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Daily intake of manganese by local population around Kylleng Pyndengsohiong Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya in India
Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s c i t o t e n v
Daily intake of manganese by local population around Kylleng Pyndengsohiong Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya in India S.S. Gothankar, S.K. Jha ⁎, P. Lenka, R.M. Tripathi, V.D. Puranik Environmental Assessment Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 8 August 2008 Received in revised form 30 December 2008 Accepted 6 January 2009 Available online 4 February 2009 Keywords: Manganese Dietary intake Food EDXRF
a b s t r a c t Present work is carried out adjacent to world's highest rainfall area Kylleng Pyndengsohiong (KP) Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya in India to establish the baseline value of manganese intake through dietary route by the local tribe population in view of proposed uranium mining. The locally available food items collected from villages surrounding the proposed uranium mining site at KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) were analysed using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) Technique. The manganese concentration in different food categories varies from 2.76–12.50 mg kg− 1 in cereals, 1.8–4.20 mg kg− 1 in leafy vegetables, 0.30–13.50 mg kg− 1 in non leafy vegetables, 0.50–15.30 mg kg− 1 in roots and tubers, 0.70– 1.50 mg kg− 1 in fruits and 0.12–0.96 mg kg− 1 in flesh food. The mean dietary intake of Mn was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 compared to Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of 2–5 mg d− 1. The daily intake of Manganese by the local tribe population is comparable with the value (3.7 mg d− 1) recommended by International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) for reference man and lower than the intake value observed for Indian and other Asian population. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Food consumption plays an important role in the physical and physiological characteristics of an individual. The individual's body size and weight as well as respiratory and metabolic rate are strongly influenced by his food habits. The elemental composition of intake, likely to be different for population residing in different geological locations having different food habits. Manganese is an essential element for all living species. Daily intake of balanced amounts of manganese is essential for growth and good health in humans. The manganese intake through food must be in general sufficient to prevent deficiency (Donna and Baldwin, 1997). Manganese deficiency in human beings related with nervous system problems (Demirezen and Uruc, 2006), skeletal abnormalities, ataxia, alterations of reproductive function and difficulties in wound healing (VelascoRyenold et al., 2008). On the other hand at elevated concentration Manganese can cause Parkinson, lung embolism and bronchitis (Donna, 1999). Current study was carried out in Meghalaya, one of the seven states in the northeastern part of India, where 85.5% of the population is tribal (National Centre for Health Statistics, 1987). The study area known as Kylleng Pyndengsohiong (KP) Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya, India consists mainly archean rock formation containing rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone and uranium etc. The region represents a unique set of topography economic, ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 22 25592916; fax: +91 22 25505313. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.K. Jha). 0048-9697/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.014
sociologic, and cultural conditions that differs from the rest of the country (Parvathi and Goswami, 1989). The study area is also a part of rural area of state remains steeped in tribal traditions without many outside influences. Agriculture by Jhum (slash and burn) cultivation and animal husbandry are the main occupations of the tribal population (Ramakrishnana and Patnaik, 1992). In Meghalaya, where industrialization is virtually non-existent, a major portion of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood, and their diet is supplemented by food gathered from the forest (Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal, 2004). KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) and its adjoining areas have been identified as locations having rich deposits of uranium. Uranium Corporation of India limited (UCIL) is planning for mining and processing of uranium ore based on acid leach technique in which pyrolusite (MnO2) is used as an oxidant. Therefore it is important to determine the pre-operational daily intake value of Mn by local population. The present study was an effort to estimate the baseline dietary intake of Manganese by the Khasi tribe, which constitute the major part of the local population, in view to the Recommended Daily Allowances (NRC, 1989). 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area and sampling KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) lies in plateau state famous for its rain, mist and picturesque rolling hills and glens. It is bounded by the mighty Brahmaputra River in the north, Bangladesh plains in the
S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871
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Fig. 1. Map showing sampling locations at Kylleng Pyndengsohiong Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya, India.
South and West and plains of Assam in the North and East. Meghalaya lies between 25° 47’26.10” North latitude and 89° 45’92.45” East longitude. Different geological components with diverse lithological, structural and metallogenic complexities of the region call for elaborate analysis for understanding earth's history, identifying areas of mineral locations and recognizing areas of potential deposits. The Southern slopes of Khasi Hills receive maximum rainfall (12,000 mm/year) in Sohra or Mawsynram and known as highest rainfall area of the world. Physiographically, the area forms a westerly sloping undulating hilly terrine with an average elevation of 1400 m above mean sea level. The climate is tropical and humid with temperature ranging between 2° to 28 °C with maximum during May–June and falling to 2° in the month of January. Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) responsible for exploration of atomic mineral in the country discovered large sandstone type near surface uranium ore deposits at KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat). The proposed uranium mining location
is shown in Fig. 1. The generally consumed locally grown vegetables, cereals, fruit samples were collected from different villages covering 10 km radius around proposed mining site. For the fish samples which were consumed by the local population, sampling site was river Kynshi, a major tributary of the Jadukata river. It originates from the West Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya and flows near the uranium ore deposits of the study area. Beef samples were collected from local village market. The samples were categorized in different food groups such as cereals, leafy vegetables, non leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, fruits and flesh food. 2.2. Sample processing and analytical techniques The samples were washed in double distilled water to remove dust particles and air dried. The wet weight of the samples was recorded. Samples were freeze dried; powdered, homogenized and dry weight of the samples was recorded. Manganese was measured by Energy
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S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871
Table 1 Manganese concentration in certified reference material Sr. no.
Reference material
1
Mixed polish herbs INCT-MPH-2 Tea leaves INCT-TL-1 Sea plant IAEA-140/TM Fish tissue IAEA MA-B-3/M
2 3 4
Table 3 Total daily manganese intake through different food stuff
Measured value mg kg− 1
Certified values mg kg− 1
188 ± 8
191 ± 12
1498 ± 35 57.2 ± 0.8 2.71 ± 0.5
1570 ± 110 56.1 ± 2.4 2.62 ± 0.4
Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) technique using 5.9 keV Mn Kα X-ray line (Jha et al., 2002). The concentration of manganese was evaluated by comparing net counts of manganese in samples with those obtained from certified reference standard material INCT-MPH2 Mixed polish herbs. For quality control exercise INCT-TL-1 Tea leaves, IAEA-140/TM sea plant and Fish Tissue IAEA MA-B-3/M were analysed (Table 1) in the same operating conditions. Daily intake of Mn was calculated using the average food consumption rate and the mean concentration of Mn in each food type.
Sr. no.
Foodstuff
1 Cereals 2 Leafy vegetables 3 Non leafy vegetables 4 Roots and tubers 5 Fruits 6 Flesh foods Total Mn intake (mg d− 1)
Average consumption rate by local population⁎ (g d− 1)
Intake of Mn through food stuff (mg d− 1)
392.5 ± 13.8 110.4 ± 3.3 4.8 ± 1.7 54.4 ± 2.9 20.3 ± 2.1 21.5 ± 8.6
3.30 ± 0.25 0.28 ± 0.04 0.02 ± 0.01 0.20 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.004 3.83 ± 0.25
⁎: Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal (2004).
concentration (3.45 ± 1.1 mg kg− 1) with respect to rye and rice. In roots and tubers category radish, carrot, garlic chives, sweet potato, allium, potato, yam, solanum were analysed. Results showed highest concentration of Mn in garlic chives (14.29 ± 1.2 mg kg− 1) compared to other edibles in this category. The mean Mn concentration was found to be 0.52 ± 0.04 mg kg− 1 and 0.58 ± 0.04 mg kg− 1 for fish and beef respectively.
3. Result and discussion 3.2. Intake of manganese 3.1. Concentration of Mn The concentration of Mn in different food category was calculated on wet weight basis. Manganese concentration in leafy vegetables ranges from 1.8 to 4.2 mg kg− 1 comparable to non leafy vegetables 0.3 to 13.5 mg kg− 1 (Table 2). Among the leafy vegetables, concentration of Mn is highest in Lettuce (3.1 ± 0.8 mg kg− 1) whereas French beans show higher value of 12.53 ± 0.9 mg kg− 1 which is also highest in both the categories of vegetables. The mean concentration of Mn in Gobi was found 2.02 ± 0.8 mg kg− 1 whereas cucumber shows 0.43 ± 0.1 mg kg− 1. Rice, Rye and Maize which constitute the main food of the local tribe population were analysed for Mn. The concentration of Mn in cereals ranges from 2.76 to 12.50 mg kg− 1. Among them, rye and rice shows the comparable mean concentration of Mn is 10.56 ± 0.8 and 11.39 ± 1.0 mg kg− 1 respectively, whereas maize showed lower
Table 2 Manganese concentration in some foodstuff most frequently consumed by local population in K.P. Mouthabah area Foodstuff
Scientific name
Mean
Range
Cereal
Secale cereale Zea mays Oryza sativa Latuca indica Brassica
5 4 6 4 4
11.39 ± 1.0 3.45 ± 1.1 10.56 ± 0.8 3.10 ± 0.8 2.05 ± 0.2
10.0–12.5 2.76–5.1 9.5–11.04 2.3–4.2 1.8–2.16
Phaseolus domesticus
6
12.53 ± 0.9
11–13.5
Brassica oleraceae capitata Cucumis sativum Raphanus sativus Allium sativum
5
2.02 ± 0.8
1.5–3.4
4 4 4
0.43 ± 0.1 1.72 ± 0.3 14.29 ± 1.2
0.3–0.5 1.3–2.1 12.5–15.3
Dacus carota Ipomea battatus
4 5
0.80 ± 0.2 3.15 ± 0.5
0.5–1.0 2.6–3.7
Rye Maize Rice Leafy Lettuce vegetables Mustard leaves Non leafy French vegetables beans Gobi
Roots and tubers
Fruits Flesh food
Cucumber Radish Garlic chives Carrot Sweet potato Solanum Allium Potato Yam Papaya Beef Fish
Solanum nigrum – Solanum tuberusum Colocasea sp. Carica papaya – –
Number Mn concentration of (mg kg− 1) samples wet weight basis
5 4 6 5 4 4 10
1.65 ± 0.9 0.79–2.69 2.35 ± 1.0 1.0–3.1 1.82 ± 0.4 1.1–2.2 2.14 ± 0.4 1.6–2.5 0.92 ± 0.4 0.7–1.5 0.58 ± 0.04 0.53–0.62 0.52 ± 0.04 0.12–0.96
The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for Indians is 440 g d− 1 for cereal, 100 g d− 1 and 40 g d− 1 for leafy and non leafy vegetables respectively, 50 g d− 1 for roots and tubers, 30 g d− 1 for flesh foods and 30 g d− 1 for fruits (ICMR NIN, 1989). The study conducted on local population foodstuff consumption rate around study area by AgraharMurugkar and Pal (2004) was found 392.5 ± 13.8 g d− 1, 110.4 ± 3.3 g d− 1, 4.8 ± 1.7 g d− 1, 54.4 ± 2.9 g d− 1, 20.3 ± 2.1 g d− 1 and 21.5± 8.6 g d− 1 for cereals, leafy vegetables, non leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, fruits and flesh foods respectively (Table 3). The intake of manganese depends on both the concentration in the locally grown food products and food habit of the local population. The daily diet comprises of cereals, leafy vegetables whereas consumption of non leafy vegetables is influenced mainly by seasonal availability and income of individual. It was found that the meal of local population was not completed without roots and tubers. Inclusion of flesh foods also was mandatory in each main meal (Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal, 2004). The intake of Mn through cereals is maximum i.e. 3.3 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 and through roots and tubers is 0.20 ± 0.02 mg d− 1. Leafy and non leafy vegetables contributes 0.28 ± 0.04 mg d− 1 and 0.02 ± 0.01 mg d− 1 respectively in Mn intake. Fruits and flesh food accounts for 0.02 ± 0.01 and 0.01 ± 0.004 mg d− 1 through dietary intake. Fig. 2 gives percentage wise intake of Mn through different constituents of the food. The mean dietary intake of Mn by the local population of KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 (Table 3) which was
Fig. 2. Daily manganese intake (%) through different foodstuff.
S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871 Table 4 Literature data on daily intake of Mn estimated by other authors Country
Daily intake of Mn (mg d− 1)
Reference
Austria France United Kingdom Australia USA Japan Bangladesh ICRP reference man Indian population India (Mumbai) India (Nagpur) India (KPM, Meghalaya)
4.69 2.30 4.50 2.90 2.40 4.5 8.56 3.7 5.1 2.20 8.00 3.83
Wilplinger et al. (1999) Leblance et al. (2005) Ysart et al. (1999) Fardy et al. (1992) Muncu and Aras (1988) IAEA-TECDOC-1005 Fazal Karim Miah et al., (1998) IAEA-TECDOC-1005 IAEA-TECDOC-1005 Tripathi et al. (2000) Singh and Garg (1997) (Present study)
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data to monitor the conditions during and post-operational period of proposed uranium mining. References
lower than the value (5.1 mg d− 1) obtained for Indian population (IAEA-TECDOC-1005). Table 4 give the comparison of daily Mn intake by Asian and Caucasian population. The lowest value was found to be 2.2 mg d− 1 for urban population of Mumbai, India (Tripathi et al., 2000) whereas highest daily intake (8.5 mg d− 1) was reported for the population of Bangladesh by Fazal Karim Miah et al. (1998). Study carried out by Singh V. et al. on Indian vegetarian diet reports mean dietary intake of 8 mg d− 1. The intake value of Manganese by the local tribe population is consistent with the ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection) recommended value of 3.7 mg d− 1 (IAEA-TECDOC-1005) for reference man and lower than the value observed for Asian population. 4. Conclusion The study reports the Mn concentration levels in the locally grown foodstuff consumed by tribe populations staying in vicinity of highest rainfall area of the world. It is observed that cereal is a major source (86.2%) of Mn supply through diet. Garlic chives show the highest concentration of Mn followed by French beans and cereals. The dietary intake of Mn was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 which is in the range of RDA value of 2–5 mg d− 1. The obtained value was found to be consistent with ICRP (3.7 mg d− 1) value for reference man but lower than the value observed for Indian and other Asian population. The estimation of daily dietary intake of Mn at proposed uranium mining area will contribute to the development of realistic biokinetic parameters for local population and also fulfill the mandatory requirement of baseline
Agrahar-Murugkar D, Pal PP. “Intake of nutrients and food sources of nutrients among the Khasi tribal women of India”, ICAR Research Complex for the NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India. Nutrition 2004;20(3):268–73. IAEA-TECDOC-1005. “Compilation of anatomical, physiological and metabolic characteristics for Reference Asian Man”, volume 2: Country reports. Results of coordinated research programme 1988–1993. Demirezen D, Uruc K. Comparative study of trace elements in certain fish, meat and meat products. Meat Sci 2006;74:255–60. Donna M, Baldwin M. Early manifestations of Mn neuro toxicity in humans: An update. Environ Res 1997;73:92-100. Donna M. Neurotoxic effects of low level exposure to Mn in human populations. Environ Res 1999;80A:99-102. Fardy JJ, McOrist GD, Farrar YJ. The determination of Mn status in the Australian diet using neutron activation analysis. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 1992;163:195–203. Fazal Karim Miah, M.D., Rab Molla, M.A., Begum, M., “Compilation of anatomical, physiological and metabolic characteristics for a Bangladeshi man”. IAEA-TECDOC1998;1005, vol. 2, pp. 1. ICMR NIN. Hyderabad. Nutrient requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians; 1989. Jha SK, Chavan SB, Pandit GG, Negi BS, Sadasivan S. Behaviour and fluxes of trace and toxic elements in creek sediment near Mumbai, India. Environ Monit Assess 2002;76:249–62. Leblance JC, Guerin T, Noel L, Calamassi-Tran G, Volatier JL, Veger P. Dietary exposure estimates of 18 elements from the 1st French total diet study. Food Addit Contam 2005;22:624–41. Muncu S, Aras NK. Determination of minor and trace element in human diet by AAS. In: Bratter P, Schramel P, editors. Trace element analytical chemistry in medicine and biology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter; 1988. p. 392–7. National Centre for Health Statistics. Anthropometric and prevalence of overweight, US 1976–80. Vital and health statistics, series 11, no 238. DHHS publication PHS 871688. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services; 1987. NRC. Recommended Dietary Allowances, National Research Council (US) subcommittee. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989. p. 241. Parvathi EP, Goswami Babita. Nutritive value of selected 15 unconventional plant foods consumed by Khasis of Meghalaya. Indian J Nutr Diet 1989;26:62. Ramakrishnana PS, Patnaik S. Jhum:Slash and burn cultivation. Indigenous vision, peoples of India, attitudes to the environment. New Delhi: Sage and India International Centre; 1992. p. 215. Singh V, Garg AN. INAA of trace elements in Indian vegetarian diet and its adequacy vis-àvis Recommended Dietary Allowances. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 1997;217(1):139–45. Tripathi RM, Mahapatra S, Raghunath R, Sastry VN. Daily intake of manganese by the adult population of Mumbai. Sci Total Environ 2000;250:43–50. Velasco-Ryenold C, Navarro-Alarcon M, Lopez-G, Serrana De La, Perez-Valero V, LopezMartinez MC. Total and dialyzable levels of manganese from duplicate metals and influence of other nutrients: Estimation of daily dietary intake. Food Chem 2008;109: 113–21. Wilplinger M, Zochling S, Pfannhauser W. An analysis of the manganese supply in Austria on the basis of selected diet. Zeitschrift Fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung Und-Forschung a-Food Research and Technology, vol. 208. 1999. p. 251–3. Ysart G, Miller P, Crews H, Robb P, Baxter M, De L'Argy C. Dietary exposure estimates of 30 elements from the UK total diet study. Food Addit Contam 1999;16:391–403.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s c i t o t e n v
Daily intake of manganese by local population around Kylleng Pyndengsohiong Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya in India S.S. Gothankar, S.K. Jha ⁎, P. Lenka, R.M. Tripathi, V.D. Puranik Environmental Assessment Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 8 August 2008 Received in revised form 30 December 2008 Accepted 6 January 2009 Available online 4 February 2009 Keywords: Manganese Dietary intake Food EDXRF
a b s t r a c t Present work is carried out adjacent to world's highest rainfall area Kylleng Pyndengsohiong (KP) Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya in India to establish the baseline value of manganese intake through dietary route by the local tribe population in view of proposed uranium mining. The locally available food items collected from villages surrounding the proposed uranium mining site at KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) were analysed using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) Technique. The manganese concentration in different food categories varies from 2.76–12.50 mg kg− 1 in cereals, 1.8–4.20 mg kg− 1 in leafy vegetables, 0.30–13.50 mg kg− 1 in non leafy vegetables, 0.50–15.30 mg kg− 1 in roots and tubers, 0.70– 1.50 mg kg− 1 in fruits and 0.12–0.96 mg kg− 1 in flesh food. The mean dietary intake of Mn was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 compared to Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of 2–5 mg d− 1. The daily intake of Manganese by the local tribe population is comparable with the value (3.7 mg d− 1) recommended by International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) for reference man and lower than the intake value observed for Indian and other Asian population. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Food consumption plays an important role in the physical and physiological characteristics of an individual. The individual's body size and weight as well as respiratory and metabolic rate are strongly influenced by his food habits. The elemental composition of intake, likely to be different for population residing in different geological locations having different food habits. Manganese is an essential element for all living species. Daily intake of balanced amounts of manganese is essential for growth and good health in humans. The manganese intake through food must be in general sufficient to prevent deficiency (Donna and Baldwin, 1997). Manganese deficiency in human beings related with nervous system problems (Demirezen and Uruc, 2006), skeletal abnormalities, ataxia, alterations of reproductive function and difficulties in wound healing (VelascoRyenold et al., 2008). On the other hand at elevated concentration Manganese can cause Parkinson, lung embolism and bronchitis (Donna, 1999). Current study was carried out in Meghalaya, one of the seven states in the northeastern part of India, where 85.5% of the population is tribal (National Centre for Health Statistics, 1987). The study area known as Kylleng Pyndengsohiong (KP) Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya, India consists mainly archean rock formation containing rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone and uranium etc. The region represents a unique set of topography economic, ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 22 25592916; fax: +91 22 25505313. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.K. Jha). 0048-9697/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.014
sociologic, and cultural conditions that differs from the rest of the country (Parvathi and Goswami, 1989). The study area is also a part of rural area of state remains steeped in tribal traditions without many outside influences. Agriculture by Jhum (slash and burn) cultivation and animal husbandry are the main occupations of the tribal population (Ramakrishnana and Patnaik, 1992). In Meghalaya, where industrialization is virtually non-existent, a major portion of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood, and their diet is supplemented by food gathered from the forest (Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal, 2004). KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) and its adjoining areas have been identified as locations having rich deposits of uranium. Uranium Corporation of India limited (UCIL) is planning for mining and processing of uranium ore based on acid leach technique in which pyrolusite (MnO2) is used as an oxidant. Therefore it is important to determine the pre-operational daily intake value of Mn by local population. The present study was an effort to estimate the baseline dietary intake of Manganese by the Khasi tribe, which constitute the major part of the local population, in view to the Recommended Daily Allowances (NRC, 1989). 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area and sampling KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) lies in plateau state famous for its rain, mist and picturesque rolling hills and glens. It is bounded by the mighty Brahmaputra River in the north, Bangladesh plains in the
S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871
2869
Fig. 1. Map showing sampling locations at Kylleng Pyndengsohiong Mawthabah (Domiasiat), Meghalaya, India.
South and West and plains of Assam in the North and East. Meghalaya lies between 25° 47’26.10” North latitude and 89° 45’92.45” East longitude. Different geological components with diverse lithological, structural and metallogenic complexities of the region call for elaborate analysis for understanding earth's history, identifying areas of mineral locations and recognizing areas of potential deposits. The Southern slopes of Khasi Hills receive maximum rainfall (12,000 mm/year) in Sohra or Mawsynram and known as highest rainfall area of the world. Physiographically, the area forms a westerly sloping undulating hilly terrine with an average elevation of 1400 m above mean sea level. The climate is tropical and humid with temperature ranging between 2° to 28 °C with maximum during May–June and falling to 2° in the month of January. Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) responsible for exploration of atomic mineral in the country discovered large sandstone type near surface uranium ore deposits at KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat). The proposed uranium mining location
is shown in Fig. 1. The generally consumed locally grown vegetables, cereals, fruit samples were collected from different villages covering 10 km radius around proposed mining site. For the fish samples which were consumed by the local population, sampling site was river Kynshi, a major tributary of the Jadukata river. It originates from the West Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya and flows near the uranium ore deposits of the study area. Beef samples were collected from local village market. The samples were categorized in different food groups such as cereals, leafy vegetables, non leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, fruits and flesh food. 2.2. Sample processing and analytical techniques The samples were washed in double distilled water to remove dust particles and air dried. The wet weight of the samples was recorded. Samples were freeze dried; powdered, homogenized and dry weight of the samples was recorded. Manganese was measured by Energy
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S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871
Table 1 Manganese concentration in certified reference material Sr. no.
Reference material
1
Mixed polish herbs INCT-MPH-2 Tea leaves INCT-TL-1 Sea plant IAEA-140/TM Fish tissue IAEA MA-B-3/M
2 3 4
Table 3 Total daily manganese intake through different food stuff
Measured value mg kg− 1
Certified values mg kg− 1
188 ± 8
191 ± 12
1498 ± 35 57.2 ± 0.8 2.71 ± 0.5
1570 ± 110 56.1 ± 2.4 2.62 ± 0.4
Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) technique using 5.9 keV Mn Kα X-ray line (Jha et al., 2002). The concentration of manganese was evaluated by comparing net counts of manganese in samples with those obtained from certified reference standard material INCT-MPH2 Mixed polish herbs. For quality control exercise INCT-TL-1 Tea leaves, IAEA-140/TM sea plant and Fish Tissue IAEA MA-B-3/M were analysed (Table 1) in the same operating conditions. Daily intake of Mn was calculated using the average food consumption rate and the mean concentration of Mn in each food type.
Sr. no.
Foodstuff
1 Cereals 2 Leafy vegetables 3 Non leafy vegetables 4 Roots and tubers 5 Fruits 6 Flesh foods Total Mn intake (mg d− 1)
Average consumption rate by local population⁎ (g d− 1)
Intake of Mn through food stuff (mg d− 1)
392.5 ± 13.8 110.4 ± 3.3 4.8 ± 1.7 54.4 ± 2.9 20.3 ± 2.1 21.5 ± 8.6
3.30 ± 0.25 0.28 ± 0.04 0.02 ± 0.01 0.20 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.004 3.83 ± 0.25
⁎: Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal (2004).
concentration (3.45 ± 1.1 mg kg− 1) with respect to rye and rice. In roots and tubers category radish, carrot, garlic chives, sweet potato, allium, potato, yam, solanum were analysed. Results showed highest concentration of Mn in garlic chives (14.29 ± 1.2 mg kg− 1) compared to other edibles in this category. The mean Mn concentration was found to be 0.52 ± 0.04 mg kg− 1 and 0.58 ± 0.04 mg kg− 1 for fish and beef respectively.
3. Result and discussion 3.2. Intake of manganese 3.1. Concentration of Mn The concentration of Mn in different food category was calculated on wet weight basis. Manganese concentration in leafy vegetables ranges from 1.8 to 4.2 mg kg− 1 comparable to non leafy vegetables 0.3 to 13.5 mg kg− 1 (Table 2). Among the leafy vegetables, concentration of Mn is highest in Lettuce (3.1 ± 0.8 mg kg− 1) whereas French beans show higher value of 12.53 ± 0.9 mg kg− 1 which is also highest in both the categories of vegetables. The mean concentration of Mn in Gobi was found 2.02 ± 0.8 mg kg− 1 whereas cucumber shows 0.43 ± 0.1 mg kg− 1. Rice, Rye and Maize which constitute the main food of the local tribe population were analysed for Mn. The concentration of Mn in cereals ranges from 2.76 to 12.50 mg kg− 1. Among them, rye and rice shows the comparable mean concentration of Mn is 10.56 ± 0.8 and 11.39 ± 1.0 mg kg− 1 respectively, whereas maize showed lower
Table 2 Manganese concentration in some foodstuff most frequently consumed by local population in K.P. Mouthabah area Foodstuff
Scientific name
Mean
Range
Cereal
Secale cereale Zea mays Oryza sativa Latuca indica Brassica
5 4 6 4 4
11.39 ± 1.0 3.45 ± 1.1 10.56 ± 0.8 3.10 ± 0.8 2.05 ± 0.2
10.0–12.5 2.76–5.1 9.5–11.04 2.3–4.2 1.8–2.16
Phaseolus domesticus
6
12.53 ± 0.9
11–13.5
Brassica oleraceae capitata Cucumis sativum Raphanus sativus Allium sativum
5
2.02 ± 0.8
1.5–3.4
4 4 4
0.43 ± 0.1 1.72 ± 0.3 14.29 ± 1.2
0.3–0.5 1.3–2.1 12.5–15.3
Dacus carota Ipomea battatus
4 5
0.80 ± 0.2 3.15 ± 0.5
0.5–1.0 2.6–3.7
Rye Maize Rice Leafy Lettuce vegetables Mustard leaves Non leafy French vegetables beans Gobi
Roots and tubers
Fruits Flesh food
Cucumber Radish Garlic chives Carrot Sweet potato Solanum Allium Potato Yam Papaya Beef Fish
Solanum nigrum – Solanum tuberusum Colocasea sp. Carica papaya – –
Number Mn concentration of (mg kg− 1) samples wet weight basis
5 4 6 5 4 4 10
1.65 ± 0.9 0.79–2.69 2.35 ± 1.0 1.0–3.1 1.82 ± 0.4 1.1–2.2 2.14 ± 0.4 1.6–2.5 0.92 ± 0.4 0.7–1.5 0.58 ± 0.04 0.53–0.62 0.52 ± 0.04 0.12–0.96
The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for Indians is 440 g d− 1 for cereal, 100 g d− 1 and 40 g d− 1 for leafy and non leafy vegetables respectively, 50 g d− 1 for roots and tubers, 30 g d− 1 for flesh foods and 30 g d− 1 for fruits (ICMR NIN, 1989). The study conducted on local population foodstuff consumption rate around study area by AgraharMurugkar and Pal (2004) was found 392.5 ± 13.8 g d− 1, 110.4 ± 3.3 g d− 1, 4.8 ± 1.7 g d− 1, 54.4 ± 2.9 g d− 1, 20.3 ± 2.1 g d− 1 and 21.5± 8.6 g d− 1 for cereals, leafy vegetables, non leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, fruits and flesh foods respectively (Table 3). The intake of manganese depends on both the concentration in the locally grown food products and food habit of the local population. The daily diet comprises of cereals, leafy vegetables whereas consumption of non leafy vegetables is influenced mainly by seasonal availability and income of individual. It was found that the meal of local population was not completed without roots and tubers. Inclusion of flesh foods also was mandatory in each main meal (Agrahar-Murugkar and Pal, 2004). The intake of Mn through cereals is maximum i.e. 3.3 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 and through roots and tubers is 0.20 ± 0.02 mg d− 1. Leafy and non leafy vegetables contributes 0.28 ± 0.04 mg d− 1 and 0.02 ± 0.01 mg d− 1 respectively in Mn intake. Fruits and flesh food accounts for 0.02 ± 0.01 and 0.01 ± 0.004 mg d− 1 through dietary intake. Fig. 2 gives percentage wise intake of Mn through different constituents of the food. The mean dietary intake of Mn by the local population of KP Mawthabah (Domiasiat) was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 (Table 3) which was
Fig. 2. Daily manganese intake (%) through different foodstuff.
S.S. Gothankar et al. / Science of the Total Environment 407 (2009) 2868–2871 Table 4 Literature data on daily intake of Mn estimated by other authors Country
Daily intake of Mn (mg d− 1)
Reference
Austria France United Kingdom Australia USA Japan Bangladesh ICRP reference man Indian population India (Mumbai) India (Nagpur) India (KPM, Meghalaya)
4.69 2.30 4.50 2.90 2.40 4.5 8.56 3.7 5.1 2.20 8.00 3.83
Wilplinger et al. (1999) Leblance et al. (2005) Ysart et al. (1999) Fardy et al. (1992) Muncu and Aras (1988) IAEA-TECDOC-1005 Fazal Karim Miah et al., (1998) IAEA-TECDOC-1005 IAEA-TECDOC-1005 Tripathi et al. (2000) Singh and Garg (1997) (Present study)
2871
data to monitor the conditions during and post-operational period of proposed uranium mining. References
lower than the value (5.1 mg d− 1) obtained for Indian population (IAEA-TECDOC-1005). Table 4 give the comparison of daily Mn intake by Asian and Caucasian population. The lowest value was found to be 2.2 mg d− 1 for urban population of Mumbai, India (Tripathi et al., 2000) whereas highest daily intake (8.5 mg d− 1) was reported for the population of Bangladesh by Fazal Karim Miah et al. (1998). Study carried out by Singh V. et al. on Indian vegetarian diet reports mean dietary intake of 8 mg d− 1. The intake value of Manganese by the local tribe population is consistent with the ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection) recommended value of 3.7 mg d− 1 (IAEA-TECDOC-1005) for reference man and lower than the value observed for Asian population. 4. Conclusion The study reports the Mn concentration levels in the locally grown foodstuff consumed by tribe populations staying in vicinity of highest rainfall area of the world. It is observed that cereal is a major source (86.2%) of Mn supply through diet. Garlic chives show the highest concentration of Mn followed by French beans and cereals. The dietary intake of Mn was found to be 3.83 ± 0.25 mg d− 1 which is in the range of RDA value of 2–5 mg d− 1. The obtained value was found to be consistent with ICRP (3.7 mg d− 1) value for reference man but lower than the value observed for Indian and other Asian population. The estimation of daily dietary intake of Mn at proposed uranium mining area will contribute to the development of realistic biokinetic parameters for local population and also fulfill the mandatory requirement of baseline
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