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Current scenario and prospects of use of liquid biofuels in South America
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 352–362
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Current scenario and prospects of use of liquid biofuels in South America Paulo André Cremonez a,n, Michael Feroldi b, Armin Feiden a, Joel Gustavo Teleken b, Diego José Gris b, Jonathan Dieter b, Eduardo de Rossi a, Jhonatas Antonelli a a b
University of West Paraná, Department of Agricultural Energy, Rua Universitária, 2069, CEP: 85.819-130, Bairro Faculdade, Cascavel, PR, Brazil Federal University of Paraná (UFPR – Setor Palotina), Rua Pioneiro, 2153, CEP: 85.950-000, Bairro Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, Brazil
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 29 April 2014 Received in revised form 2 November 2014 Accepted 8 November 2014
The rise of biofuels took place after the great oil crisis that impacted the world in the 70s. At that period, the mission of supplying the world's demand was given primarily to liquid biofuels. South America has a set of renewable energy sources and shows a great potential to contribute to the energy supply of the world in the coming years. Brazil leads the production of biofuels in South and Latin America since the 60s and also stands out at a global scale. Considering this context, this paper aims to approach the current scenario and the prospects of the main South-American countries, whose energy matrices receive relevant contribution from liquid biofuels. In South America, liquid biofuels stand out among renewable energies, represented mostly by ethanol and biodiesel. Brazil and Argentina lead the scenario and prospects of these biofuels in South America, while countries like Peru and Uruguay look for alternatives to supply such demands as they struggle internally for legislations that stimulate the use of biofuels in the energy matrix. & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiesel Bioethanol Renewable energies
Contents 1. 2. 3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biofuels in the current world scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biofuels in South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Paraguay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6. Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8. Venezuela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction An interesting argument for the development of biofuel production is the reduction of emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) compared to fossil fuels [1]. Great discussions are currently raised
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regarding the use of sustainable biomass from agriculture for biofuel production, while a great amount of scientific papers about the issue have been produced and investments in new researches for the use of biomass are generated all around the world [2,3]. Although biofuels are considered one of the most sustainable forms of replacement for fossil fuels, the integral performance in the biofuel chain is still not very clear [4–6]. Since biofuels are directly affected by national and international policies, such as low subsidies and rigorous specifications, the impacts on their
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Fig. 1. Total primary energy supply by fuel in 1973 and 2010. *Includes geothermal, solar, wind, heat, etc. (Data: IEA [15]).
productive chains have to be analyzed in distinct contexts applied to each reality [7]. Renewable fuels are mostly originated from agriculture, such as: sugarcane, oilseed crops and forest biomass, among others. The main biofuels produced in large scale are biodiesel, methane and ethanol, used isolated or in blends with their fossil equivalents [8]. With the variation and volatility of oil prices, besides the geopolitical instability of the countries that hold the major oilfields, the use of liquid biofuels has been increasing. Energy safety is one of the primary factors behind this increase, especially in the transportation sector [9–11]. South America holds a diverse set of renewable energy sources, being able to contribute significantly to supply the world's energy demand in the future [12]. Thereby, the present paper aims to approach the current scenario and prospects of production of biofuels in the main South-American countries, whose energy matrices receive relevant contribution from liquid biofuels.
2. Biofuels in the current world scenario The first oil crisis (70s) made the era of fossil fuels, previously abundant and of low cost, come to an end. The high taxes charged to the United States by the Arabs and the decrease in production and exportation made the price of the oil barrel quadruple between the years of 73 and 74 [13]. Since then, several developed and developing countries started to look for other sources of energy. The biofuels showed up in this context as an interesting alternative as much from an economic point of view as from the environmental and social ones [14]. Fig. 1 shows the global supply of primary energy. The steep reduction of oil supply and substantial increase of total energy supply are noticeable. Total energy supply jumped from 6107 Mtoe in 1973 to 12,717 Mtoe in 2010. The modernization of emerging markets was responsible for intensive dynamics of industrialization, urbanization and development of infrastructure. One of the immediate consequences of this process is the boom for the internal demand of energy in countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa [16]. The increasing energy demand of these emerging markets began to impact on the global energy matrix, affecting the global economy as a whole [17]. Consuming nearly 57% of petroleum products, the transportation sector is the most impacted by the variations in the price of these fuels. In this scenario, the incentive to bioenergy and the search for alternate fuels have been boosted since the first oil crisis. Bioenergy is also evaluated as a viable and promising alternative in short and medium terms, and is intended
to stand out in the global energy matrix in the coming years, primarily aiming to supply the demand of the transportation sector [18]. Fig. 2 shows the production of biodiesel and hydrated ethanol in 2013 and the predictions until 2022. The linear increase of the prospect of global production for both biofuels is noteworthy. The enhancement of current techniques and the emergence of new technologies for the production of ethanol and biodiesel, besides the fuels of second and third generations, are the main factors that boost this prospect of increasing production and consumption in the coming years.
3. Biofuels in South America The countries in South America show a set of advantages for the production of biofuels, such as soils rich in nutrients, suitable climatic conditions, land availability and cheap labor, when compared to countries in the European Union and the Unites States. Brazil is one of the few countries that show a history of increasing supply and use of biofuels for more than 30 years, which is due to the implementation of bioethanol as fuel for transportation. Furthermore, Brazil and Argentina have been producing biodiesel from seeds that are largely cultivated in these countries, especially soybeans. Several other countries of the same region show an interesting potential for biofuel production. However, only with a recent wave of investments from the governments, Latin America comes boosting the production of biofuels at medium and long terms [12,20]. A large portion of the liquid biofuel production is expected to take place in the Southern Hemisphere, because of unsuitable climatic conditions in most of the Northern Hemisphere. Larger biomass production and lower cost are factors that stimulate biofuel production in the tropics. Therefore, biofuels have the potential to offer opportunities for social and economic development, besides giving access to energy in developing countries [22]. The participation of South and Central America in the global production of biodiesel reached the second position by region (Fig. 3), coming right after Europe. Brazil stands out with 12.3% of the global production of biodiesel in 2010 [21]. The growing market of biofuels in this region has both positive and negative impacts concerning the economy, environment and society, and several factors affect its maintenance. Currently, the biofuel market is limited in several Latin countries. It shows stability in Brazil, Colombia and Argentina, mainly because of the concentration of ethanol production [22,23].
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Fig. 2. Production and global prospect (2013–2022) of production of biodiesel and hydrated ethanol (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Fig. 3. Contribution for the global production of biodiesel by region in 2010. (Data: Silva [21]).
3.1. Brazil Brazil shows a remarkable experience in the production of biofuels since the 70s, when the great oil crisis served as basis for the creation of the Pro-Álcool program. This program aimed to lower the dependence on fossil fuels at the time [24]. The crisis affected the country and sugar exportation decreased. The development of the ethanol program enabled the orientation of sugarcane production with the rise of sugar-energy plants, in which sugarcane juice can be directed to sugar or ethanol production in the same industrial plant. The country also has natural conditions that are favorable to the cultivation of biofuel crops. Moreover, the energy multiplying factor of sugarcane ethanol is around 8.3–10.2, i.e., for each unity of fossil energy used for ethanol production in Brazil, about nine units of renewable energy are produced [88]. Currently, the sugar cane industry is an economic activity that represents 2.2% of the gross domestic product of the country [92]. The Brazilian potential for biofuel production fortifies the position of the country as a regional power, besides the expression of politic leadership regarding the use, production and quality control of these fuels in Latin America. Brazil counts on sugarcane, which is the main feedstock used to produce bioethanol. The country also
holds large plantations of soybeans and other oilseeds for the production of biodiesel. The areas designed to the cultivation of these crops have expanded in recent decades. Because of this yield increase, harvests in the last years reached record values [25]. Brazil leads the use of biofuels in Latin America since the 60s, when it was also responsible for 85% of all the sugarcane produced among the countries that are part of MERCOSUL, later reaching 97% through investments in technological improvements [26]. This jump came mainly after Law n. 737, from 1938, and Law n. 723, from 1993, which determined the requirement to add ethanol to gasoline. Nevertheless, this requirement was not based on environmental issues, but on energy self-sufficiency and as a means to overcome the recession at that period [27,28]. In the following decade, based on these same reasons, the Brazilian government started the Program of Plant Oils (OVEG), testing biodiesel mixed in various proportions with fossil fuel [29]. Since the turn of the century, a report was elaborated to serve as basis for the creation of the National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB), launched in 2004. With the expansion of the cultivable areas for sugarcane, the production of ethanol increased from 594,985 m³ in the harvest of 1974/75 to nearly 27,604,120 m³ in the harvest of 2010/11 [30]. Fig. 4 shows the gradual development of cultivation of sugarcane and production of ethanol. Therefore, it is evident that the fluctuations in the price of the biofuel produced are directly linked to the cost of production, supply and demand of the feedstock used. Thirty years after the creation and execution of the first stage of the program for introduction of ethanol in Brazil, a new phase of expansion in the production of sugarcane started: the production of the automotive fuel in large scale. In 2003, flexible-fuel vehicles showed up, in which there is the option to use ethanol, gasoline or a blend of both compounds. Because of that, the domestic market of ethanol production was stimulated. Nowadays, the fleet of vehicles with the flex-fuel technology exceeds that of single-fuel vehicles operating in the country [31]. According to predictions, production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in Brazil evolve at an increasing rate, mainly because of the rise in the demand for fuels, the expansion of the Brazilian fleet and the prospect for increase of the blend biodiesel/
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Fig. 4. Evolution of production of sugarcane and ethanol in Brazil between 1970 and 2011 (Data: MAPA [30]).
Fig. 5. Production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in 2013 (actual data) until 2022 (prospects) (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
diesel and ethanol with gasoline in the coming years. Fig. 5 shows the production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in 2013 and prospects until 2022. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration [94], 94.25% of the ethanol in Central and South America was produced in Brazil. The high production of ethanol also guarantees the exportation from the Brazilian market to the European Union, United States, Japan, and other countries (Fig. 6). Concerning the production of vegetable oil, Brazil has 150 million hectares between new frontiers and pasture lands that may be incorporated for agricultural production. The country shows edaphoclimatic diversity through all its extension, which assures the cultivation and production of a variety of oilseeds such
as soybean, babassu, peanut, sunflower, Crambe, oil palm, Jatropha curcas, canola, among others. It is important to highlight that these can be explored for the production of biodiesel due to their considerable lipid contents [33], as shown in Table 1. The National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB), created in 2004, differs from the programs developed in the United States and European Union. The Brazilian government aims to make the production of biodiesel a tool for social inclusion in family farming, developing and disseminating crops adapted to the conditions of each region of the country, i.e., conditioning the supply of feedstock to the profile of the producer [40]. This program had the goal to reach one billion liters a year, starting from 2008. Last year, the country had 55 companies for
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Fig. 6. Global (fuel) ethanol trade streams of minimum 2 PJ in 2013 (Data: [88,93,94]).
prominent country in Europe was Italy, with only 2.77% of the global production [94].
Table 1 Potential feedstock for biofuel production. Oilseed
Oil content (%)
Babassu Canola Crambe Sunflower Jatropha curcas Soybean
66 [34] 40 [35] 30–45 [36] 35–52 [37] 35–40 [38] 18–21 [39]
3.2. Argentina
Table 2 Biodiesel production, demand and authorized capacity by Brazilian region in October of 2013. Region
Center-West Northeast North Southeast South Total
Authorized capacity (m³) 300548 48754 18600 94061 219010 680972
Monthly biodiesel production (m³) 114386.81 22530.79 5983.92 22402.41 111618.40 276904.00
Demand B100 (m³) 35184 42829 28097 115266 52164 273541
Source: ANP [43].
biodiesel production and 65 other companies involved in the program, which included 30,000 rural jobs [31]. The regions with the largest monthly production of biodiesel are the Center-West and South, which is justified by the larger productions of soybeans in the states of Mato Grosso (23.5 million metric tons), and Paraná (15.9 million metric tons), since this is the main feedstock used for the production of the biofuel in the country [41]. Table 2 shows the production by region in October of 2013. The South region also stands out in obtaining feedstock from family farming through PNPB, since a significant number of establishments of this kind of agriculture are organized in cooperatives [42]. In 2011, Brazil stood out in biodiesel production in the world, representing 11.41% of the global production. In total production per country, Brazil only lost to the USA and Argentina, which achieved productions of 15.63% and 11.73%, respectively. The most
Argentina has a great potential for biofuel production due to its land extension and geographic and climatic diversity [22]. The country is the third largest soybean producer in the world and the first exporter of soybean oil [90]. Similarly to Brazil, Argentina shows favorable edaphoclimatic conditions and fertile soils for the cultivation of grains and oilseeds. Currently, gas and petroleum are the most important energy sources for Argentina, since the current institutional organization of the country's energy system is a result of strategies of the private sector [89]. The Argentine government stimulated the domestic market of biofuels in 2006. Law n. 26,190 proposed the participation of 8% of renewable energies in the energy matrix until 2015. Furthermore, Law n. 26,093 established the regulation and promotion of sustainable use of biofuels, through the mandatory addition of biodiesel to fossil diesel. In 2010, the blend was already of 5% of biodiesel in petroleum diesel. Similarly, gasoline should have 5% of ethanol [44]. In order to reach such percentiles, the Secretariat of Fuels of Argentina estimated that 330 million liters of ethanol and 890 million liters of biodiesel per year would be necessary to meet the demand for fuel consumed at the time by the national fleet. Therefore, a lot of investments were made in agricultural expansion and development of new technologies of production, so that large part of the produce would not be used to produce biofuels [45]. According to Paola [97], the production of biodiesel in Argentina in 2012 was of 2,455,138 metric tons, while the domestic consumption was of 874,794 metric tons, a little more than 35% of the production. Of the total produced, 824,394 metric tons were mixed with diesel, 50,041 metric tons were used in other sectors, and 1,597,399 metric tons were exported. Ethanol production in 2012 was of 199,454 metric tons and the domestic consumption was of 187,719 metric tons, representing 60% of the total needed to achieve the goal of 5% of ethanol in gasoline. Fig. 7 shows the development of sugarcane for ethanol production and of oilseeds liable to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production. The gradual increase in the production of both commodities is evident, except for the drop in production of oilseeds in 2008 and 2009.
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Fig. 7. Production profile of sugarcane and oilseeds in 2000–2012 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Fig. 8. Global biodiesel trade streams of minimum 1 PJ in 2013 (Data: [88,93,95]).
The jump of investments in liquid fuel production by the Argentine government and the private sector shows to be more oriented towards biodiesel production, since the diesel sector is dominant in Argentina, as in several other countries in America. Besides, the country was among the largest exporters of soybean oil and soybean meal in the world. Hence, the superiority in production and exportation of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil is compared to the rapid and pronounced growth of production and exportation of biodiesel from soybeans in Argentina [46,47]. The Argentine agricultural sector is responsible for more than 50% of the country's exports. Nevertheless, it is possible to keep food prices low in the domestic market by applying taxes and fees to exportation. Unlike Brazil, biodiesel production in Argentina has always been directed to exportation, since this was the main destination for the soybean oil produced, assuring larger
profits from the value aggregated to the product [48,32]. Since 2009, Argentina was already the fourth largest producer of biodiesel in the world and responsible for big part of the exports of the biofuel worldwide, along with Malaysia and Indonesia, exclusively supplying the markets of the USA and European Union (Fig. 8).
3.3. Chile Chile has a high dependence on energy sources, especially oil and natural gas from other countries, considering that its demand is supplied at 98% and 90%, respectively, from these external sources. Chile's energy matrix (Fig. 9) is composed of 40% oil and 24% natural gas, bearing in mind that roughly 2/3 of all its primary energy is imported [49].
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underused. The country also has abundant resources, such as great extension of native forests still not managed, and large availability of lignocellulosic material [50]. 3.4. Colombia
Fig. 9. National Energy Matrix for the year of 2012 (Data: [96]).
In Chile, liquid biofuels integrated the class of fuels through Law n. 20,339/2009. The use of biofuels was supported by decree n. 11/2008, which authorizes the blend of 2–5% of biodiesel and ethanol to diesel and gasoline, respectively, but the blend is facultative. Moreover, Circular n. 30 (May 16, 2007) exempts biodiesel and bioethanol from taxes. According to Santander et al. [91], in 2009, the capacity for biodiesel production in Chile was about 75,000 m3. The capacity in the three previous years was not over 3000 m3. Thus, a rapid expansion in the biodiesel production sector can be noticed. Even so, the current production represents only 37% of the minimum necessary for the implementation of the policy for addition of 2% of biodiesel to fossil diesel. In 2012, diesel consumption was around 9.8 million m3, of which about 63% is imported [87]. Domestic consumption of gasoline in Chile, in 2012, was about 3.5 million m3, of which 21% came from other countries [87]. With the implementation of the policy for addition of 5% of ethanol in gasoline, the country would save in gas imports and promote social and economic development in regions of production. For that, ethanol production should be of 175 million liters per year. According to Garcia et al. [50], Chile invested more than BRL 25 million in the construction of new ethanol manufacturing plants, which will have the capacity to produce 110,000 m3 a year, i.e., about 63% of the ethanol needed for the implementation of the aforementioned policy. The condition of external dependence of Chile has gotten worse in the last years, given that, in 2008, 70% of the net energy consumed in all sectors of the country came from external sources, and that substantial changes were not predicted for the coming years [50]. The transportation sector is responsible for 63.5% of the consumption of energy from petroleum products [51]. Unfortunately, unlike Brazil, Chile does not show a climate suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane, the main feedstock used for ethanol production. Other crops could be used for this purpose such as beet sugar, wheat, corn or rice. However, due to the low ethanol yield and limitation of cultivable areas, the production of vehicular ethanol becomes unfeasible when the aim is to meet the country's demand [52]. The production of biodiesel from oilseeds in the country has better conditions than ethanol production. As a result of the vast amount of areas liable to the production of feedstock to obtain fuel, there is no problem of competition of soils with food production. The two main crops adapted to the edaphoclimatic conditions of Chile are rapeseed and sunflower [53]. Technologies for obtaining biofuels through routes of second generation can be seen as a partial solution for the Chilean dependence on imported liquid fuels. Management and operation of forests and agricultural residues should be treated as possible feedstock for biofuels, since most of these resources are
In Colombia, the biofuels produced are mostly intended for the transportation sector, aiming to gradually replace fossil fuels used in the vehicles operating in the country [54]. In 2005, like in Brazil and Argentina, the Colombian biofuels program started with the introduction of blends of 5% of ethanol in gasoline. The project was started in large cities, and, in 2008, the blends of 5% of biodiesel with petroleum diesel was introduced in the domestic market [55]. The country has a diverse set of potential feedstock for ethanol production: wheat, sweet sorghum, corn and barley. Nevertheless, the main crop used for this purpose is sugarcane, specifically, the molasses associated to sugar production. Also, some studies have been carried out considering beet as a potential feedstock for ethanol production [7,56]. In 2010, Colombia was the tenth largest producer of ethanol in the world, with a production of 85 million gallons, using sugarcane juice and molasses as feedstock [57]. The Colombian biodiesel production is chiefly based on palm oil, as well as other crops such as cotton, soybean, sesame, and other oilseeds not intended for human consumption like castor bean and J. curcas [58–60]. Palm oil has great relevance not only for the Colombian industry, but also represented 8% of the total worldwide production per year in the period 2008–2010, and is expected to reach 30% until 2015 [61]. Colombia occupies the fifth place in palm oil production in the world and the first place in Latin America [62,63]. The current blend of ethanol in gasoline is 8%, while biodiesel is added to diesel at 7–10%, depending on the region of the country. Ethanol is used as close as possible to the place of production, whereas biodiesel can be transported in oil pipelines mixed with diesel in proportions lower than 4% [64,7]. As in the other emerging countries of South America, Colombia shows tendencies to a gradual increase of biofuels aiming the partial substitution of petroleum products and reduction of the dependence on foreign energy markets. Fig. 10 shows the prospects of production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in the country. Despite the favorable conditions for production of biodiesel from oil palm and the promising prospects of production of biodiesel in Colombia, the country remains far from the values expected for Brazil and Argentina. 3.5. Paraguay A developing country, Paraguay has been overcoming several challenges related to the improvement of its energy system. Even though this country has a great hydroelectric capacity, thanks to the presence of the hydroelectric ITAIPU Binacional (property of Brazil and Paraguay, 50% of each nation), the demand for energy of the transportation sector is primarily supplied by foreign fossil energy sources. If we start from the premise that the average blend of ethanol in gasoline is currently around 21%, and that Paraguay consumes nearly 264 million liters of gas, 55.4 million liters of ethanol would be necessary to supply the country's demand. Most of the ethanol produced in Paraguay, like in Brazil, comes from sugarcane, considering there are about 82 thousand hectares in cultivation. In 2007, the production of ethanol in the country was of 53 million liters, amount just about enough to supply the current demand of the fuel added to gasoline [65].
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Fig. 10. Prospects of production of biodiesel and ethanol in Colombia for the years 2013–2020 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Concerning biodiesel production, in 2007, the then Ministry of Industry and Trade determined that 1% of biodiesel should be added to fossil diesel. These values increased to 3% and 5% in 2008 and 2009, respectively. With the consumption of diesel in the country, 50 million liters of the biofuel would be needed to supply the demand of the national fleet in proportions of addition of 5% of biodiesel to conventional diesel [65]. Among the main energy crops liable to cultivation and production of biodiesel in Paraguay, there is castor bean, soybean, sunflower, tung tree, peanut, cotton, J. curcas and canola, besides animal fat and residual oils. Due to the scenario of high availability and low cost of electric power, several studies have been carried out seeking to obtain fuel from hydrogen cells through electrolysis of water [66,67]. An interesting and innovative fact of these studies is related to the production of hydro-methane coupled with methanol in the same industrial plant. The processes for obtaining methanol through biomass gasification are already well-known. Hydromethane is obtained in a similar process, in which the CO present in the gas for synthesis is mixed with the hydrogen produced in the electrolysis equipment. This process produces a blend with ideal composition for Sebastier's reaction, with the purpose of synthesizing hydro-methane as final product [68,69].
3.6. Peru In 2003, Peru adopted policies to stimulate the national biofuel market, seeking the development of alternate energy sources. Similarly to the other countries in South America, the blend of biodiesel and ethanol to diesel and gasoline became mandatory in 2007. Ethanol started to be added in a proportion of 7.8% to gasoline in 2010, and 5% of biodiesel to diesel in 2011. Diesel is still the most consumed fuel by the national transportation system, and the demand for the fuel in 2007 was of 61 million barrels a day. However, the expectation for the coming years is of a significant increase in biodiesel production, as seen in Fig. 11 [70,71]. Before the Peruvian policy for adding ethanol to gasoline came into force, the country had already exported approximately 185 million liters of ethanol [72]. On the other hand, it is observed that
the national consumption of biodiesel exceeds in large proportion its production. According to McAloon et al. [73], the costs of production and consumption of energy, especially ethanol, are strongly dependent on the choice of feedstock. Hence, the technologies start from crops composed primarily of simple carbohydrates, starch and lignocellulose, respectively. Santa-Maria et al. [74] points out that Peru holds a noteworthy potential for ethanol production from an uncommon lignocellulosic residue produced in the cultivation of banana. According to him, such residues can be responsible for almost 6 million liters of ethanol a year, considering only the region of Chira Valley in Peru and assuming maximum conversion. There are numerous plantations of oil palm in Peru, since the edaphoclimatic conditions of the Amazon are quite suitable to its cultivation [70]. Some studies have also considered the introduction of J. curcas in the country [75]. Both crops are oilseeds with high potential for biodiesel production and have been boosting the production of biodiesel in Peru [76]. 3.7. Uruguay Uruguay is a small developing country that shows several advantages regarding the production of agricultural goods and specializes in exportation of agricultural products and importation of petroleum and its products (22% of the imports). Due to high oil imports and the country's GDP, this is considered one of the world's most vulnerable countries to variations in oil prices [77–79]. Uruguay is among the countries with potential to produce fuels from energy crops. In 2002, Law n. 17,567 promoted the production of alternate fuels that could substitute fossil fuels using local materials of plant and animal origin. In 2005, the elaboration of a framework for the creation of policies of regional integration that were economic and environmentally sustainable was started, aiming the production of renewable fuels from renewable natural resources as well [80]. The National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) developed a project for biodiesel production from different vegetable oils, primarily based on the production of rapeseed oil. This initiative had Brazil as a role model, which sought to develop
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(millions of liters)
(millions of liters)
360
Fig. 11. Prospect of production and consumption of biodiesel and bioethanol in Peru for the years 2013–2022 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]). Table 3 Main companies of biodiesel production in Uruguay. Name/geographic location
Feed stock
Ecodiesel – Montevideo B-Diesel – Artigas Masoil – Tacuarembo PINTER – Soriano Galofer – Treinta y Tres Biogra – Colonia URUPEMA/Petrosul – Canelones Polo Tecnológico de Pando – Canelones INIA – Canelones
Beef tallow/vegetable oils Beef tallow/vegetable oils Beef tallow Vegetable oils Rice oil Vegetable oils Vegetable oils Vegetable oils Vegetable oils
Installed capacity (t/day) 15.0 10.0 4.0 30.0 18.0 30.0 33.3 0.5 2.4
Investment (thousand of US$) 600 300 90 100 20,200 900 2,500 25 62
Source: Prieto [82].
raw materials for biodiesel production that were suitable for each region of the country as much in the economic aspect as in the environmental and social ones [81]. Besides state-run researches, a large amount of private ventures is in operation for biodiesel production. In addition to vegetable oil, these companies also use beef tallow. However, the installed capacity of production in these enterprises is low and most of the investments are of low magnitude and national origin. Furthermore, its economic viability is directly related to the price of inputs and final value of the feedstock, keeping in mind that fluctuations in the prices of these components could cause serious economic problems for these companies. Table 3 shows the main companies focused on biodiesel production, the feedstock used and the investment put into each enterprise. The projects for ethanol production began in 2005, aiming to decrease the dependence on foreign energy. It also aimed to develop an agro-industrial chain, especially in regions of poor social conditions. With the development of the project, it was possible to continue the implementation of ethanol production. The country has 10 thousand hectares of sugarcane and 4 thousand hectares of sweet sorghum. With predictions of investment of 44 million dollars, these conditions would enable the production of 45 thousand metric tons of sugar and about 20 thousand m3 of ethanol. In this scenario, it would be possible to add 5% of ethanol to the gasoline consumed in the country [79].
3.8. Venezuela Venezuela is a rich country in both renewable (water, solar, wind) and non-renewable resources (coal, oil, natural gas) [83]. It holds a large amount of oil reserves (172,323 million barrels). Besides, in 2008, the natural gas reserves were sufficient for 240 years, but the maximum amount available for energy productionwas4.065 billion ft³ a day, and the predictions for 2022 show that Venezuela’s energy base will not be enough to supply the domestic consumption [84,85]. The production of liquid biofuels in the country has only been considered after the third decade of the last century, by routes of second generation. Biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel from first generation routes are normally produced from the cultivation of food crops and could create competition of the production of fuels with the production of food and use of water in the country. Fuels of second and third generation are produced from lignocellulosic residues from forests, agro-industries and grasses of short rotation [86]. According to a study by Bautista [83], Venezuela has a number of resources, such as solar and wind power, aiming to reach a sustainable development with already existent technologies. Although the prospects are not as positive as for the other countries in South America, the overall performance of Venezuela shows tendencies to increase both from the economic and environmental points of view.
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4. Conclusion With the major concern about the depletion and consequent high in the prices of fossil energies over the last years, biofuels gained remarkable room in order to supply the world's energy demand. In South America, liquid biofuels stand out among renewable energies, represented mostly by ethanol and biodiesel. Brazil and Argentina lead the scenario and prospects of these biofuels in South America, while countries like Peru and Uruguay look for alternatives to supply such demands as they struggle internally for legislations that stimulate the use of biofuels in the energy matrix.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Current scenario and prospects of use of liquid biofuels in South America Paulo André Cremonez a,n, Michael Feroldi b, Armin Feiden a, Joel Gustavo Teleken b, Diego José Gris b, Jonathan Dieter b, Eduardo de Rossi a, Jhonatas Antonelli a a b
University of West Paraná, Department of Agricultural Energy, Rua Universitária, 2069, CEP: 85.819-130, Bairro Faculdade, Cascavel, PR, Brazil Federal University of Paraná (UFPR – Setor Palotina), Rua Pioneiro, 2153, CEP: 85.950-000, Bairro Jardim Dallas, Palotina, PR, Brazil
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 29 April 2014 Received in revised form 2 November 2014 Accepted 8 November 2014
The rise of biofuels took place after the great oil crisis that impacted the world in the 70s. At that period, the mission of supplying the world's demand was given primarily to liquid biofuels. South America has a set of renewable energy sources and shows a great potential to contribute to the energy supply of the world in the coming years. Brazil leads the production of biofuels in South and Latin America since the 60s and also stands out at a global scale. Considering this context, this paper aims to approach the current scenario and the prospects of the main South-American countries, whose energy matrices receive relevant contribution from liquid biofuels. In South America, liquid biofuels stand out among renewable energies, represented mostly by ethanol and biodiesel. Brazil and Argentina lead the scenario and prospects of these biofuels in South America, while countries like Peru and Uruguay look for alternatives to supply such demands as they struggle internally for legislations that stimulate the use of biofuels in the energy matrix. & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiesel Bioethanol Renewable energies
Contents 1. 2. 3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biofuels in the current world scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biofuels in South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Paraguay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6. Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8. Venezuela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction An interesting argument for the development of biofuel production is the reduction of emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) compared to fossil fuels [1]. Great discussions are currently raised
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regarding the use of sustainable biomass from agriculture for biofuel production, while a great amount of scientific papers about the issue have been produced and investments in new researches for the use of biomass are generated all around the world [2,3]. Although biofuels are considered one of the most sustainable forms of replacement for fossil fuels, the integral performance in the biofuel chain is still not very clear [4–6]. Since biofuels are directly affected by national and international policies, such as low subsidies and rigorous specifications, the impacts on their
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Fig. 1. Total primary energy supply by fuel in 1973 and 2010. *Includes geothermal, solar, wind, heat, etc. (Data: IEA [15]).
productive chains have to be analyzed in distinct contexts applied to each reality [7]. Renewable fuels are mostly originated from agriculture, such as: sugarcane, oilseed crops and forest biomass, among others. The main biofuels produced in large scale are biodiesel, methane and ethanol, used isolated or in blends with their fossil equivalents [8]. With the variation and volatility of oil prices, besides the geopolitical instability of the countries that hold the major oilfields, the use of liquid biofuels has been increasing. Energy safety is one of the primary factors behind this increase, especially in the transportation sector [9–11]. South America holds a diverse set of renewable energy sources, being able to contribute significantly to supply the world's energy demand in the future [12]. Thereby, the present paper aims to approach the current scenario and prospects of production of biofuels in the main South-American countries, whose energy matrices receive relevant contribution from liquid biofuels.
2. Biofuels in the current world scenario The first oil crisis (70s) made the era of fossil fuels, previously abundant and of low cost, come to an end. The high taxes charged to the United States by the Arabs and the decrease in production and exportation made the price of the oil barrel quadruple between the years of 73 and 74 [13]. Since then, several developed and developing countries started to look for other sources of energy. The biofuels showed up in this context as an interesting alternative as much from an economic point of view as from the environmental and social ones [14]. Fig. 1 shows the global supply of primary energy. The steep reduction of oil supply and substantial increase of total energy supply are noticeable. Total energy supply jumped from 6107 Mtoe in 1973 to 12,717 Mtoe in 2010. The modernization of emerging markets was responsible for intensive dynamics of industrialization, urbanization and development of infrastructure. One of the immediate consequences of this process is the boom for the internal demand of energy in countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa [16]. The increasing energy demand of these emerging markets began to impact on the global energy matrix, affecting the global economy as a whole [17]. Consuming nearly 57% of petroleum products, the transportation sector is the most impacted by the variations in the price of these fuels. In this scenario, the incentive to bioenergy and the search for alternate fuels have been boosted since the first oil crisis. Bioenergy is also evaluated as a viable and promising alternative in short and medium terms, and is intended
to stand out in the global energy matrix in the coming years, primarily aiming to supply the demand of the transportation sector [18]. Fig. 2 shows the production of biodiesel and hydrated ethanol in 2013 and the predictions until 2022. The linear increase of the prospect of global production for both biofuels is noteworthy. The enhancement of current techniques and the emergence of new technologies for the production of ethanol and biodiesel, besides the fuels of second and third generations, are the main factors that boost this prospect of increasing production and consumption in the coming years.
3. Biofuels in South America The countries in South America show a set of advantages for the production of biofuels, such as soils rich in nutrients, suitable climatic conditions, land availability and cheap labor, when compared to countries in the European Union and the Unites States. Brazil is one of the few countries that show a history of increasing supply and use of biofuels for more than 30 years, which is due to the implementation of bioethanol as fuel for transportation. Furthermore, Brazil and Argentina have been producing biodiesel from seeds that are largely cultivated in these countries, especially soybeans. Several other countries of the same region show an interesting potential for biofuel production. However, only with a recent wave of investments from the governments, Latin America comes boosting the production of biofuels at medium and long terms [12,20]. A large portion of the liquid biofuel production is expected to take place in the Southern Hemisphere, because of unsuitable climatic conditions in most of the Northern Hemisphere. Larger biomass production and lower cost are factors that stimulate biofuel production in the tropics. Therefore, biofuels have the potential to offer opportunities for social and economic development, besides giving access to energy in developing countries [22]. The participation of South and Central America in the global production of biodiesel reached the second position by region (Fig. 3), coming right after Europe. Brazil stands out with 12.3% of the global production of biodiesel in 2010 [21]. The growing market of biofuels in this region has both positive and negative impacts concerning the economy, environment and society, and several factors affect its maintenance. Currently, the biofuel market is limited in several Latin countries. It shows stability in Brazil, Colombia and Argentina, mainly because of the concentration of ethanol production [22,23].
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Fig. 2. Production and global prospect (2013–2022) of production of biodiesel and hydrated ethanol (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Fig. 3. Contribution for the global production of biodiesel by region in 2010. (Data: Silva [21]).
3.1. Brazil Brazil shows a remarkable experience in the production of biofuels since the 70s, when the great oil crisis served as basis for the creation of the Pro-Álcool program. This program aimed to lower the dependence on fossil fuels at the time [24]. The crisis affected the country and sugar exportation decreased. The development of the ethanol program enabled the orientation of sugarcane production with the rise of sugar-energy plants, in which sugarcane juice can be directed to sugar or ethanol production in the same industrial plant. The country also has natural conditions that are favorable to the cultivation of biofuel crops. Moreover, the energy multiplying factor of sugarcane ethanol is around 8.3–10.2, i.e., for each unity of fossil energy used for ethanol production in Brazil, about nine units of renewable energy are produced [88]. Currently, the sugar cane industry is an economic activity that represents 2.2% of the gross domestic product of the country [92]. The Brazilian potential for biofuel production fortifies the position of the country as a regional power, besides the expression of politic leadership regarding the use, production and quality control of these fuels in Latin America. Brazil counts on sugarcane, which is the main feedstock used to produce bioethanol. The country also
holds large plantations of soybeans and other oilseeds for the production of biodiesel. The areas designed to the cultivation of these crops have expanded in recent decades. Because of this yield increase, harvests in the last years reached record values [25]. Brazil leads the use of biofuels in Latin America since the 60s, when it was also responsible for 85% of all the sugarcane produced among the countries that are part of MERCOSUL, later reaching 97% through investments in technological improvements [26]. This jump came mainly after Law n. 737, from 1938, and Law n. 723, from 1993, which determined the requirement to add ethanol to gasoline. Nevertheless, this requirement was not based on environmental issues, but on energy self-sufficiency and as a means to overcome the recession at that period [27,28]. In the following decade, based on these same reasons, the Brazilian government started the Program of Plant Oils (OVEG), testing biodiesel mixed in various proportions with fossil fuel [29]. Since the turn of the century, a report was elaborated to serve as basis for the creation of the National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB), launched in 2004. With the expansion of the cultivable areas for sugarcane, the production of ethanol increased from 594,985 m³ in the harvest of 1974/75 to nearly 27,604,120 m³ in the harvest of 2010/11 [30]. Fig. 4 shows the gradual development of cultivation of sugarcane and production of ethanol. Therefore, it is evident that the fluctuations in the price of the biofuel produced are directly linked to the cost of production, supply and demand of the feedstock used. Thirty years after the creation and execution of the first stage of the program for introduction of ethanol in Brazil, a new phase of expansion in the production of sugarcane started: the production of the automotive fuel in large scale. In 2003, flexible-fuel vehicles showed up, in which there is the option to use ethanol, gasoline or a blend of both compounds. Because of that, the domestic market of ethanol production was stimulated. Nowadays, the fleet of vehicles with the flex-fuel technology exceeds that of single-fuel vehicles operating in the country [31]. According to predictions, production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in Brazil evolve at an increasing rate, mainly because of the rise in the demand for fuels, the expansion of the Brazilian fleet and the prospect for increase of the blend biodiesel/
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Fig. 4. Evolution of production of sugarcane and ethanol in Brazil between 1970 and 2011 (Data: MAPA [30]).
Fig. 5. Production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in 2013 (actual data) until 2022 (prospects) (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
diesel and ethanol with gasoline in the coming years. Fig. 5 shows the production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in 2013 and prospects until 2022. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration [94], 94.25% of the ethanol in Central and South America was produced in Brazil. The high production of ethanol also guarantees the exportation from the Brazilian market to the European Union, United States, Japan, and other countries (Fig. 6). Concerning the production of vegetable oil, Brazil has 150 million hectares between new frontiers and pasture lands that may be incorporated for agricultural production. The country shows edaphoclimatic diversity through all its extension, which assures the cultivation and production of a variety of oilseeds such
as soybean, babassu, peanut, sunflower, Crambe, oil palm, Jatropha curcas, canola, among others. It is important to highlight that these can be explored for the production of biodiesel due to their considerable lipid contents [33], as shown in Table 1. The National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB), created in 2004, differs from the programs developed in the United States and European Union. The Brazilian government aims to make the production of biodiesel a tool for social inclusion in family farming, developing and disseminating crops adapted to the conditions of each region of the country, i.e., conditioning the supply of feedstock to the profile of the producer [40]. This program had the goal to reach one billion liters a year, starting from 2008. Last year, the country had 55 companies for
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Fig. 6. Global (fuel) ethanol trade streams of minimum 2 PJ in 2013 (Data: [88,93,94]).
prominent country in Europe was Italy, with only 2.77% of the global production [94].
Table 1 Potential feedstock for biofuel production. Oilseed
Oil content (%)
Babassu Canola Crambe Sunflower Jatropha curcas Soybean
66 [34] 40 [35] 30–45 [36] 35–52 [37] 35–40 [38] 18–21 [39]
3.2. Argentina
Table 2 Biodiesel production, demand and authorized capacity by Brazilian region in October of 2013. Region
Center-West Northeast North Southeast South Total
Authorized capacity (m³) 300548 48754 18600 94061 219010 680972
Monthly biodiesel production (m³) 114386.81 22530.79 5983.92 22402.41 111618.40 276904.00
Demand B100 (m³) 35184 42829 28097 115266 52164 273541
Source: ANP [43].
biodiesel production and 65 other companies involved in the program, which included 30,000 rural jobs [31]. The regions with the largest monthly production of biodiesel are the Center-West and South, which is justified by the larger productions of soybeans in the states of Mato Grosso (23.5 million metric tons), and Paraná (15.9 million metric tons), since this is the main feedstock used for the production of the biofuel in the country [41]. Table 2 shows the production by region in October of 2013. The South region also stands out in obtaining feedstock from family farming through PNPB, since a significant number of establishments of this kind of agriculture are organized in cooperatives [42]. In 2011, Brazil stood out in biodiesel production in the world, representing 11.41% of the global production. In total production per country, Brazil only lost to the USA and Argentina, which achieved productions of 15.63% and 11.73%, respectively. The most
Argentina has a great potential for biofuel production due to its land extension and geographic and climatic diversity [22]. The country is the third largest soybean producer in the world and the first exporter of soybean oil [90]. Similarly to Brazil, Argentina shows favorable edaphoclimatic conditions and fertile soils for the cultivation of grains and oilseeds. Currently, gas and petroleum are the most important energy sources for Argentina, since the current institutional organization of the country's energy system is a result of strategies of the private sector [89]. The Argentine government stimulated the domestic market of biofuels in 2006. Law n. 26,190 proposed the participation of 8% of renewable energies in the energy matrix until 2015. Furthermore, Law n. 26,093 established the regulation and promotion of sustainable use of biofuels, through the mandatory addition of biodiesel to fossil diesel. In 2010, the blend was already of 5% of biodiesel in petroleum diesel. Similarly, gasoline should have 5% of ethanol [44]. In order to reach such percentiles, the Secretariat of Fuels of Argentina estimated that 330 million liters of ethanol and 890 million liters of biodiesel per year would be necessary to meet the demand for fuel consumed at the time by the national fleet. Therefore, a lot of investments were made in agricultural expansion and development of new technologies of production, so that large part of the produce would not be used to produce biofuels [45]. According to Paola [97], the production of biodiesel in Argentina in 2012 was of 2,455,138 metric tons, while the domestic consumption was of 874,794 metric tons, a little more than 35% of the production. Of the total produced, 824,394 metric tons were mixed with diesel, 50,041 metric tons were used in other sectors, and 1,597,399 metric tons were exported. Ethanol production in 2012 was of 199,454 metric tons and the domestic consumption was of 187,719 metric tons, representing 60% of the total needed to achieve the goal of 5% of ethanol in gasoline. Fig. 7 shows the development of sugarcane for ethanol production and of oilseeds liable to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production. The gradual increase in the production of both commodities is evident, except for the drop in production of oilseeds in 2008 and 2009.
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Fig. 7. Production profile of sugarcane and oilseeds in 2000–2012 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Fig. 8. Global biodiesel trade streams of minimum 1 PJ in 2013 (Data: [88,93,95]).
The jump of investments in liquid fuel production by the Argentine government and the private sector shows to be more oriented towards biodiesel production, since the diesel sector is dominant in Argentina, as in several other countries in America. Besides, the country was among the largest exporters of soybean oil and soybean meal in the world. Hence, the superiority in production and exportation of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil is compared to the rapid and pronounced growth of production and exportation of biodiesel from soybeans in Argentina [46,47]. The Argentine agricultural sector is responsible for more than 50% of the country's exports. Nevertheless, it is possible to keep food prices low in the domestic market by applying taxes and fees to exportation. Unlike Brazil, biodiesel production in Argentina has always been directed to exportation, since this was the main destination for the soybean oil produced, assuring larger
profits from the value aggregated to the product [48,32]. Since 2009, Argentina was already the fourth largest producer of biodiesel in the world and responsible for big part of the exports of the biofuel worldwide, along with Malaysia and Indonesia, exclusively supplying the markets of the USA and European Union (Fig. 8).
3.3. Chile Chile has a high dependence on energy sources, especially oil and natural gas from other countries, considering that its demand is supplied at 98% and 90%, respectively, from these external sources. Chile's energy matrix (Fig. 9) is composed of 40% oil and 24% natural gas, bearing in mind that roughly 2/3 of all its primary energy is imported [49].
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underused. The country also has abundant resources, such as great extension of native forests still not managed, and large availability of lignocellulosic material [50]. 3.4. Colombia
Fig. 9. National Energy Matrix for the year of 2012 (Data: [96]).
In Chile, liquid biofuels integrated the class of fuels through Law n. 20,339/2009. The use of biofuels was supported by decree n. 11/2008, which authorizes the blend of 2–5% of biodiesel and ethanol to diesel and gasoline, respectively, but the blend is facultative. Moreover, Circular n. 30 (May 16, 2007) exempts biodiesel and bioethanol from taxes. According to Santander et al. [91], in 2009, the capacity for biodiesel production in Chile was about 75,000 m3. The capacity in the three previous years was not over 3000 m3. Thus, a rapid expansion in the biodiesel production sector can be noticed. Even so, the current production represents only 37% of the minimum necessary for the implementation of the policy for addition of 2% of biodiesel to fossil diesel. In 2012, diesel consumption was around 9.8 million m3, of which about 63% is imported [87]. Domestic consumption of gasoline in Chile, in 2012, was about 3.5 million m3, of which 21% came from other countries [87]. With the implementation of the policy for addition of 5% of ethanol in gasoline, the country would save in gas imports and promote social and economic development in regions of production. For that, ethanol production should be of 175 million liters per year. According to Garcia et al. [50], Chile invested more than BRL 25 million in the construction of new ethanol manufacturing plants, which will have the capacity to produce 110,000 m3 a year, i.e., about 63% of the ethanol needed for the implementation of the aforementioned policy. The condition of external dependence of Chile has gotten worse in the last years, given that, in 2008, 70% of the net energy consumed in all sectors of the country came from external sources, and that substantial changes were not predicted for the coming years [50]. The transportation sector is responsible for 63.5% of the consumption of energy from petroleum products [51]. Unfortunately, unlike Brazil, Chile does not show a climate suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane, the main feedstock used for ethanol production. Other crops could be used for this purpose such as beet sugar, wheat, corn or rice. However, due to the low ethanol yield and limitation of cultivable areas, the production of vehicular ethanol becomes unfeasible when the aim is to meet the country's demand [52]. The production of biodiesel from oilseeds in the country has better conditions than ethanol production. As a result of the vast amount of areas liable to the production of feedstock to obtain fuel, there is no problem of competition of soils with food production. The two main crops adapted to the edaphoclimatic conditions of Chile are rapeseed and sunflower [53]. Technologies for obtaining biofuels through routes of second generation can be seen as a partial solution for the Chilean dependence on imported liquid fuels. Management and operation of forests and agricultural residues should be treated as possible feedstock for biofuels, since most of these resources are
In Colombia, the biofuels produced are mostly intended for the transportation sector, aiming to gradually replace fossil fuels used in the vehicles operating in the country [54]. In 2005, like in Brazil and Argentina, the Colombian biofuels program started with the introduction of blends of 5% of ethanol in gasoline. The project was started in large cities, and, in 2008, the blends of 5% of biodiesel with petroleum diesel was introduced in the domestic market [55]. The country has a diverse set of potential feedstock for ethanol production: wheat, sweet sorghum, corn and barley. Nevertheless, the main crop used for this purpose is sugarcane, specifically, the molasses associated to sugar production. Also, some studies have been carried out considering beet as a potential feedstock for ethanol production [7,56]. In 2010, Colombia was the tenth largest producer of ethanol in the world, with a production of 85 million gallons, using sugarcane juice and molasses as feedstock [57]. The Colombian biodiesel production is chiefly based on palm oil, as well as other crops such as cotton, soybean, sesame, and other oilseeds not intended for human consumption like castor bean and J. curcas [58–60]. Palm oil has great relevance not only for the Colombian industry, but also represented 8% of the total worldwide production per year in the period 2008–2010, and is expected to reach 30% until 2015 [61]. Colombia occupies the fifth place in palm oil production in the world and the first place in Latin America [62,63]. The current blend of ethanol in gasoline is 8%, while biodiesel is added to diesel at 7–10%, depending on the region of the country. Ethanol is used as close as possible to the place of production, whereas biodiesel can be transported in oil pipelines mixed with diesel in proportions lower than 4% [64,7]. As in the other emerging countries of South America, Colombia shows tendencies to a gradual increase of biofuels aiming the partial substitution of petroleum products and reduction of the dependence on foreign energy markets. Fig. 10 shows the prospects of production and consumption of biodiesel and ethanol in the country. Despite the favorable conditions for production of biodiesel from oil palm and the promising prospects of production of biodiesel in Colombia, the country remains far from the values expected for Brazil and Argentina. 3.5. Paraguay A developing country, Paraguay has been overcoming several challenges related to the improvement of its energy system. Even though this country has a great hydroelectric capacity, thanks to the presence of the hydroelectric ITAIPU Binacional (property of Brazil and Paraguay, 50% of each nation), the demand for energy of the transportation sector is primarily supplied by foreign fossil energy sources. If we start from the premise that the average blend of ethanol in gasoline is currently around 21%, and that Paraguay consumes nearly 264 million liters of gas, 55.4 million liters of ethanol would be necessary to supply the country's demand. Most of the ethanol produced in Paraguay, like in Brazil, comes from sugarcane, considering there are about 82 thousand hectares in cultivation. In 2007, the production of ethanol in the country was of 53 million liters, amount just about enough to supply the current demand of the fuel added to gasoline [65].
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Fig. 10. Prospects of production of biodiesel and ethanol in Colombia for the years 2013–2020 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]).
Concerning biodiesel production, in 2007, the then Ministry of Industry and Trade determined that 1% of biodiesel should be added to fossil diesel. These values increased to 3% and 5% in 2008 and 2009, respectively. With the consumption of diesel in the country, 50 million liters of the biofuel would be needed to supply the demand of the national fleet in proportions of addition of 5% of biodiesel to conventional diesel [65]. Among the main energy crops liable to cultivation and production of biodiesel in Paraguay, there is castor bean, soybean, sunflower, tung tree, peanut, cotton, J. curcas and canola, besides animal fat and residual oils. Due to the scenario of high availability and low cost of electric power, several studies have been carried out seeking to obtain fuel from hydrogen cells through electrolysis of water [66,67]. An interesting and innovative fact of these studies is related to the production of hydro-methane coupled with methanol in the same industrial plant. The processes for obtaining methanol through biomass gasification are already well-known. Hydromethane is obtained in a similar process, in which the CO present in the gas for synthesis is mixed with the hydrogen produced in the electrolysis equipment. This process produces a blend with ideal composition for Sebastier's reaction, with the purpose of synthesizing hydro-methane as final product [68,69].
3.6. Peru In 2003, Peru adopted policies to stimulate the national biofuel market, seeking the development of alternate energy sources. Similarly to the other countries in South America, the blend of biodiesel and ethanol to diesel and gasoline became mandatory in 2007. Ethanol started to be added in a proportion of 7.8% to gasoline in 2010, and 5% of biodiesel to diesel in 2011. Diesel is still the most consumed fuel by the national transportation system, and the demand for the fuel in 2007 was of 61 million barrels a day. However, the expectation for the coming years is of a significant increase in biodiesel production, as seen in Fig. 11 [70,71]. Before the Peruvian policy for adding ethanol to gasoline came into force, the country had already exported approximately 185 million liters of ethanol [72]. On the other hand, it is observed that
the national consumption of biodiesel exceeds in large proportion its production. According to McAloon et al. [73], the costs of production and consumption of energy, especially ethanol, are strongly dependent on the choice of feedstock. Hence, the technologies start from crops composed primarily of simple carbohydrates, starch and lignocellulose, respectively. Santa-Maria et al. [74] points out that Peru holds a noteworthy potential for ethanol production from an uncommon lignocellulosic residue produced in the cultivation of banana. According to him, such residues can be responsible for almost 6 million liters of ethanol a year, considering only the region of Chira Valley in Peru and assuming maximum conversion. There are numerous plantations of oil palm in Peru, since the edaphoclimatic conditions of the Amazon are quite suitable to its cultivation [70]. Some studies have also considered the introduction of J. curcas in the country [75]. Both crops are oilseeds with high potential for biodiesel production and have been boosting the production of biodiesel in Peru [76]. 3.7. Uruguay Uruguay is a small developing country that shows several advantages regarding the production of agricultural goods and specializes in exportation of agricultural products and importation of petroleum and its products (22% of the imports). Due to high oil imports and the country's GDP, this is considered one of the world's most vulnerable countries to variations in oil prices [77–79]. Uruguay is among the countries with potential to produce fuels from energy crops. In 2002, Law n. 17,567 promoted the production of alternate fuels that could substitute fossil fuels using local materials of plant and animal origin. In 2005, the elaboration of a framework for the creation of policies of regional integration that were economic and environmentally sustainable was started, aiming the production of renewable fuels from renewable natural resources as well [80]. The National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) developed a project for biodiesel production from different vegetable oils, primarily based on the production of rapeseed oil. This initiative had Brazil as a role model, which sought to develop
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Fig. 11. Prospect of production and consumption of biodiesel and bioethanol in Peru for the years 2013–2022 (Data: OECD/FAO [19]). Table 3 Main companies of biodiesel production in Uruguay. Name/geographic location
Feed stock
Ecodiesel – Montevideo B-Diesel – Artigas Masoil – Tacuarembo PINTER – Soriano Galofer – Treinta y Tres Biogra – Colonia URUPEMA/Petrosul – Canelones Polo Tecnológico de Pando – Canelones INIA – Canelones
Beef tallow/vegetable oils Beef tallow/vegetable oils Beef tallow Vegetable oils Rice oil Vegetable oils Vegetable oils Vegetable oils Vegetable oils
Installed capacity (t/day) 15.0 10.0 4.0 30.0 18.0 30.0 33.3 0.5 2.4
Investment (thousand of US$) 600 300 90 100 20,200 900 2,500 25 62
Source: Prieto [82].
raw materials for biodiesel production that were suitable for each region of the country as much in the economic aspect as in the environmental and social ones [81]. Besides state-run researches, a large amount of private ventures is in operation for biodiesel production. In addition to vegetable oil, these companies also use beef tallow. However, the installed capacity of production in these enterprises is low and most of the investments are of low magnitude and national origin. Furthermore, its economic viability is directly related to the price of inputs and final value of the feedstock, keeping in mind that fluctuations in the prices of these components could cause serious economic problems for these companies. Table 3 shows the main companies focused on biodiesel production, the feedstock used and the investment put into each enterprise. The projects for ethanol production began in 2005, aiming to decrease the dependence on foreign energy. It also aimed to develop an agro-industrial chain, especially in regions of poor social conditions. With the development of the project, it was possible to continue the implementation of ethanol production. The country has 10 thousand hectares of sugarcane and 4 thousand hectares of sweet sorghum. With predictions of investment of 44 million dollars, these conditions would enable the production of 45 thousand metric tons of sugar and about 20 thousand m3 of ethanol. In this scenario, it would be possible to add 5% of ethanol to the gasoline consumed in the country [79].
3.8. Venezuela Venezuela is a rich country in both renewable (water, solar, wind) and non-renewable resources (coal, oil, natural gas) [83]. It holds a large amount of oil reserves (172,323 million barrels). Besides, in 2008, the natural gas reserves were sufficient for 240 years, but the maximum amount available for energy productionwas4.065 billion ft³ a day, and the predictions for 2022 show that Venezuela’s energy base will not be enough to supply the domestic consumption [84,85]. The production of liquid biofuels in the country has only been considered after the third decade of the last century, by routes of second generation. Biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel from first generation routes are normally produced from the cultivation of food crops and could create competition of the production of fuels with the production of food and use of water in the country. Fuels of second and third generation are produced from lignocellulosic residues from forests, agro-industries and grasses of short rotation [86]. According to a study by Bautista [83], Venezuela has a number of resources, such as solar and wind power, aiming to reach a sustainable development with already existent technologies. Although the prospects are not as positive as for the other countries in South America, the overall performance of Venezuela shows tendencies to increase both from the economic and environmental points of view.
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4. Conclusion With the major concern about the depletion and consequent high in the prices of fossil energies over the last years, biofuels gained remarkable room in order to supply the world's energy demand. In South America, liquid biofuels stand out among renewable energies, represented mostly by ethanol and biodiesel. Brazil and Argentina lead the scenario and prospects of these biofuels in South America, while countries like Peru and Uruguay look for alternatives to supply such demands as they struggle internally for legislations that stimulate the use of biofuels in the energy matrix.
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