Defining the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco – Spatial distribution, chronological framework and impact of environmental changes

Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e11

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Defining the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco e Spatial distribution, chronological framework and impact of environmental changes €dter a, *, M. Broich b, B. Weninger b J. Linsta a b

German Archaeological Institute, Commission for Archaeology of Non-European Cultures, Dürenstraße 35-37, 53173 Bonn, Germany Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology, University of Cologne, Weyertal 125, 50923 Cologne, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

We provide a detailed chronological framework for the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif of Morocco. Neolithic innovations such as pottery and domestic plants begin ca. 7.6 ka calBP, at which time plant cultivation is clearly documented for cereals (Triticum monococcum/dicoccum, Triticum aestivum/durum, Hordeum vulgare) and pulses (Lens culinaris, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba). This represents the earliest evidence for Africa as a whole. The Early Neolithic ends ca. 6.3 ka calBP and is marked by the definitive disappearance of Cardium-decorated pottery. The disintegration of the Early Neolithic dates to the interval 6.6e6.0 ka calBP, during which time a gradual desiccation of the Sahara has been observed. In the Eastern Rif of Morocco, Saharan influences become visible after 6.0 ka calBP. These are characterised by the presence of ivory objects and the appearance of comb-impressed pottery with so-called herringbone motives. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Morocco Epipalaeolithic Early Neolithic Land use pattern Radiocarbon chronology Holocene environment

1. Introduction: the Neolithic transition in the Mediterranean regions of NW-Africa The Neolithic transition in Mediterranean NW-Africa is very closely connected to the Neolithisation of the Western Mediterranean as a whole. Characteristic for the Western Mediterranean (wMed) mode of the Early Neolithic, as is well-known in southern France and the Iberian Peninsula, is the appearance of shelldecorated pottery and a high variability of subsistence strategies. In all regions of the wMed, the large river deltas serve as bridgehead for further Neolithisation of the hinterland (Perrin, 2008; n and Martí Oliver, 2014). Bernabeu Auba Beyond sharing many of the European features of the wMed such as Cardium impressions, relief cordons, decorated handles and pointed bases, the Early Neolithic in NW-Africa has its own characteristic properties, represented by distinct pottery shapes €dter, 2004; El and certain decorations (e.g. Hassi Ouenzga: Linsta Zafrín: Rojo Guerra et al., 2010). According to 14C-ages, the first appearance of Neolithic features in southern Spain and northeast Morocco seems to be contemporaneous (Linst€ adter et al., 2012a,

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Linst€ adter).

228). During the Neolithic transition in the eastern Rif at around 7.6 ka calBP, the area is inhabited by well adopted local hunter€dter and Kehl, gatherers, represented e.g. at Ifri Oudadane (Linsta €dter, 2004), Taoungat and Mtlili 2012), Hassi Ouenzga (Linsta €dter et al., 2012b) or Ifri n'Etsedda (Linst€ (Linsta adter et al., 2016) whose lithic industries e based on bladelet productions e have deep roots in the late Pleistocene culture of the Iberomaurusian. The coexistence of food producing groups and late huntergatherers is evident at sites such as Ifri Oudadane and Hassi Ouenzga. The first can be classified as a pioneer site (BETA295779: 6740 ± 50 BP, lentils), whereas the latter is characterized by a local group in clear Epipalaeolithic tradition nonetheless providing pottery. As already described and discussed extensively €dter (2004, 2014) and Linsta €dter et al. (2012a) it can be in Linsta assumed that Neolithic innovations reached the eastern Rif via West Mediterranean networks. Archaeological research throughout the Mediterranean, a DNA studies, and the fact that all domesticated species originate in the Near East indicate that Early Neolithic settlers coming from Tyrrhenian and French coasts feed Neolithic innovations into the above mentioned West Mediterranean networks. Local hunter-gatherers integrated these innovations step by step into their subsistence strategies. Furthermore, the appearance of such properties within western

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.07.042 1040-6182/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Linst€adter, J., et al., Defining the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco e Spatial distribution, chronological framework and impact of environmental changes, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.07.042

€dter et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e11 J. Linsta

2

parts of the Iberian Peninsula suggests a cultural backflow from NW-Africa into the wMed via marine networks (Manen et al., 2007). Following some twenty years of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental research, in the following we provide, (1) a detailed overview of the period during which active food production was established in NE-Morocco, (2) an up-to-date presentation of its chronological framework, (3) a description of its material culture, and finally, (4) a broader discussion of humaneenvironment interaction during the EpipalaeolithiceNeolithictransition. In our study region (Fig. 1), the earliest food production is indicated by the appearance of cereals and pulses at the coastal site of Ifri Oudadane, where it is securely dated to 7.6 ka calBP €dter and Kehl, 2012; Morales et al., 2013). At the same site, (Linsta and indeed in the same cultural layers, there is evidence for domesticated ovicaprides, to be published in the near future (Hutterer, pers. comm.). Evidence for plant cultivation is also €dter et al., available from the pollen record of Ifri n'Etsedda (Linsta 2016). Although the studies of the material culture are still partly €dter, ongoing, the pottery from the sites of Hassi Ouenzga (Linsta €dter 2003, 2004), Ifri Armas (Lorenz, 2010), Ifri Oudadane (Linsta and Wagner, 2013) and from the open air sites of the Lower €dter et al., 2012b), as well as the lithic Moulouya valley (Linsta industry from Ifri Oudadane (Linst€ adter et al., 2015) is already published. We can expect further insights into Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic lifestyles from ongoing studies of the rich bone industry, as well as into adornment production based on marine shells and ostrich egg shells. Already completed publications are devoted to dietary studies (Hutterer et al., 2014) and humaneenvironment interactions (Zapata et al., 2013; Lehndorff et al., 2014). In the current paper, we present the radiocarbon-based chronology for the Neolithic transition in the Eastern Rif of Morocco, describe in detail the socio-cultural role of the different

landforms within the study region, and for the first time discuss some geographic wider correlations of climate and environmental changes in NW-Africa during the Early Holocene.

2. Material & methods 2.1. Surveys & excavations in the Eastern Rif of Morocco Systematic surveys in the Eastern Rif of Morocco (50
50 km) have allowed the discovery of ten previously unknown sites, with deposits from the period of Neolithic transition (Fig. 1). Altogether, over the last twenty years we have excavated 15 sites with Epi€dter, 2014). This inpalaeolithic and Neolithic assemblages (Linsta cludes open air sites, mainly well preserved within alluvial deposits, as well as shelters. Some of these shelters such as Ifri Oudadane, Hassi Ouenzga, Taghit Haddouch and Ifri n'Etsedda provide both Epipalaeolithic as well as Neolithic deposits. All radiocarbon ages used in this study, including dated material and references, are listed in Table 1. In parallel to the archaeological excavations, particular focus was placed on the recovery of materials suitable for palaeoenvironment reconstruction. Beginning with the 2010 campaign, all excavated sediments underwent water flotation, which resulted in an enormous corpus of faunal and botanical materials, by which it was possible to establish the main food resources: plants (Morales et al., 2013, in press), animals, marine and terrestrial molluscs (Hutterer et al., 2011). The environmental program included taking samples for pollen (Zapata et al., 2013), sedimentological and geochemical analysis, as well as for molecular black carbon research (Lehndorff et al., 2014). Micromorphological studies provide detailed information on site €dter and Kehl, 2012; Linsta €dter et al., formation processes (Linsta 2016).

Table 1 List of 14C-dates for Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites of the eastern Rif. Lab code

Site

UtC-6184 COL-2120 Bln-4956 UtC-6185 KIA-437 KIA-436 UtC-6186 COL-2121 UtC-6187 Bln-4957 Bln-4913 KIA-434 KIA-433 Erl-9993

Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Hassi Ouenzga Open Air Hassi Ouenzga Open Air Hassi Ouenzga Open Air Hassi Ouenzga Open Air Ifri Armas Ifri Armas Ifri Armas Ifri Armas Ifri Armas Ifri Armas Ifri el Baroud Ifri el Baroud Ifri el Baroud Ifri n'Ammar Ifri n'Etsedda

Erl-9991 Bln-4756 Erl-9992 Erl-12422 Erl-9994 UBA-8082 Erl-9996 Erl-9995 KN-5969 KIA-510-I Bln-4872 Bln-4755 Erl-4394 COL-2373.1.1

Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri Abri

Culture

14

C-age [BP]

±1 s [BP]

d13C [‰PDB]

Cal-age [calBP]

±68% [calBP]

Material

Reference

#

LN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EPI EPI

5029 6022 6035 6230 6240 6270 6378 6509 6540 6611 6683 6710 7930 9350

47 52 47 70 40 40 44 42 50 40 48 50 50 65

20,5 31,1 21,7 22 23 22,4 23,4 22,4 21,5 nd 19,3 21,1 17,5 22,2

5780 6870 6880 7130 7150 7200 7330 7410 7460 7510 7550 7570 8800 10,560

160 140 140 200 160 80 120 100 80 80 80 100 260 200

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

Linst€ adter (2004) This paper Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) This paper Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

EPI

10,130

68

22,1

11,740

380

Charcoal

Mikdad et al. (2000)

15

EPI

10,570

177

nd

12,400

480

Charcoal

Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

16

IBM

10,643

73

21,7

12,600

140

Charcoal

Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

17

LN LN LN EN EN IBM EPI EPI EPI IBM EN

4798 4916 5989 6739 7106 10,670 8290 8556 9677 10,022 5326

108 47 33 52 53 80 40 52 60 80 38

24,4 23,3 19,3 23,3 23,1 0,84 23 22,3 22,4

5500 5660 6830 7600 7920 12,620 8300 9530 11,020 11,540 6100

260 100 100 100 120 120 180 60 300 340 140

Capra hircus Charcoal Bos taurus Charcoal Charcoal Ostrea cf. Edulis Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Pistacia lentiscus

Lorenz (2010) Lorenz (2010) Lorenz (2010) Lorenz (2010) Lorenz (2010) Lorenz (2010) This paper €rsdorf and Eiwanger (2000) Go €rsdorf and Eiwanger (2000) Go Moser (2003, 101) Linst€ adter et al. (2016)

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

23,6

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€dter et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e11 J. Linsta

3

Table 1 (continued ) Lab code

Site

Culture

14

C-age [BP]

±1 s [BP]

d13C [‰PDB]

Cal-age [calBP]

±68% [calBP]

Material

Reference

COL-2376.1.1 COL-2374.1.1 COL-2372.1.1 COL-2371.1.1 COL-2377.1.1 BETA-396666 BETA-396672 COL-2381.1.1 BETA-396670 BETA-396665 BETA-396667 COL-2380.1.1 COL-2378.1.1 BETA-396671 KIA-39296 BETA-295772 BETA-295777 Erl-9987 BETA-295776 BETA-295775 BETA-295778 BETA-295773 BETA-295774 Erl-9989 KIA-39298

Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri Ifri

EN EN EN EN EN L-EPI L-EPI L-EPI L-EPI E-EPI E-EPI E-EPI E-EPI E-EPI LN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN EN

5644 5779 5832 5975 6288 7760 7820 7835 7980 8380 8660 8719 8729 8800 5000 5590 5670 5756 5900 5910 5930 5980 5980 6053 6085

40 38 37 38 40 30 30 45 30 30 30 42 46 30 30 40 40 48 40 40 40 40 40 50 25

23,9 23,6 25,3 25,4 17,7 23,3 21,1 22,4 22,0 22,6 23,6 18,0 23,9 22,5 25,1 23,9 19,9 22,9 23,6 22,6 23,0 25,0 20,8 23,8 21,0

6420 6580 6640 6810 7220 8530 8600 8630 8860 9400 9610 9680 9710 9820 5750 6360 6450 6560 6720 6730 6760 6820 6820 6900 6950

100 120 120 120 80 100 60 120 180 120 100 160 200 140 160 80 100 140 100 100 120 120 120 140 80

Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter Linst€ adter

Oxa-23528 BETA-318608 KIA-39297

Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane

EN EN EN

6136 6140 6155

34 30 30

19,5 nd 19,6

7050 7050 7070

160 140 120

Erl-9988

Ifri Oudadane

EN

6175

50

23,9

7070

140

KIA-39299

Ifri Oudadane

EN

6400

90

24,7

7320

160

KIA-39299/2 BETA-316137

Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane

EN EPI

6615 6780

30 40

21,6 20,1

7510 7630

80 30

BETA-295779 BETA-313467

Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane

EN EPI

6740 7150

50 40

nd 20,8

7600 7980

80 25

Erl-12419 BETA-313468

Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane

EPI EPI

7451 8080

56 40

17,0 18,4

8270 9030

120 40

BETA-313469 Erl-12418

Ifri Oudadane Ifri Oudadane

EPI EPI

7990 9496

40 183

19,2 23,9

8860 10,810

180 520

Erl-9983 BETA-341129 Erl-9984 Erl-9986 Erl-9985 COL-1647 COL-1645 KIA-39292

Ifri Ouzabour Ifri Ouzabour Ifri Ouzabour Ifri Ouzabour Ifri Ouzabour Ifri Zerrouk Ifri Zerrouk Mtlili 1

LN EN EN EPI EPI EN EN EPI

4571 6120 6481 7633 7666 5480 5974 7955

45 30 53 81 76 36 36 40

22 22,3 22,7 23,1 23,2 26,8 25,5 21,4

5220 7030 7380 8450 8470 6270 6810 8830

240 160 100 140 140 80 100 220

KIA-31007/2 KIA-39293

Mtlili 1 Mtlili 1

EPI EPI

8745 8800

55 45

22,5 21,3

9740 9860

240 240

KIA-31007 KIA-31008/2 KIA-31008 KIA-31001/2 KIA-31001 KIA-31002 KIA-31003 Bln-5038 KIA-30145b Hd-19868 Bln-5039 Hd-19880 Hd-19543 Bln-5040 Bln-5041

Mtlili 1 Mtlili 5 Mtlili 5 Mtlili 5 Mtlili 5 Mtlili 5 Mtlili 6 Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch

EPI EN EN EN EN EN EN LN LN EPI EN EPI EPI EPI EPI

8880 5040 5880 6000 6020 6110 5840 5479 5650 6139 6588 7166 7248 7977 8019

35 35 30 35 40 35 35 48 200 30 62 38 39 56 46

20,7 23,5 19,9 24,5 25,5 25,2 23 nd 21,9 22,6 nd 22,5 22,7 nd nd

10,020 5800 6700 6840 6860 7010 6650 6270 6460 7050 7500 7980 8070 8830 8880

200 140 80 100 120 160 120 100 440 140 100 60 120 220 180

Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus pinus sp. Olea Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia lentiscus Juniperus communis Emmer wheat Barley Juniperus communis Cereal Cereal Cereal Barley Barley Olea sp. Juniperus communis Capra hircus Cereal Juniperus communis Juniperus communis Juniperus communis Humid acid Chamaeorops humilis Lentil Chamaeorops humilis Sus scrofa Chamaeorops humilis Charcoal Ammothragus lervia Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Juniperus communis Humid acid Juniperus communis Charcoal Humid acid Charcoal Humid acid Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Bone Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda n'Etsedda Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane Oudadane

# et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) et al. (2016) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012) and Kehl (2012)

29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012) Morales et al. (2013) Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012)

54 55 56

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012)

57

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012)

58

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012) Morales et al. (2013)

59 60

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012) Morales et al. (2013)

61 62

Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012) Morales et al. (2013)

63 64

This paper Linst€ adter and Kehl (2012)

65 66

Nekkal et al. (in prep) This paper Nekkal et al. (in prep) Nekkal et al. (in prep) Nekkal et al. (in prep) This paper This paper Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74

Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

75 76

Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Hutterer et al. (2011) This paper Linst€ adter (2004) Hutterer et al. (2011) Linst€ adter (2004) Linst€ adter (2004) Hutterer et al. (2011) Hutterer et al. (2011)

77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

(continued on next page)

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€dter et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e11 J. Linsta

4 Table 1 (continued ) Lab code

Site

Culture

14

C-age [BP]

±1 s [BP]

d13C [‰PDB]

Cal-age [calBP]

±68% [calBP]

Material

Reference

#

Bln-5042 Bln-5043 Bln-5044 KIA-39287 KIA-39288 KIA-39291

Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taghit Haddouch Taoungat 1 Taoungat 1 Taoungat 7

EPI EPI EPI LN EPI EN

8302 8302 8726 4745 6970 5390

37 54 53 65 40 35

nd nd nd 25,9 25,8 22,4

9330 9300 9710 5460 7800 6200

140 200 220 200 120 120

Hutterer et al. (2011) Hutterer et al. (2011) Hutterer et al. (2011) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a) Linst€ adter et al. (2012a)

92 93 94 95 96 97

KIA-20053 KIA-36743 KIA-36742 KIA-17373

Zafrin Zafrin Zafrin Zafrin

EN EN EN EN

5280 5450 5584 5600

30 27 26 30

nd nd nd nd

6080 6250 6360 6370

160 80 80 80

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Pistacia lentiscus Bone Sus sp. Sus sp. Bone

Rojo Rojo Rojo Rojo

98 99 100 101

In parallel with the generation of climate and environmental data from the archaeological deposits, a number of terrestrial off€dter site archives were examined (Ibouhouten et al., 2010; Linsta et al., 2012b). Of particular interest are the Holocene overbank sediments of the Lower Moulouya valley, in which region the sedimentological, malacological and botanical investigations helped a lot in establishing the existence (and in particular dating) of a sequence of favourable periods during the Early Holocene, and subsequent switch towards aridity during the Middle Holocene. 2.2. Radiocarbon dating and calibration The chronologies discussed in this paper are based on tree-ring calibrated 14C-ages, with numeric ages given on the calendric time scale in [calBP] units (AD1950 ¼ 0 calBP). Numeric 14C-age cali€ ris, bration is performed using CalPal software (Weninger and Jo 2008) and is based on the INTCAL13 calibration (Reimer et al., 2013). The summed calibrated 14C-age distributions shown in Fig. 2 are constructed with algorithms described in Weninger (1986). They are based on a quantumtheoretical (QT) solution of how to handle the existence of multiple 14C-age readings in transfer of dating probability. By the approach used in CalPal, the distortion in the shape of calibrated probability density functions (cpdf) due to the non-commutative properties of the calibration operator is minimized, on both scales (cpdf-amplitude and calendric timescale) (Weninger et al., 2011, 2015). In particular, the QT approach does not require secondary smoothing of the disturbing spikes that are regularly superimposed on cpdfs (e.g. Steele, 2010; Williams, 2012; Bueno et al., 2013; Shennan et al., 2013; Manning et al., 2014; Goldberg et al., 2016), when produced by Bayesian algorithms (e.g. Bronk Ramsey, 1995). 2.3. Settlement patterns (three regions) As shown in Fig. 2, we have established a detailed chronological framework for the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif of Morocco. The archaeological sites with evidence for the Neolithic transition are located in three distinct regions: the Plain of Gerrouaou, the littoral west of the Melilla Peninsula (Western Littoral), and the Lower Moulouya valley including the southern flank of the Kebdana Mountains (Ifri n'Etsedda). All three regions have their very own geographical properties and histories that can be distinguished within the Neolithisation process. 2.4. The Western Littoral As noted above, earliest indications for the Neolithic lifestyle stem from Ifri Oudadane shelter. This site is located in the first of our three regions, the Western Littoral. At the site of Ifri Oudadane, both pottery as well as domesticates, including cereals (Triticum

Guerra Guerra Guerra Guerra

et et et et

al. al. al. al.

(2010) (2010) (2010) (2010)

monococcum/dicoccum, Triticum aestivum/durum, Hordeum vulgare), pulses (Lens culinaris, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba) and ovicaprides, are attested from 7.6 ka calBP onwards (Morales et al., 2013; Hutterer, pers. comm.). However, the datation of the onset is based on a single date (BETA-295779), botanical determination of the sample and AMS-datation are secure. Additionally, this is supported by other studies e.g. pollen analysis. Population continuity during the Neolithic transition is demonstrated by the lithic industry in combination with radiocarbon ages (Linst€ adter et al., 2015). Interestingly, during the transition, the importance of the new food production was only limited. It appears as a risk-reducing component of an otherwise mixed and complex subsistence strategy based on hunting, gathering, herding, cultivation and intensive use of marine resources. Contemporaneous but less well preserved €dter, 2010; Lorenz, 2010) and Ifri sites such as Ifri Armas (Linsta Ouzabour show the occurrence of the Early Neolithic also in the region west of the Oued Kert delta. Mineralogical studies of Early Neolithic pottery of Ifri Oudadane suggest its production in the area of the Lower Oued Kert, which was probably part of the same €dter and Müller-Siegmund, 2012). settlement chamber (Linsta

2.5. Plain of Gerrouaou A second distinct region during the Early Neolithic is the drainless Plain of Gerrouaou, located some 40 km south of the Mediterranean coast. As goes for the Neolithic Transition in this region, the most important site is the small shelter of Hassi €dter, 2003, 2004). Further Epipalaeolithic assemOuenzga (Linsta blages are known from Taghit Haddouch (Hutterer et al., 2011) and Ifri el Baroud (Nami, 2007). The study of lithic assemblages from the preceding late Pleistocene Iberomaurusian culture, for example those from Ifri n'Ammar (Moser, 2003), suggest a certain continuity of tradition throughout the PleistoceneeHolocene border. At Hassi Ouenzga, although the archaeological deposits from 7.5 ka calBP onwards provide pottery that is clearly contemporary to the Early Neolithic at Ifri Oudadane, there are no indications for food production. To avoid the clearly inappropriate term “Neolithic”, and also emphasise the necessity of wider discussion, we have proposed naming this period as “Epipaleolithic in transition” €dter, 2014). This designation takes into account several ob(Linsta servations: (1) as suggested by the lithic industry, there is a certain amount of cultural continuity between the Neolithic and the preceding Epipalaeolithic, (2) as shown by the radiocarbon ages, this continuity is not simply due to extended traditions, instead, a number of Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic sites are actually contemporary, (3) as demonstrated by the occurrence of pottery at certain sites, but lack of domesticates (plants and animals), there is evidence for contacts of the Epipalaeolithic with fully Neolithic groups from the littoral. We emphasise, however, the preliminary

Please cite this article in press as: Linst€adter, J., et al., Defining the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco e Spatial distribution, chronological framework and impact of environmental changes, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.07.042

€dter et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e11 J. Linsta

5

Fig. 1. Map of the eastern Rif with 14C -dated sites. Bottom: Distribution of Iberomaurusian sites. Middle: Distribution of Epipalaeolithic sites. During this period sites appear in the coastal regions of the eastern Rif. Top: sites with an Early Neolithic (coast and Oued Moulouya) and Epipalaeolithic in Transition occupation (hinterland).

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Fig. 2. Radiocarbon ages from archaeological sites of the eastern Rif in combination with local and global climate data from the last 13 ka. The graph “All” shows all available radiocarbon data, whereas the other four graphs with summed calibrated 14C-ages each represents a specific region within the eastern Rif (cf. Fig. 1). Local environmental proxies: €dter et al., 2012b), (B) Pollen record of Ifri Oudadane (Zapata et al., 2013). Global environmental proxies: (A) Initial Soil Formation on alluvial deposits at Oued Moulouya (Linsta

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character of this concept, since the latter fact (as it is based on ‘negative data’) might be due to research gaps. 2.6. Lower Moulouya River and Kebdana Mountains The Lower Moulouya River and adjacent Kebdana Mountains represent our third study region, which includes the site of El Zafrín, today located on the Chafarinas Islands. During the middle Holocene, when these islands were part of the continental shelf, this specific site was situated close to the Moulouya delta (Rojo Guerra et al., 2010). Indeed, a major part of our knowledge comes from the many open-air sites that are preserved in the alluvial €dter et al., (overbank) deposits of the Moulouya River (Linsta 2012b). When excavating such sites, we are confronted with certain advantages and disadvantages. In contrast to cave or shelter deposits, these open-air sites represent undisturbed short-term events, since they were embedded shortly after their formation by alluvial sediments. Within these open-air sites hearths, pits or occupation layers are preserved. Additionally, initial soil formation is traceable for Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic open-air sites at the Moulouya River, albeit this process was stopped by flooding events (Linst€ adter et al., 2012b, 13). On the other hand organic materials (e.g. charcoal, bones) are usually not well preserved. In the same region, on the other hand, well-preserved organic materials can be found in stratified deposits e.g. at the shelter of Ifri n'Etsedda (Berber: “lions cave”). This site is located at the southern reaches of the Kebdana Mountains, approximately 7 km north of the lower €dter et al., 2016). Summarising the 14C-data Moulouya River (Linsta from this easternmost part of our study area, we may confidently state that the Neolithic transition in the Lower Moulouya River and adjacent Kebdana Mountains did not occur before 7.2 ka calBP. 3. Results: combination of cultural and climatic data By combining the new archaeological and environmental data for the three study regions with selected climatic records (Fig. 2) we have undertaken an attempt to visualise the complex inner structure of the transitional process, in the Eastern Rif of Morocco, in parallel to supraregional climatic and environmental trends. Of specific interest are potential connections between demographic and climatic processes during the transition from the Epipalaeolithic to the Neolithic, on both regional as well as supraregional scales. Only for the Gerrouaou settlement region (Fig. 2: Gerrouaou, N ¼ 34 dates) provides e based on available 14C-data (total N ¼ 101; cf. Table 1) e do we have clear evidence for cultural continuity between the late Pleistocene Iberomaurusian culture and the arrival of Neolithic innovations. All other regions are completely void of 14C-dates during this early period, the only exception being two 14C-dates from the coastal region (Fig. 2: Oued Kert, coast). The unique occurrence of what we term the ‘Younger Dryas e Early Holocene Transition Phase’ (abbreviated ‘Transition’ in Fig. 2) only in the Gerrouaou region (~12.5- and 10.0 ka calBP) urgently needs further investigation. Following this phase, we observe in all three regions an apparently abrupt rise in the number of 14C-ages around 10.0 ka calBP. Presumably, the apparent coincidence with the 10.2 ka calBP RCC (as documented by the coeval GISP2 nss Kþ peak) is by only chance, and the real (causal) link of the rise in archaeological 14C-data is due to abrupt and widespread onset of a moist period in large parts of

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the Mediterranean and the Near East. For the moment, but acknowledging the possibility of temporally biased site conservation, we interpret this interesting link as possible demographic response to the major switch from lower to higher levels of precipitation during the time of Sapropel S1 deposition, which is now increasingly well-documented in both eMed (e.g. Kuhnt et al., 2007; Kotthoff et al., 2008; Schmiedl et al., 2010; Tachikawa et al., 2015), Adriatic (e.g. Combourieu Nebout et al., 2013) and wMed (Combourieu Nebout et al., 2009). After the abrupt onset of 14C-dated activities at the start of Sapropel S1 deposition (~10 ka calBP), a more-or-less continuous sequence of 14C-dates in all regions of the Moroccan Eastern Rif between 10 ka and 8.6 ka calBP follows. A similar societal response to the abrupt increase in water availability around 10.0 ka calBP, as is registered in the Near East e.g. by the abrupt rise by ~50 m in Dead Sea Levels (Migowski et al., 2006), and which is clearly in concert with the onset of Sapropel S1, has been documented by Weninger et al. (2009, Fig. 6). Recent palaeoclimatological research towards the effects of Late Glacial and Early Holocene meltwater outbursts on the thermohaline circulation (THC) in the North Atlantic (e.g. Mayewski et al., 1997, 2004; Thomas et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2009; Pross et al., 2009) has provided archaeologists with much data for discussion of the potential societal impact of climate variability. This is surely best exemplified by the now famous 8.2 ka calBP event, with its major assumed (e.g. Weninger et al., 2014; Clare, 2016), and sometimes denied (e.g. van der Plicht et al., 2011; Flohr et al., 2015) impact on human life in the Near East. According to Fleitmann et al. (2008), prior to the 8.2 ka calBP RCC, there are fourteen additional MWP whose impact has not yet been sufficiently investigated. One of these MWP occurred at 9.2 ka calBP (Fleitmann et al., 2008). Even though the respective freshwater influx into the North Atlantic was much smaller than during the 8.2 ka calBP (Hudson Bay) event, the 9.2 ka climatic anomaly is likely to have had considerable and presumably global impact (Fleitmann et al., 2008, Tab. 1). Awaiting further research, let us keep in mind that the interruption of Epipalaeolithic occupation in Ifri n'Etsedda and the Plain of Gerrouaou may (or not) have its background in climatic deterioration. Following the 9.2 ka calBP RCC-event, the radiocarbon data frequency increases within all ranges of the study area. The socalled Late Epipalaeolithic is represented at the littoral by Ifri Oudadane, in the Plain of Gerrouaou by Taghit Haddouch and Hassi Ouenzga, and at the Moulouya by the open-air sites of Hajra and  pez Taoungat, as well as Ifri n'Etsedda. According to Juan Antonio Lo ez (cited in Linst€ Sa adter et al., 2016), the landscape did not change significantly between the Early and Late Epipalaeolithic period. An exception is provided by the fact that the presence of fir (Abies pinsapo) is not continuous, a progressive decrease in the presence of alder (Alder sp.) parallel to an increase of tamarisk (Tamarix) occurs, and myrtle (Myrtus communis), Whitania, Periploca and Ziziphus appear in the upper samples suggesting progressive thermic conditions. Interesting are also the indications for a data gap in all regions (except the coast) between 8.6 and 8.0 ka calBP, which would be in parallel to the contemporary RCC-interval. However, the interpretation that this may be due to population movements to the milder coastal regions due to cold/dry inland conditions surely requires further data. In this respect, we note with interest the conspicuously strong and geographically wide revival of deepwater formation that is observed in the eMed during the 8.6e8.0 ka

(C) Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index of SL132 in eMed (Schmiedl et al., 2010), (D) Tyrrhenian Sea BS79-38, sea surface temperature (SST) C37 alkenones (Cacho et al., 2001), (E) Alboran Sea ODP-976, % Temperate Forest pollen (Combourieu Nebout et al., 2009), (F) Greenland GISP2 ice core d18O (Grootes et al., 1993), (G) High-Resolution GISP2 potassium (non-sea salt (Kþ) as proxy for the strength of the Siberian High (Mayewski et al., 1997; Meeker and Mayewski, 2002)). Gray bars illustrate assumed correlations between RCCs and Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic 14C edata peaks (cf. text). RCC-Intervals according to Weninger et al. (2009).

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calBP RCC-interval. These marine processes are presumably related to a combination of extremely cold winds from polar sources during autumn/winter, and a general lack of precipitation over the oceans as well as by river runoff (e.g. Schmiedl et al., 2010). In our study region, but only on the coast, there are indications for settlement continuity during the 8.6e8.0 ka calBP RCC interval. As goes for the arrival of the Neolithic in the Eastern Rif of Morocco, it appears to have been an abrupt event in the Gerrouaou region, where it dates to ca. 7.6 ka calBP. At essentially the same time (within error limits of ~100 yrs) the Neolithic has spread along the coastal regions, but it has an apparently later arrival in the regions of Oued Moulouya and Ifri n'Etsedda, with earliest dates of 7.0 ka calBP and 7.2 ka calBP, respectively. For the propose correlation of RCC-events and 14C-data clusters, in Fig. 2 we cautiously provide (by shading) the corresponding zonation of climatic intervals and events (~10.2 ka; ~9.3 ka; ~8.6e8.0 ka calBP RCC and ACP events). As shown in the upper legend of Fig. 2, we have named the initial Epipalaeolithic occupation in these two regions as ‘Early Epipalaeolithic’. This phase is represented in the Plain of Gerrouaou by the two sites of Taghit Haddouch and Ifri el Baroud. In the Moulouya area, the same phase is known from the open-air site of Mtlili 1 and from Ifri n'Etsedda shelter. During the 8.2 ka calBP RCC/Hudson Bay event (sensu strictu), the occupation of the Eastern Rif seems to collapse entirely. As noted above, the exception is the coastal site of Ifri Oudadane. It looks like the particular conditions of the Mediterranean coast enabled the local hunter-gatherers to stand the otherwise unfavourable conditions. The population recovers very slowly from 8.0 ka calBP onwards as some single radiocarbon ages from the Moulouya and the Plain of Gerrouaou suggest. Then, with the beginning of the Neolithic at 7.6 ka calBP, a substantial increase of data appears both on the coast (Ifri Oudadane) as well as in the interior (Hassi Ouenzga). However, because the topic of Neolithisation is of particular interest to researchers, in NE-Morocco as in other regions, we cannot exclude that data frequencies might be overrepresented. Allowing for this, it is difficult to judge whether food production begins rapidly (as argued above) or not slowly, perhaps even with an intermediate decline between 7.4 and 7.2 ka calBP, before the Neolithic picks up pace. The Neolithic main occupation phase is represented by the ENB phase of Ifri €dter and Kehl, 2012) and several open-air sites Oudadane (Linsta from Mtlili. The end of the Early Neolithic at around 6.0 ka calBP goes along with an environmental degradation. This degradation is marked, for example, by the end of soil formation processes within the alluvial deposits of the Lower Moulouya (Linst€ adter et al., 2012b), as well as by shifts in the pollen record at Ifri Oudadane which show the expansion of dryland Maccia, including a significant increase of Tamarix and other aridity indicators (Zapata et al., 2013). From a Mediterranean perspective it is interesting to see that the end of the Early Neolithic in Morocco appears to go hand-in-hand with the end of the “Cardium-Era”. Although the so-called Late Neolithic dates from 6.0 ka calBP onwards, in lack of 14C-ages it is chronologically blurred and difficult to define in cultural terms. Some small assemblages are preserved on top of Early Neolithic deposits or at open-air sites, but the assemblages are often mixed with younger material. The poor quality of available data explains the general lack of archaeobotanical and archaeozoological studies for the Late Neolithic, and for which we have only minimal knowledge of subsistence strategies. Its only omnipresent feature is a distinct pottery, which is decorated with so-called herringbone motives. In general, this pottery is seen in association with Saharan traditions and its occurrence in our study regions could be an indicator for populations moving north to escape the progressive desiccation of €dter, 2014). the Sahara at that time (Nehren, 1992; Linsta

Turning again to the cumulative probability plots of the 14C-data (Fig. 2), we would finally like to discuss some details of the probability distributions that may be of interest for future research. Note that in the following, as already above, we are taking on a positive attitude towards the impact of climate on prehistoric society, in a sense that we do not believe apriori that climate change is simply a nuisance to any evolving society. With this attitude, let us now put focus on the phases for which we may assume altogether favourable climatic conditions, and have a closer look at prevailing intersite differences. A case at hand is available from the Moulouya area, where the two sites of Mtlili and Ifri n'Etsedda are located in close vicinity to each other (distance < 10 km). Interestingly, although both sites are located in very different environments, their respective frequencies of 14C-data during the Epipalaeolithic (10e8 ka calBP) follow essentially the same bi-modal distribution (with peaks 10e9.5 ka and 9.0e8.5 ka calBP; and minimum at 9.3 ka calBP), which is assumable related the same boom-and-bust pattern. In contrast to this, throughout the Neolithic, both curves show an alternating pattern: the climax of the Moulouya occupation at about 6.7 ka calBP coincides with an occupation gap at Ifri n'Etsedda, and vice-versa around 6.2 ka calBP. However, although we strongly suspect that the underlying cause for this data pattern may be an alternating change in land use, we acknowledge that such a scenario is difficult to prove. A closer look at certain of the Neolithic occupation within the different areas allows us to discern some further patterns. Whereas the Plain of Gerrouaou and the littoral west of Melilla both show an early onset of occupation (phase ENB at Ifri Oudadane), which in both regions dates to around 7.2 ka calBP, the more eastern Moulouya valley (including Ifri n'Etsedda and the Chafarinas Islands) have their peak after 7.0 ka calBP, with maximum calibrated 14C-readings above all in the second half of the seventh millennium calBP. The Neolithic assemblages at this time are dominated by a pottery decorated with herringbone motives using non-denticulate shells. This pottery appears as a kind of forerunner of the subsequent Late Neolithic pottery, for which decoration exclusively combs were used. 4. Discussion: the diversity of subsistence strategies within the Early Neolithic of Mediterranean Morocco All available data concerning food production shows, in combination, that the transitional process in Mediterranean Morocco is not comparable with concurrent developments in Central Europe, such as the Linear Bandkeramik (LBK). On the one hand there is no indication for an immigrant population, as models such as the €dter et al., 2012a) or the “Mosaic Model” “Dual Model” (Linsta lez de Lema, 2013) suppose. Sites (Schuhmacher and Sanz Gonza such as Ifri Oudadane even show certain occupation continuity and an active role of the local foragers in the distribution and integration of neolithic innovations in their subsistence strategies. On the other hand, as it appears, the local so-called Neolithisation process does not mean a shift towards an exclusively producing economy. The use of domesticated species remained limited, and appears as a risk-minimising facet. Hunting and gathering as well as the exploitation of marine resources still play the most important role. This complex subsistence strategy apparently represents the optimal way in which it was possible to cope with the sensitive semiarid environment. The concept of “Low Level Food Production” of Smith (2001) offers an appropriate theoretical framework to explain the reversible and multifaceted subsistence model of the Eastern Rif. Smith focusses on the “in between” of a hunter-gatherer mode of subsistence and an economy of planned production. Smith points out that in contrast to earlier research which considered this transitional as a “thin line” (Smith, 2001, 3), in many cases the process

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appears to have taken much longer time than surmised, up to several centuries. But for such cases, how can we measure the extent of the multiple economic components, and how shall we name the respective subsistence model? Harris (1996a, b, 446) marks the limit to “agriculture” there, where domesticated species represent more than 50% of the used plants, and where the majority of manpower is invested in agricultural activities. Morales et al. (2013, Tab. 1) show in the case of Ifri Oudadane that domesticated species amount to less than 1% of all plants, for which the use of the term “agriculture” seems inappropriate. Harris (1996a, b; see also Smith, 2001, 7) classifies plant-food production either as “wild plant-food production dominant” or as “crop production dominant”, and introduces corresponding “phases”. The latter Harris calls “agriculture”. The “wild plant-food production dominant” phase starts with the appearance of domesticated species and ends when the amounts exceed 50%, and which he names “cultivation”. The “cultivation” phase is further subdivided into a first “stage” of small-scale clearing of vegetation and minimal tillage and a second “stage” with larger-scale land clearance and systematic tillage. Our pollen data (Zapata et al., 2013) show a decline of tree species from 70 to 40% during the onset of cultivation at about 7.6 ka calBP. Taking all data together, the Early Neolithic deposits of Ifri Oudadane, show a group of local settlers who invest significantly in the environment by practising herding, along with low scale plant cultivation. The amount of crops and domesticated animals, however, remains altogether low, and the use of wild resources provides a wide spectrum of species. A recent palaeobotanical study that compares the above mentioned data from Ifri Oudadane with data of macro remains from Kaf Taht el-Ghar and El Khil at the Tangier Peninsula (NWMorocco) shows significant differences in the main crops. While Ifri Oudadane provides a dominance of wild plant species and percentages less than 20% of crops, the Kaf Taht el-Ghar Early Neolithic shows crop percentages higher than 95% (Morales et al., in press). As another comparison, Grotte el Khil is quite outstanding through a complete lack of wild species and a dominance of pulses within the domesticated species. Furthermore, a marked decrease in crop diversity was detected, between 6500 and 6000 calBP, that suggests a corresponding shift in the agricultural practices. Plant use in general and the percentage of cultivation or agriculture in particular seems to have been quite divers, both on a local as well as on the regional scale. Whether such patterns were triggered by environmental factors or induced by human agency requires further investigation. Although plant remains remain scarce and hence support only preliminary conclusions, the archaeobotanical evidence from the now known Neolithic sites is very promising and it quality encourages further research at new sites in other NortheWestern African regions. 5. Conclusions All evidence combined, we conclude that climatic and environmental variability had significant impact on Holocene prehistoric occupation in NE-Morocco. To begin, we propose that the observed abrupt increase in frequencies of 14C-dated charcoal and bone samples at around 10 ka calBP is most likely related to a corresponding increase in Epipalaeolithic population. This would be quite similar to the situation in the Near East, where the number and size of 14C-dated Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites also strongly increases around 10 ka calBP (Weninger et al., 2009). In the Near East the inferred population increase is synchronous with the abrupt rise in Dead-Sea Levels (Migowski et al., 2006), with its timing in parallel to the onset of Sapropel S1 (Schmiedl et al., 2010). In NEMorocco we observe a similar demographic response to the sudden increase in water availability, although in this case not for the

9

Neolithic but for the Epipalaeolithic lifestyle. In addition, we have now for the first time clear evidence that the 8.6e8.0 ka calBP RCC cold-event can also have strong impact on Epipalaeolithic populations, and not only the Neolithic. Additionally, in NE-Morocco, we now have first evidence for the strong impact of the 9.3 ka calBP RCC, although just as in the Near East the large majority of environmental and societal details remain to be established. Although the end of the Neolithic is not under study in the present paper, it clearly coincides with the ‘4.2 ka calBP event’. A corresponding period of severe and prolonged drought has recently been observed at Gueldaman Cave in North Algeria, where it is dated to 4400e3800 yr BP (Ruan et al., 2015). In our study regions the later (post 4.2 ka) development of the Neolithisation process itself does not seem correlated with any climate and environmental shift. In this specific context we consider the cultural phenomena to represent the (actively) driving forces behind the observed processes. Hence, we should not automatically assume prehistoric societies to be largely resilient towards environmental and climatic changes (Flohr et al., 2015), if only because the societal impact of climate change is indeed often difficult to recognise. Inevitably, what we observe is dependent on research design (Weninger and Clare, 2011). As demonstrated in detail for the societal consequences of the 8.6e8.0 ka RCC in Anatolia and the Near East, it is apriori (in a Kantian sense) difficult to distinguish between climate impact and other causes of change (cf. Clare, 2016, 48e51). Although there is no data that would demonstrate a terrestrial expansion of the Neolithic west of Valencia, we conjecture that in this region the further distribution of Neolithic innovations is undertaken via maritime networks. The continuous occupation of coastal sites in Morocco, such as the Ifri Oudadane, leads us to assume that the marine networks may already have existed in the Epipalaeolithic period. Hence, also in respect to long-distance communication systems do there exist some very close analogies between cultural developments in the eastern and western Mediterranean, especially in terms of the observed rapidity of cultural dispersion (Weninger et al., 2014; Horejs et al., 2015). Interestingly, despite knowledge of food production technologies, even during the Neolithic in the Eastern Rif of Morocco no real agriculture sensu strictu (i.e. dependency on > 50% domesticated plants) was developed. Animal herding and plant cultivation, although well-known, long remained only one component within a broad spectrum of food management that including hunting, gathering and use of marine resources. Following Smith, the name we apply to this multi-faceted subsistence strategy is low-level food production. Acknowledgements We would like to express our thanks to Abdeslam Mikdad from ologie et du PatriINSAP (Institut National des Sciences de l'Arche moine) in Rabat, Morocco, and to Josef Eiwanger, DAI (Deutsches €ologisches Institut), Bonn, Germany for long-term, amicable Archa cooperative work and the providing of site data. Furthermore we are very grateful to the ERC-project ‘AGRIWESTMED’ under the direction ~ a-Chocarro for determination of botanical remains and of Leonor Pen financing the radiocarbon dating of short lived botanical samples. We are indebted to the Excellence Research Projects Program from the Andalusian Government (RNM-7033) for financial support of pollen analysis. Last not least, we thank the German Research Foundation (DFG) for financing our fieldwork in the framework of the CRC 806 ‘Our way to Europe’. References Bernabeu Aub an, J., Martí Oliver, B., 2014. The first agricultural groups in the Iberian Peninsula. In: Manen, C., Perrin, T., Guilaine, J. (Eds.), La transition

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Please cite this article in press as: Linst€adter, J., et al., Defining the Early Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco e Spatial distribution, chronological framework and impact of environmental changes, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.07.042