Daily hassles, major and minor life events, and their interaction with sociotropy and autonomy

Pergamon

0005-7967(95)00020-8

Behav. Res. Ther. Vol. 33, No. 7, pp. 819-823, 1995 Copyright © 1995 ElsevierScienceLtd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0005-7967/95 $9.50 + 0.00

Daily hassles, major and minor life events, and their interaction with sociotropy and autonomy DAVID A. CLARK and TINA OATES Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick, Bag Service No. 45444, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada E3B 6E4 (Received 27 February 1995) Summary--A cross-sectional study investigated whether Beck's (1983; 1987) (Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches. New York: Raven Press; Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 2-27) cognitive-personality traits of sociotropy and autonomy had a specific interaction with daily minor life events (hassles) or major life experiences within the interpersonal and autonomous domains. Ninety-four undergraduates were administered the revised Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Negative Experiences Inventory--Student Version (NEI), List of Threatening Events and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis, with the BDI as the dependent variable, revealed a specific congruent interaction between Solitude, one of the two dimensions of autonomy, and NEI negative autonomous events. Sociotropy and the other dimension of autonomy, Independence, did not interact significantly with any of the life event scales. The findings suggest that more severe life events rather than daily hassles or strains may be more relevant when investigating cognitive diathesis-stress interactions in dysphoria.

INTRODUCTION Beck's cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression proposes that the cognitive-personality constructs of sociotropy and autonomy interact with specific types of negative life stressors in the onset of reactive depression (Beck, 1983; 1987). Sociotropic individuals place a high value on interpersonal relationships and so try to satisfy their needs for security and self-worth by pleasing others and winning their approval and acceptance. As a result they are more likely to find negative interpersonal events particularly distressing. On the other hand the autonomous person values independence, mastery and solitude, with a tendency to be less sensitive to the needs of others. Consequently the highly autonomous individual is more likely to find negative life events that threaten one's independence, mastery or freedom of choice particularly upsetting (Beck, 1987; 1991). A number of cross-sectional and prospective studies have reported a specific interaction between sociotropy and negative interpersonal events in the prediction of depressive symptoms and dysphoria (Clark, Beck & Brown, 1992; Clark, Purdon & Beck, 1995; Hammen, Ellicott, Gitlin & Jamison, 1989; Hammen, Ellicott & Gitlin, 1989; Hammen, Marks, Mayo & deMayo, 1985; Robins, 1990--study I; Robins & Block, 1988; Rude & Burnham, 1993). Evidence for a specific congruence between autonomy and negative autonomous stressors has been less convincing (Clark et al., 1992; Robins & Block, 1988; Rude & Burnham, 1993; see review by Nietzel and Harris, 1990). The heterogeneous nature of the autonomy construct (Rude & Burnham, 1993) and weak psychometric properties of the Autonomy Total Scale of the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS; Beck, Epstein, Harrison & Emery, 1983) may account for these discouraging results for autonomy (Barnett & Gotlib, 1988a). To date all of the studies investigating Beck's cognitive diathesis-stress model have focused on major negative life stressors as the environmental precipitant of dysphoria or depression. However a growing number of studies have found that minor life stressors or daily hassles are significant predictors of psychological distress and negative affect (e.g. Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler & Schilling, 1989; Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1981; Wagner, Compas & Howell, 1988). In a recent cross-sectional study involving unipolar depressed patients, Hewitt and Flett (1993) found a significant interaction between self-oriented perfectionism (i.e. high self-standards) and achievement hassles, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e. belief that others impose perfectionistic standards on oneself) interacted with interpersonal hassles. These findings suggest that personality vulnerability factors, like perfectionism, may have a specific interaction with less severe daily hassles. To our knowledge no published studies have examined the influence of negative life event severity on personality-life event congruency. Is it possible that a threshold exists such that personality vulnerability may only be sensitive to moderate or severe types of negative life experiences? To investigate this possibility, Ss were administered three self-report measures of stress along with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Revised Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS). The three life event measures assessed mild, moderate, or severely distressing interpersonal and autonomous events. According to Beck's model, dysphoria should be associated with a significant interaction between Sociotropy and negative interpersonal events, whereas the two dimensions of autonomy assessed by the Revised SAS, Solitude and Independence, should have a specific interaction with negative autonomous events. METHOD Subjects Subjects were undergraduate students drawn from Introductory Psychology classes at the University of New Brunswick who voluntarily participated for course credit. Of the 100 Ss who participated in the study, complete data were available 819

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on 94 individuals. There were 56 women and 44 men with a mean age of 19.94 yr (SD = 3.92). Subjects completed the questionnaires individually and provided informed consent prior to participating in the study.

Measures Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS). The 59-item Revised SAS was administered to assess Beck's personality constructs of sociotropy and autonomy. Based on the original 60-item SAS (Beck et al., 1983), an extensive revision was undertaken to address the psychometric limitations of the A u t o n o m y Scale. Thirty-three new a u t o n o m y items were written by researchers at the Center for Cognitive Therapy in Philadelphia and added to the original SAS. A series of studies were conducted on successive nonclinical samples to arrive at a final set of 59 items that reliably reflected sociotropy and two dimensions of autonomy, solitude and independence. The 29-item Sociotropy Scale assesses concerns about disapproval, pleasing others and attachment/separation issues, whereas the 13 items of the Solitude Scale deal with preference for solitude and insensitivity to others. The 17-item Independence Scale assesses issues of individualistic achievement, assertiveness and independence of thought and action. The new Sociotropy, Solitude and Independence subscales possess better convergent and discriminant validity than the original SAS. Information on the scale development and psychometric properties o f the Revised SAS are reported elsewhere (Clark & Beck, 1991; Clark, Steer, Beck & Ross, 1995). Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The revised BDI (Beck & Steer, 1987) was given to assess the intensity of depressive symptoms. Following the recommendations of Kendall, Hollon, Beck, H a m m e n and Ingram (1987) we interpret elevated BDI scores in college students as an indication of dysphoria. Negative Experiences Inventory (NED--Student Version. A 129-item life event checklist was developed to assess a broad range of discrete negative life stressors experienced by college students over a 12 m o n t h period. Three independent psychologists from the Center for Cognitive Therapy in Philadelphia categorized the NEI items in terms of valence (positive, negative or neutral) and whether the event was sociotropic, a u t o n o m o u s or ambiguous. Sociotropic stressors involved an actual or threatened loss of closeness, approval or acceptance from others (NEISOC), whereas the a u t o n o m o u s stressors included any event which involved actual or threatened loss of mastery, freedom of choice or privacy (NEIAUT). Based on a criterion of u n a n i m o u s agreement, 39 items were consistently categorized as negative interpersonal stressors and 49 items as negative a u t o n o m o u s stressors. List of Threatening Experiences. Twelve additional severe life event items were added to the NEI (Brugha, Bebbington, T e n n a n t & Hurry, 1985). These events dealt with life stressors involving moderate or long-term threat such as serious illness and injury, death of close friend or relative, unemployment, major financial loss, and loss of important relationships, and have been shown to have an especially strong association with increased risk for depression (Brugha & Conroy, 1985). Because of the restricted number of items, only a single total score was derived by summing the number of endorsed items. The Hassles and Uplifts Scale. The revised 53-item Hassles and Uplifts Scale (DeLongis, Folkman & Lazarus, 1988) was administered to assess daily hassles or strains. Based on a categorization of the Hassles items reported by Hewitt and Flett (1993), 16 items were selected as having interpersonal content and 27 items as having an achievement orientation. Scores were obtained by s u m m i n g over item ratings in each of these domain-specific categories. A total Uplifts score was based on the s u m m e d ratings for the 53 items.

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics Subjects scored within the normal range on the BDI (M = 8.63, SD = 6.71) and SAS (Sociotropy, M = 61.74, SD = 15.01; Solitude, M = 20.55, SD = 6.83; Independence, M = 42.14, SD = 8.87). Scores on the NEISOC ( M = 3.50, SD --- 2.35) and N E I A U T ( M = 5.97, SD = 4.01) as well as the Negative Interpersonal (M = 7.11, SD = 6.04) and Negative Achievement ( M = 19.17, SD = 10.45) subscales of the Hassles indicated that most students experienced a moderate number of negative life stressors. As expected very few items were endorsed on the List of Threatening Events (M = 0.84, SD = 1.04). Table 1 presents zero-order correlations amongst the various measures. The BDI Total Score was moderately correlated with SAS Sociotropy and the negative a u t o n o m o u s scales of the NEI and Hassles. The three SAS scales had low intercorrelations, whereas the interpersonal and a u t o n o m o u s scales of both the NEI and Hassles were moderately correlated. Because the NEI interpersonal and a u t o n o m o u s scales were more highly correlated with the List of Threatening Events than with the Hassles subscales, this indicates that the NEI emphasizes moderately severe life events more than minor daily stressors.

Overview of hierarchical regression analyses A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed with BDI Total Score as the dependent variable (DV), and the three SAS subscales, NEI, Hassles and Uplifts Scales, and List of Threatening Events as predictors. A hierarchical rather than simultaneous regression model must be used when testing interaction terms so that variance accounted for by the main effects can be partialled out of the equation prior to entering the personality x life events interactions. This allowed us to test the unique relation between the diathesis x stress variables and dysphoria (Cohen & Cohen, 1983),

Table I. Zero-order correlations amongst measures for the total sample Scales 1. SOC 2. SOL 3. IND 4. NEISOC 5. NEIAUT 6. HASSOC 7. HASACH 8. THREATENING EVENTS 9. BDITOT

2

3

4

5

0.25 -0.12 0.16 0.10 -0.26 0.04 0.22 ---0.04 0.08 ---0.51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6

7

8

0.12 0.27 0.21 0.24 0.16

0.33 0.19 0.08 0.38 0.43 0.68

0.00 0.06 0.08 0.42 0.51 0.21 0.28

. .

9 0.45 0.22 -0.14 0.31 0.57 0.23 0.38 0.30

.

Note: N = 94; SOC = SAS Sociotropy, SOL ~ SAS Solitude, IND = SAS Independence, NEISOC = Negative Experiences Inventory--negative interpersonal events, NEIAUT = Negative Experiences Inventory--negative autonomous events, HASSOC ffi Hassles--negative interpersonal stressors, HASACH = negative autonomous stressors, BDITOT = BD1 Total Scores; r > 0.20 significant at P < 0.05.

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Table 2. Hierarchical regression analysis predicting BDI Total Score from SAS Solitude and NEI negative autonomous events

Order of entry

1 2

3

Predictor sets

Rz

Uplifts 0.00 Main effects 0.35d Solitude NEISOC NEIAUT Interactions 0.39d Sol × NEISOC Sol x NEIAUT

R2 Change

[3

sr 2

F value

0.07 0.01 0.51

0.00 0.00 0.16

0.65 0.02 22.63d

-0.05 0.22

0.00 0.04

0.24 5.08b

0.35d

0.04"

Note: N = 93; NEISOC = Negative Experience Inventory--negative interpersonal events; NEIAUT=Negative Experiences Inventory--negative autonomous events, Sol = SAS Solitude; sr 2= squared semi-partial correlation; ~P = 0.07, bp < 0.05, cp < 0.01, ~P < 0.0001.

In each regression analysis the Uplifts Scale was entered on the first step to control for the presence of positive experiences which might moderate the relationship between personality vulnerability, life stressors, and dysphoria. The main effects for personality and life events (interpersonal and achievement) were entered as a set on the second step, followed by the interaction terms on the final step. Both the congruent (e.g. Sociotropy x negative interpersonal events) and incongruent (e.g. Sociotropy x negative a u t o n o m o u s events) interactions were entered as a set on the final step. All analyses were performed on the total sample because previous hierarchical regression analyses with gender entered as a predictor revealed that gender had only a weak and inconsistent influence on the personality x event interactions.

Regression analyses o f S A S Sociotropy Hierarchical regression analysis involving the SAS Sociotropy Scale and NEI negative interpersonal and a u t o n o m o u s subscales revealed significant main effects [r 2 c h a n g e = 0 . 5 1 ; F(4, 88)=30.31, P <0.0001], with Sociotropy [F(I, 86) = 24.64, P <0.0001] and NEI negative a u t o n o m o u s events [F(1, 8 6 ) = 40.83, P < 0.0001] emerging as significant predictors. The Sociotropy × NEI negative interpersonal interaction was not significant. Analysis o f the Hassles subscales again revealed significant main effects [r2= 0.37; F(4, 8 7 ) = 17.35, P < 0.0001], with Sociotropy [F(I, 85) = 25.02, P < 0.0001] the only significant unique predictor. Although the interaction terms on the final step accounted for a significant a m o u n t of additional variance in the BDI Jr2= 0.05; F(6, 86) = 4.07, P < 0.05], neither of the individual interaction terms was a significant unique predictor. Analysis of the List of Threatening Events again revealed significant main effects [r2=0.34; F(3, 8 8 ) = 22.50, P <0.0001] for Sociotropy [F(I, 8 7 ) = 30.90, P <0.0001] and Threatening Events [F(I, 87) = 14.93, P < 0.01] but the Sociotropy x Threatening Events interaction was not significant. Regression analyses o f S A S Solitude Hierarchical multiple regression analysis with SAS Solitude and the NEI subscales revealed a significant main effect, with the interaction terms on the final step approaching significance. Table 2 presents a summary of the regression statistics. A significant interaction emerged between SAS Solitude and the NEI negative autonomous events but not with the NEI negative interpersonal events. Analysis of Solitude and the Hassles subscales revealed a significant main effect [r 2 = 0.22, F(4, 89) = 8.56, P < 0.0001] with the Hassles negative achievement events [F(1, 87) = 2.24, P < 0.001] emerging as the only significant individual predictor. Although the incremental r 2 on the final step approached significance [r2= 0.04, F(6, 87) = 2.46, P = 0.09], none of the individual interaction terms were significant. Table 3 presents the regression statistics for Solitude and List of Threatening Events. The Solitude x List of Threatening Events interaction was highly significant, accounting for an additional 5% of the variance in BDI scores after partialling out the main effects. A plot of the signficant interactions between SAS Solitude and life events indicated that solitary Ss who experienced a high number of NEI negative autonomous events or a greater number of severe life events from the List of Threatening Events also had the highest BDI scores. Regression analyses for S A S Independence Separate hierarchical regression analyses performed on SAS Independence and subscales of the three life event measures failed to reveal any significant interactions between Independence and negative life experiences. Main effects were significant in each analysis, with SAS Independence approaching significance in the analyses of the NEI and Hassles subscales.

Table 3. Hierarchical regression analysis predicting BDI Total Score from SAS Solitude and total number of most threatening life events Order of entry I 2 3

Predictor sets Uplifts Main effects Solitude Total events Interactions Sol x events

R2

R2 Change

0.00 0.16d

0.160

0.21d

[3

sr 2

F value

0.15 0.29

0.02 0.08

2.36 9.32~

0.05b

0.24 0.05 5.96b Note: N = 93; NEISOC = Negative Experience Inventory--negative interpersonal events; NE1AUT=Negative Experiences Inventory--negative autonomous events, Sol = SAS Solitude; sr2= squared semi-partial correlation; ~P = 0.07. ~P < 0.05, ~P < 0.01, dp < 0.001.

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Regression analysis with the List of Threatening Events revealed that SAS Independence was a significant unique predictor of BDI scores [F(4, 88) = 6.58, P < 0.05]. DISCUSSION Partial support for Beck's cognitive diathesis-stress hypothesis was found for autonomy but not sociotropy. Solitude, one of the two dimensions of autonomy investigated in this study, did have a significant interaction with negative autonomous life events but not negative interpersonal stressors. This congruence effect was only evident with the more s e v e r e life events. Solitude did not have a significant interaction with negative autonomous hassles or daily strains. Moreover, Independence, the other autonomy dimension of the Revised SAS, and Sociotropy did not interact significantly with either negative autonomous or interpersonal daily hassles or life stressors. This is one of the few studies using a nonclinical sample to find a significant interaction between autonomy and negative autonomous stressors. In a prospective analogue study, Clark, Purdon and Beck (1995) also found a significant interaction between Solitude and negative autonomous events, though further analysis of the interaction revealed that the effect was due to the low Solitude Ss showing the greatest decrease in BDI scores at a 3 month retest. At first glance our findings for autonomy may seem inconsistent with Beck's theory. One might expect dysphoria to arise from an interaction between negative achievement events and Independence rather than Solitude. After all, Solitude refers to preference for solitude from others whereas Independence deals directly with issues of individualistic achievement. However, failure to achieve is only one aspect of Beck's conceptualization of autonomy. Issues dealing with freedom of choice, mobility, assertiveness, preference for solitude, insensitivity to others and counterdependency are also considered important to this broad personality construct (Beck, 1983; Beck et al., 1983; Blaney & Kutcher, 1991). As a result the NEI negative autonomous scale dealt with a broad range of autonomous life events such as achievement failure, physical illness, accidents, legal problems, and threats to privacy. As well, Solitude correlates significantly with negative affect and other vulnerability measures whereas Independence tends to correlate with measures of positive adjustment and well-being (Clark et al., 1995). As a result, Solitude may be the vulnerability dimension of autonomy, with Independence being an invulnerability factor or buffer against negative affect. Finally, it should be noted that only one or two items of the Independence Scale deal directly with achievement orientation. For these reasons it is entirely consistent with Beck's diathesis-stress model that SAS Solitude and not Independence should emerge as the significant diathesis which interacts with the negative autonomous items of the NEI. Solitude interacted significantly only with the more severe types of life stressors and not with minor stresses or daily hassles. These results, then, suggest that a threshold of stressor severity may exist for autonomy, with personality-life event congruence only evident when more severe stressors are experienced. Other researchers have also speculated on whether autonomy may manifest a relation with depression only after a certain threshold of stress is exceeded (Nietzel & Harris, 1990; Rude & Burnham, 1993). The failure to find a significant interaction between Sociotropy and negative interpersonal events was unexpected. The sociotropy-life event congruence effect has been fairly robust across studies (Clark et al., 1992, 1995; Robins, 1990---study 1; Robins & Block, 1988; Nietzel & Harris, 1990; Rude & Burnham, 1993), although negative findings have also been reported occasionally in the literature (Hammen, Ellicott & Gitlin, 1989; Robins, 1990--study 2; Segal, Shaw, Vella & Katz, 1992; Smith, O'Keefe & Jenkins, 1988). It is difficult to explain these inconsistent results except to conclude that cognitive diathesis stress may not be a robust finding, at least not within our current methodology. There are limitations to the present study that must be considered when interpreting the findings. First, cross-sectional studies can not shed light on the temporal relations between personality, life events, and depression (Barnett & Gotlib, 1988b; Garber & Hollon, 1991; Haaga, Dyck & Ernst, 1991; Hammen, 1985). However, these studies are useful in providing an initial identification of possible contributing variables as well as in highlighting specific associations between variables related to dysphoria (Garber & Hollon, 1991). A second limitation may be the reliance on a nonclinical student sample. Although there is considerable debate over whether results from nonclinical or analogue studies have any relevance for clinical disorders like depression (Coyne, 1994; Vredenburg, Flett & Krames, 1993), at the very least the present findings do suggest factors that may be important in understanding dysphoria or general distress, a research issue of importance in its own right. With continued research we may begin to understand why some people suffer so much distress in the face of life difficulties while others seem relatively unaffected by life's adversities.

Acknowledgements--We are grateful to Paul Hewitt for providing the interpersonal and achievement item categories of the Hassles Scale. This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (No. 410-92-0427) awarded to the first author. Part of this research was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Montreal, June, 1993. This article is based on an Honour's Thesis submitted by the second author to the Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick. REFERENCES

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