rhizophorae were applied for toxicity assessments of heavy metals and of water quality in northeastern Brazil (Nascimento, 1989; Pereira et al., 1998), and a similar method is currently under development with the mussel, P. perna (L. Zaroni, Oceanographic Institute of University of SaÄo Paulo, personal communication). Juvenile mussels have been used for the analysis of the effects of heavy metals on ®xation and migration capacity, mucus production and mortality (Moraes and Silva, 1995). The identi®cation of adverse effects of activities related to oil production, transportation and processing in Brazil relies strongly on toxicity testing. The effects of crude oil and of oil-dispersant mixtures were analyzed on a Brazilian strain of the macro-alga Champia parvula (Maurat, 1996) and in tests with the mysid shrimp, Mysidium gracile (Reynier, 1996). Acute toxicity tests with the copepod T. stylifera, the mysid shrimps Mysidium juniae and Promysis atlantica, and the gastropod Costoanachis sertulariarum were applied to assess the effects of a produced water-containing ef¯uent from an oil terminal in SaÄo SebastiaÄo, SP (Phan et al., 1994; Reynier et al., 1994; Sousa and Tommasi, 1997). Concern with marine contamination by surfactants led to the analysis of the deleterious effects of domestic detergents on the micro-alga Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Aidar et al., 1997). Mastroti (1997) and Mastroti et al. (1998) analyzed the biodegradability of a variety of surfactants in seawater, pointing out that estimating safe concentrations and biodegradation rates of surfactants provides the groundwork for establishing an ef®cient policy for protecting life in the marine environment. In an unparalleled spill of thousands of tons of

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sulfuric acid into the estuary of Lagoa dos Patos, RS, the immediate application of toxicity tests with local species of crustaceans helped to identify the high potential for environmental impact caused by this spill, based on high acute toxicity, with LC50 values varying from 0.014 and 0.032% in tests with copepods, tanaids and mysid shrimp (Zamboni et al., 1998). Toxicity tests involving metabolic measurements with a variety of organisms have also been developed in Brazil. Physiological, biochemical and morphological effects of the pesticides Parathion and Malathion were assessed with the estuarine crabs Callinectes danae and Chasmagnathus granulata. Malathion in sublethal levels caused histological changes in the gills, intestines, and anthenal glands (excretory organs) of C. danae, and deleteriously affected its osmoregulatory mechanisms (Carmo, 1991; Oliveira et al., 1994). However, Monserrat et al. (1997) suggested that C. granulata would not be a useful indicator of Parathion in the environment since only high doses produced signi®cant cholinesterase inhibition. Mangrove mussels (Mytella guayanensis) and marine cat®sh (Genidens genidens) have been used for the assessment of oxidative stress caused by pollutants (Tribess et al., 1998; Wilhelm et al., 1998), whereas superoxide dismutase activity was identi®ed as an indicator of exposure to heavy metals in the marine micro-alga Tetraselmis gracilis and in the dino¯agellate Gonyaulax polyedra (Okamoto et al., 1996; Okamoto and Colepicolo, 1998). Stress protein accumulation by C. rhizophorae has also been suggested as a metabolic indicator of impacts caused by the petroleum industry in northeastern Brazil (Nascimento et al., 1998). 3.2. Sediments In addition to the analysis of aqueous samples, the effects of sediment contamination in Brazil have been identi®ed through the application of toxicity tests. Both pore water and the whole sediment have been tested. A toxicity test method analyzing population growth was developed with the benthic ciliate protozoan Moneuplotes vannus, originally collected in sandy sediments (Dias, 1998). The method was developed and assessed with copper and zinc, but both the

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benthic origin of the organisms and the small volumes of solution required for the test suggest that it would be useful for porewater assessments (see Carr, 1998). Porewater toxicity testing has been undertaken using mostly early-life stage tests with echinoids and bivalves. Toxic effects of porewater samples from several samples in the region of Ubatuba, SP, including a marina and gradients off several river mouths, were identi®ed by the fertilization and embryological development tests with the sea urchin L. variegatus (Nipper et al., 1990). Sediment contamination caused by oil transportation- and processingrelated operations was assessed by porewater analyses using early-life stage toxicity tests with the sea urchins L. variegatus and Echinometra lucunter, and the oyster C. rhizophorae (Zamboni, 1993; Nascimento et al., 2000b). The results indicated the presence of contaminants in toxic amounts. Acute mortality tests with brine shrimp nauplii (Artemia salina) conducted with samples from Bahia, showed good discriminatory power to distinguish among samples, but were consistently less sensitive than the embryological tests with oysters (Nascimento et al., 2000b). Mutagenicity analyses using the Ames test were also conducted in Brazil for the assessment of sediments to be dredged from an industrialized area and from Santos Harbor, SP (Roubicek et al., 1998). For whole sediment toxicity tests, 10-day survival tests using benthic amphipods have become one of the most common test methods worldwide (e.g. Swartz et al., 1985a; DeWitt et al., 1989; Nipper et al., 1989, 1998; ASTM, 1992; Environment Canada, 1992; USEPA, 1994; Quintino and Re, 1995; Schlekat et al., 1995; Ciarelli et al., 1997; Valls et al., 1998). An amphipod toxicity test method was developed in Brazil with the native species, Tiburonella viscana, and applied for sediment quality assessments on the coast of the state of SaÄo Paulo (Melo, 1993; Abessa, 1996; Abessa et al., 1998b). The biology and feeding of the species were studied by Abessa et al. (1998a). In addition to sediment assessments with amphipods, other crustacean species were used for this purpose. The benthic tube-dwelling tanaid shrimp, Kalliapseudes schubartii, has been used for sediment assessments in the estuary of Lagoa dos Patos, Rio Grande, RS (Costa and Zamboni, 1998). Early-life stage chronic tests with post-larvae of the penaeid shrimps Penaeus schmitti and Penaeus paulensis were devel-

oped for solid phase toxicity assessments of contaminated sediments. Although sublethal endpoints such as growth, oxygen consumption, and excretion rates were assessed with these shrimp, survival appeared to be the most sensitive test endpoint overall (Moraes, 1996). 3.3. In situ toxicity testing Although laboratory toxicity tests are accepted as an invaluable tool for identifying potential pollution impacts, they lack realism and require other supporting studies. Laboratory tests need to be conducted under standardized and controlled conditions for regulatory purposes, and the search for more realistic methods should be encouraged for scienti®c purposes. Researchers need a deeper understanding of environmental processes (biological, chemical, physical, geological, biogeochemical) that involve the interactions between contaminants and the surrounding biota. Brazilian scientists have provided a few steps in this direction. The effects of detergents were studied by use of an innovative approach, applying both laboratory and in situ exposures with realistic test concentrations matching ®eld-measured levels from an estuary in southeastern Brazil (Aidar et al., 1997). Field experiments with the objective of identifying the effects of oil spills on the recruitment of natural macro-algae populations were conducted by simulating oil spills in an enclosed area (FalcaÄo, 1996). The ®eld populations were inhibited in the intertidal zone, indicating that the effect of the oil was mostly caused by physical effects rather than by chemically mediated toxicity from exposure via the water. In an attempt to understand and correlate laboratory toxicity test results with ®eld conditions, Melo (1999) has developed acute and chronic amphipod toxicity tests with a New Zealand amphipod species. The same kinds of tests can now be applied to Brazilian species in polluted environments in order to help interpret the results of laboratory tests. 4. Toxicity Identi®cation Evaluations (TIE) Once toxic effects have been established in a complex mixture, for example, an ef¯uent or porewater from a contaminated sediment, it is often

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necessary to identify the contaminant(s) which are responsible for the toxicity observed. The category(ies) of chemicals or even individual chemicals responsible for a toxic effect can be identi®ed by the application of TIE procedures, which involve submitting the sample to a series of chemical and physical treatments in order to isolate or neutralize different classes of chemicals of concern (Burgess et al., 1996). Marine TIEs are a novel ®eld of research in Brazil, and have only been applied to some categories of liquid ef¯uents. Studies currently under way involve the application of TIE procedures to sewage samples (B.R.F. Rachid, Oceanographic Institute of University of SaÄo Paulo, personal communication) that were previously identi®ed as toxic (Rachid et al., 1998), and to produced water from oil wells (BadaroÂ-Pedroso, 1999). Some North American studies have applied TIEs to porewater from contaminated marine sediments (e.g. Ho et al., 1997). This kind of analysis is recommended for determining the major categories of toxic contaminants in sediments along the Brazilian coast. TIE procedures are also useful to distinguish among the effects caused by some natural sediment features, for example, ammonia toxicity, which can be removed by pH alteration or by treatment of the sample with Ulva lactuca (Ho et al., 1999), and sul®de, which can be removed by vigorous aeration. 5. Benthic community assessments In addition to toxicity tests, the biological effects of contaminants can be identi®ed by ®eld studies, the most common of which are benthic community assessments. The analysis of the epibenthic community on rocky shores can help identify impacts caused by pollutants in the surrounding water, while the assessment of communities inhabiting soft sediments can help identify the biological impacts of contaminants contained in the sediment and in the porewater. 5.1. Rocky shores Changes in macro-algae communities and populations were the most common tool used for the assessment of pollution impacts on the rocky shore biota in Brazil. Alterations in macro-algae communities were attributed to contaminant inputs of varied nature,

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including urban sewage, and industrial and harbor activities in the Bays of Guanabara (Teixeira et al., 1987; Taouil, 1998) and Santos (Oliveira and Berchez, 1978), and a nuclear power plant on the coast of the state of Rio de Janeiro (Pedrini and Pereira, 1982). The benthic macro-alga Codium decorticatum was found in higher density and grew larger on rocky shores from a contaminated area relative to a pristine area, possibly due to the reduction of competition for space by other more pollution-sensitive organisms (Teixeira et al., 1984). Population studies of the green macro-alga U. fasciata suggested that it could also be used as a pollution indicator in Rio de Janeiro (Carneiro et al., 1987). 5.2. Soft sediment Several pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, detergents, and oils were found in water and in sediments of the estuarine system of Santos, SP (Tommasi, 1982), and benthic community analyses in the area revealed low numbers of crustaceans and mollusks, suggesting pollution impact (Corbisier, 1991). The analysis of the benthic community structure in the vicinity of a pulp and paper outfall near VitoÂria, ES, indicated that no effects could be attributed to the ef¯uent (Furley et al., 1996), although bioaccumulation studies indicated levels of anthropogenic chemicals which would qualify the area as slightly contaminated (Furley and Oliveira, 1997). The biological effects caused by industrialization and by petroleum transportation and processing in Bahia were assessed by benthic analyses (Smith et al., 1982; Peso-Aguiar et al., 2000). Using a novel approach, Nascimento et al. (2000a) integrated surface water quality assessments using oyster embryo toxicity tests with benthic community activity, which was analyzed in terms of the density of active benthic burrows. Although there are numerous benthic ecologists in Brazil and several coastal benthic community assessments have been conducted in the country, few were related to the analysis of pollution effects. It is suggested that this knowledge could be applied as an additional tool for the analysis of marine pollution impacts. All of the methods described above can be combined to generate thorough assessments of pollution impacts on sediments, as will be discussed below.

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6. Sediment quality triad In an approach known as the sediment quality triad, chemical, toxicological, and benthic analyses are combined to provide a comprehensive view of sediment pollution impacts (Abessa et al., 1998c). Triad studies in Brazil are currently being conducted in the Bay of Santos, SP (D.M. Abessa, Oceanographic Institute of University of SaÄo Paulo, personal communication) and in the estuary of Lagoa dos Patos, RS (A.J. Zamboni, Department of Oceanography, University of Rio Grande, RS, personal communication). The triad approach is typically applied to soft sediments, but some Brazilian authors have used the same concept to conduct an assessment of an oil spill on rocky shores (Lopes et al., 1997). However, the authors only analyzed populations of barnacles and bivalves, rather than the whole rocky shore community, and toxicity tests were conducted with laboratory prepared oil/seawater mixtures, rather than with those collected in the ®eld after the accident. Nevertheless, enough data were collected to conclude that the levels of PAHs in the water were below levels that would be expected to cause chronic toxicity, and that the oil did not have a signi®cant effect on the populations studied.

7. Future recommendations The assessment of environmental health and pollution impacts necessitates an interdisciplinary approach that requires the joint efforts of scientists specialized in several ®elds. Marine environmental sciences in Brazil are at an advanced state of knowledge and development, and interdisciplinary research can be conducted if chemists, biogeochemists, benthic ecologists, and ecotoxicologists, among others, join their efforts, knowledge, and capabilities. It is strongly recommended that such joint research be conducted whenever possible, with initial focus on the most problematic coastal areas in the country. Such efforts may eventually lead to the development of SQG speci®c to Brazilian coastal conditions or even to site-speci®c guidelines within different regions of Brazil. In the meantime, scientists and regulators are urged to use international SQG (e.g. CCME, 1995;

Long et al., 1995; MacDonald et al., 1996; Long and MacDonald, 1998) at areas where chemical data are already available. This would help establish priority areas where more detailed biological impact assessments should be conducted prior to regulatory action. Regarding biological assessments of contaminated sediments, the use of porewater testing with existing toxicity test methods for liquid samples is encouraged, due to their sensitivity and because the pore water represents a very mobile and bioavailable phase of contaminants in sediments. Porewater tests, consequently, serve as a useful early-warning system of expected pollution impact on the benthic biota. However, sediment ingestion by deposit-feeding benthic organisms is also an important path of uptake of contaminants from sediments, and the application of whole sediment toxicity tests should not be neglected. Brazilian scientists should also pursue the development of in situ toxicity tests with whole sediments, which would provide a realistic assessment of biological effects under natural environmental conditions. For this particular use, however, the development of chronic life-cycle tests is encouraged, since acute tests tend to underestimate potential biological impacts. In situ tests are also important for the assessment of effects caused by the photo-activation of organic chemicals such as PAHs (e.g. Pelletier et al., 1997; Swartz et al., 1997), insecticides (e.g. Zaga et al., 1998), and nitro-aromatic compounds (e.g. Davenport et al., 1994). The capability for both the development of in situ toxicity tests and the chemical analysis of photo-oxidation products exists in Brazil, and scientists are strongly encouraged to collaborate in an effort to understand the environmental implications of photo-oxidation of organic chemicals. The effects of confounding factors on toxicity test results should also be considered. Some research has been conducted in Brazil studying the in¯uence of salinity on the toxic effects of some chemicals (Nipper, 1985; Carmo, 1991; Bianchini and Gilles, 1996), but information is needed on the effects of other natural environmental features such as the toxicity of ammonia and sul®de in sediments to a variety of experimental species, or the contaminant-binding capacity of AVS and total organic carbon in sediments. Much work has already been accomplished

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