- Email: [email protected]
Desalination education capacity in Israel
~!. ?
: rJ~, ."..:
DESALINATION
l ELSEVIER
Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198 www.elsevier.com/locate/desal
Desalination education capacity in Israel Raphael Semiat Rabin Desalination Laboratory, The Water Research Institute, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Technion-lsrael Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa 32000, Israel Tel. +972 (4) 829-2009; Fax +972 (4) 823-0476; email: [email protected] Received 29 September 2000; 16 October 2000
Abstract Israel suffers from a shortage of water, and it seems that this shortage is going to increase. Some desalination efforts are underway in the country, and it is anticipated that this field will grow rapidly in the near future. Israeli universities are well prepared to provide the market with highly trained graduate students, engineers of all types and other professionals who can join this industry and help build the desalination plants that are so needed. The water and desalination companies also have their own training facilities to cope with their needs. This article describes the facilities and the means available for desalination education capacity in the country.
Keywords: Desalination; Reverse osmosis; Evaporation; Distillation; Education; Academic training
1. History of desalination in Israel Israel has devoted tremendous efforts through the years to water desalination. The lack of water was the driving force in the early 1960s to invest in this important field. The first steps were taken to develop a freezing technique that led to modem vapor compression units capable of up to 5000m3/d. Attempts were made to utilize solar energy using different types of collectors - - an effort that has proven to be economically
unfeasible. The development of the multi-effect distillation technique followed vapor compression, and more than 300 units of the two techniques were sold at different locations around the world. Electro-dialysis was tested in a relatively large scale at a kibbutz in the middle o f the Negev Desert. This technique, which is currently used to clarify well water from nitrates, was replaced by reverse osmosis. RO is presently the only method in use for desalination in the country. The larger
Presented at the session on Capacity Building at the conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries, Cooperation between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean, sponsored by the European Desalination Society and Ecole Nationale d'Ingenieurs de Tunis, September 11-13, 2000, Jerba, Tunisia. 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 / 0 1 / $ - See front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PII: s o o I 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( O l ) O 0 4 0 3 - 9
192
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
Table 1 Major milestones of Mekorot desalination activity 1965 1971 1972 1973 1977 1978 1979-1990 1991 1992 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Start-up of first multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination plant, combined with Eilat power station Redesign and erection of a second MSF unit in Eilat Start-up of first BWRO pilot plant in Eilat Start-up of first multi-effect distillation (MED) plant in Eilat; first BWRO small-scale plant start-up First SWRO pilot unit (Eilat, Red Sea) First large commercial BWRO unit (Sabha A - Eilat) Continuous extension of BWRO (Sabha A) in Eilat and additional BWRO units in Arava region First SWRO pilot plants (Ashdod-Mediterranean Sea); conceptual design of a 24,000 m3/d SWRO using SW/BWRO brine mixture Design and erection of a second BWRO plant in Eilat (Sabha B); winning bidder of international tender released by the Water Commissioner General design and tender promulgation of 3 x8000 m3/d SWRO in Eilat (Sabha C) General design of SW desalination plant (10 Mm3/y)in Western Galilee Start-up of first commercial SWRO plant in Israel (Sabha C - 8000 m3/d) Retrofitting of Sabha C to 10,000 m3/d; first UF pilot unit as pretreatment for polluted BW desalination in the framework of multi-national research program supported by the European Union General design and tender preparation of second desalination unit in Sabha C; General design of SW desalination plant in Ashkelon (30 and 50 Mma/y)
units are located in the southern tourist town of Eilat, at the north point of the Red Sea near Aqaba. Desalination supplies about 85% of the current water needs of this town. The plants, utilizing brackish and Red Sea waters, were designed and built by Israeli companies, with imported membranes, pumps and turbines. Current daily production is 35,000m3/d from brackish water and 10,000m3/d from Red Sea water. The national water company, Mekorot Ltd., controls about 65% of the water production and supply in Israel. Mekorot is so far involved with most o f the desalination activity in the country. Table 1 highlights the milestones in the company's desalination history. It is interesting to note that after much experimentation, the company chose RO as its main desalination optional technique. Currently there are about 50 different installations all over the country. Most of them are small, except for the facilities located in Eilat. These facilities produce pure drinking
water as well as pure water used by various industries, including power companies, high-tech electronic industries, refineries and advanced agricultural industries. Mekorot's installation map is shown in Fig. 1. Although it is not a political map, it outlines the areas currently occupied by the State of Israel. The map includes the existing plants, particularly in the southern region of the country and the three main pilot plants of Mekorot that are mentioned below. The letter "A" designates a possible site for a 50,000m3/d plant of water produced from brackish water. Letter "B" indicates sites for current and future electrodialysis plants that remove nitrates from drinking water.
2. Desalination training A modem desalination plant requires highly skilled employees to fill a variety of jobs.
193
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198 xo a u 4 1 m ~
NABAL T A ~
(1997)
BRA Ct~.~'~-I(~Jg/ACE) W A T E R A S H D O D (195g) SEA
taZPE :,"HALSM (tgS3) 50 m3/dw
__.
s m B o m ~ x (ross)
5orest~
Ig-~D I T ~ A N
I",~V~Z O H A K (19861) 50 m s/day
~LAT(1994)
NEOT HAKIKAR (1982)
5o m~i~
PLANTS
I~OR W A T E R
~ a t , T (19853 50m 31day
~NAldtlX I,~A_R.DARC~#I (1959)
EIN YAffAV (199"2_)
50 m : g d a z ~ _ _
50 m % ' d a L _ _ _ _
N A H A L MOR.AG (1991) 50 m3Idav
LOrAt~ ~19S3)
BEER ORA (1983) 50 ra~td~_______ _
YAHEL (1979) 50 m~dny
50 mJId~
ETLOT (1986)
K T U R A (1983)
50 m3/dty x
2
0
GROFIT (1974)
~
~ S F O R
50 matdag. 50 m ~ !
WATER
YOTVATA (1973) 50 m~/day MAAGAN MICI-LA~ ~19~) ~&k.a.LE ~ C K A R V r B W - SAP,H A 'A" (!975) ELIPA~Z (1983) B W . S A B H A "B' (I~93) !0,000 m J/day
S A M A R 0979)
:>~,V. SABHA 'C" (t997)
SDE U V D A I (1979) 250 m~tday (I~T@f¢)
_
SDE D~,/DA 2 (1980) 500 m~d~y fl~E~l~V.)
Fig. 1, Map of the desalination unit distribution.
Starting from management, an overall plan is required to oversee all necessary operations in accordance with the budget. A trained engineer is needed to monitor the overall operation, analyze
the trends of accumulated information and anticipate problems in advance, etc. Trained operators are needed to supervise the day-to-day activities, including equipment maintenance,
194
R. Semiat/Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
operation monitoring, data collection and general troubleshooting. It is important to mention that the technical staff of the plant is recruited based on their education and experience. Even a well-educated engineer needs to accumulate know-how in order to perform properly at the plant facilities. This is especially true for the low-knowledge, low-level operators, who usually have no prior appropriate training and who are usually trained on the job. Another important point to consider is the difference in training needs between employees with prior work experience in a desalination plant and new employees without prior experience. Training needs may also differ depending on whether the plant in question is well operated or not. The diversification between different techniques and different producers of desalination techniques is also an important point to consider for a general training program.
A graduate student may participate in higher education programs. MSc and PhD programs are available at the three universities. Subjects related to fluid dynamics, multi-phase flow and heat transfer - - the basis for evaporation techniques - - are available at the Technion and Tel-Aviv universities. Membrane-related subjects such as production, surface enhancement for the different types of membranes, fouling prevention, etc., are also subjects for postgraduate education programs, mainly at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and the Technion. The Weizmann Institute of Science has also educated scientists and researchers in the membrane field. Some of these programs are financed by the water and desalination companies. Other sources of funds are the National Academy of Science, Middle East Desalination Research Center, and the European Community. Graduate studies are very effective in preparing highly skilled professionals to deal with the problems of this industry.
3. Academic facilities
Table 2 Summary of recent desalination conferences and workshops in Israel
The professional teams behind the design, construction and operation of the various desalination projects were mostly educated at local universities. Most of the engineers studied at the Technion faculties of Chemical and Mechanical Engineering, and others were educated at the Ben-Gurion University in Beer Sheva. Both universities have programs in Chemical Engineering. Tel-Aviv University also has an engineering school that specializes in fluid mechanics, including two-phase flow and heat transfer. The universities provide basic courses on fluid mechanics, heat and mass transfer, separation processes and chemistry. Laboratory courses include membrane processes, evaporation techniques, etc. Fig. 2 shows some of the student desalination experiments at the Technion's Faculty of Chemical Engineering. Special courses are also given on desalination at the university level.
Date and location
Subject
February 1998, Eilat Water DesalinationTechnology Symposium [1] Desalination in Israel Present May 1998, Haifa and Future [2] Fouling Mitigation in Membrane January 1999, Haifa Processes [3] Large Seawater Desalination December 1999, Projects [4] Haifa Euromembrane2000 September2000, Jerusalem New Developmentsin the December 2000, Treatment and Desalinationof Tel-Aviv Effluents, Brackish and other Marginal Waters Membrane Technology for September2001, Wastewater Reclamationand Tel-Aviv Reuse
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
Sum~r Rc~m O ~
195
$~tem
I~llialt film
Nmo-Uwa-Hltrstl,m $~1¢m
Mlcro-lgRmtima,~lwat
B~DJdysi, #~m
Fig. 2. Some of the teaching and research facilities at the Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Technion.
Postgraduate courses are also available at all universities. Students can enroll in graduate level courses at various locations in the country. The universities also collaborate in organizing
conferences and workshops with industry and other organizations. The last few conferences related to desalination are summarized in Table 2.
196
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
4. Companies and organizations Among the various companies that deal with desalination at home and abroad, only IDE Technologies utilizes evaporating techniques. All local desalination companies, including IDE, design and build RO units of different capacities. The training of new employees is primarily focused on education and takes place at various installations in Israel and abroad. Fig. 3 shows an IDE MED plant during the installation stage. Mekorot Ltd. founded its own R&D facilities in order to investigate new directions in desalination while improving manpower capabilities. Fig. 4 shows three main pilot plants located in different areas. The Eilat plant is located next to the production line and is used to monitor different types of membranes at different operational conditions. The pilot plant in Ashdod
is used mainly for RO operations on Mediterranean water. The third facility is the pilot plant in Nahal Taninim, which is used to desalinate brackish water polluted with rejects from fish ponds. This pilot is also used for alternative pretreatment using ultra-filtration membranes. The establishment of the newly created Desalination Society has boosted public information transfer due to frequent desalination conferences and workshops. Conferences help increase public awareness in order to prepare for future, large-capacity desalination plants along the Mediterranean shore. It is still imperative to transfer ideas to the decision makers and make them aware of the available techniques and know-how. Table 2 shows the main desalination conferences and workshops held over the last 3 years.
Fig. 3. IDE TechnologiesMED plant during the installationstage.
t~ Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
197
Ashdod- Sea-water
N~Taninim
Eilat Red Sea Fig. 4. Mekorot's pilot plants at different locations. 5. Current situation
Israel is facing a severe water shortage problem due to increased demand followed by over-pumping from depleted resources. Israel's water crisis is shared by its neighboring countries. The operation of large-scale desalination plants is only a question of time, beginning with the time needed to install the first large unit. More professionals will be required in the future to deal with the developing water industry. Leading experts in the field must share their knowledge with those who are interested through existing university courses, specially designed programs and even "operation and maintenanceon-the-spot" courses. Experts in a variety of
different subjects are willing to cooperate on any possible level to contribute their share to increasing the regional capability and know-how.
6. The future of desalination
Needs for new water resources are severe in many locations on earth and in the Middle East and North Africa region on one hand, but the cost is still high in comparison with common water supplies. It is easier to introduce desalinated water in developed cities where people pay almost threefold or more than the cost of desalination for their water. Usually those locations do not suffer from water scarcity. Water is needed in locations where agriculture is still
198
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
the basis for life, and simple agriculture cannot afford even the currently relatively low costs. It is a global question o f the same type as the usage of alternative energy sources to solve environmental problems. The future o f mankind depends on finding the proper answers to those questions, in addition to the quest for global peace. At the moment, without international intervention, only local solutions may be given for the water problems. The relationship between R&D and personnel training in desalination is quite obvious. By providing more highly skilled desalination experts, costs may be reduced and extraordinary advances can be made in this important field.
References [1] Water Desalination Technology Symposium, AbsWactsand presentations,Eilat, February, 1998. [2] R. Semiat, D. Hasson and A. Shauly, Desalinationin Israel,ConferenceProceedings,May 1998,T~hnion, Israel. [3] D, Hasson and R. Semiat, Fouling Mitigation in Membrane Processes, Abstracts Book of the Conferenc~,January 1999, Technion, Israel. [4] R. Semiat, D. Hasson, I. and Sutzcover,Large Sewwater DesalinationProjects- - A Timely Solutionto Israel's Pressing WaterNeeds, AbstractsBook of the Conference,December 1999, Technion, Israel.
: rJ~, ."..:
DESALINATION
l ELSEVIER
Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198 www.elsevier.com/locate/desal
Desalination education capacity in Israel Raphael Semiat Rabin Desalination Laboratory, The Water Research Institute, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Technion-lsrael Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa 32000, Israel Tel. +972 (4) 829-2009; Fax +972 (4) 823-0476; email: [email protected] Received 29 September 2000; 16 October 2000
Abstract Israel suffers from a shortage of water, and it seems that this shortage is going to increase. Some desalination efforts are underway in the country, and it is anticipated that this field will grow rapidly in the near future. Israeli universities are well prepared to provide the market with highly trained graduate students, engineers of all types and other professionals who can join this industry and help build the desalination plants that are so needed. The water and desalination companies also have their own training facilities to cope with their needs. This article describes the facilities and the means available for desalination education capacity in the country.
Keywords: Desalination; Reverse osmosis; Evaporation; Distillation; Education; Academic training
1. History of desalination in Israel Israel has devoted tremendous efforts through the years to water desalination. The lack of water was the driving force in the early 1960s to invest in this important field. The first steps were taken to develop a freezing technique that led to modem vapor compression units capable of up to 5000m3/d. Attempts were made to utilize solar energy using different types of collectors - - an effort that has proven to be economically
unfeasible. The development of the multi-effect distillation technique followed vapor compression, and more than 300 units of the two techniques were sold at different locations around the world. Electro-dialysis was tested in a relatively large scale at a kibbutz in the middle o f the Negev Desert. This technique, which is currently used to clarify well water from nitrates, was replaced by reverse osmosis. RO is presently the only method in use for desalination in the country. The larger
Presented at the session on Capacity Building at the conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries, Cooperation between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean, sponsored by the European Desalination Society and Ecole Nationale d'Ingenieurs de Tunis, September 11-13, 2000, Jerba, Tunisia. 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 / 0 1 / $ - See front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PII: s o o I 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( O l ) O 0 4 0 3 - 9
192
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
Table 1 Major milestones of Mekorot desalination activity 1965 1971 1972 1973 1977 1978 1979-1990 1991 1992 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Start-up of first multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination plant, combined with Eilat power station Redesign and erection of a second MSF unit in Eilat Start-up of first BWRO pilot plant in Eilat Start-up of first multi-effect distillation (MED) plant in Eilat; first BWRO small-scale plant start-up First SWRO pilot unit (Eilat, Red Sea) First large commercial BWRO unit (Sabha A - Eilat) Continuous extension of BWRO (Sabha A) in Eilat and additional BWRO units in Arava region First SWRO pilot plants (Ashdod-Mediterranean Sea); conceptual design of a 24,000 m3/d SWRO using SW/BWRO brine mixture Design and erection of a second BWRO plant in Eilat (Sabha B); winning bidder of international tender released by the Water Commissioner General design and tender promulgation of 3 x8000 m3/d SWRO in Eilat (Sabha C) General design of SW desalination plant (10 Mm3/y)in Western Galilee Start-up of first commercial SWRO plant in Israel (Sabha C - 8000 m3/d) Retrofitting of Sabha C to 10,000 m3/d; first UF pilot unit as pretreatment for polluted BW desalination in the framework of multi-national research program supported by the European Union General design and tender preparation of second desalination unit in Sabha C; General design of SW desalination plant in Ashkelon (30 and 50 Mma/y)
units are located in the southern tourist town of Eilat, at the north point of the Red Sea near Aqaba. Desalination supplies about 85% of the current water needs of this town. The plants, utilizing brackish and Red Sea waters, were designed and built by Israeli companies, with imported membranes, pumps and turbines. Current daily production is 35,000m3/d from brackish water and 10,000m3/d from Red Sea water. The national water company, Mekorot Ltd., controls about 65% of the water production and supply in Israel. Mekorot is so far involved with most o f the desalination activity in the country. Table 1 highlights the milestones in the company's desalination history. It is interesting to note that after much experimentation, the company chose RO as its main desalination optional technique. Currently there are about 50 different installations all over the country. Most of them are small, except for the facilities located in Eilat. These facilities produce pure drinking
water as well as pure water used by various industries, including power companies, high-tech electronic industries, refineries and advanced agricultural industries. Mekorot's installation map is shown in Fig. 1. Although it is not a political map, it outlines the areas currently occupied by the State of Israel. The map includes the existing plants, particularly in the southern region of the country and the three main pilot plants of Mekorot that are mentioned below. The letter "A" designates a possible site for a 50,000m3/d plant of water produced from brackish water. Letter "B" indicates sites for current and future electrodialysis plants that remove nitrates from drinking water.
2. Desalination training A modem desalination plant requires highly skilled employees to fill a variety of jobs.
193
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198 xo a u 4 1 m ~
NABAL T A ~
(1997)
BRA Ct~.~'~-I(~Jg/ACE) W A T E R A S H D O D (195g) SEA
taZPE :,"HALSM (tgS3) 50 m3/dw
__.
s m B o m ~ x (ross)
5orest~
Ig-~D I T ~ A N
I",~V~Z O H A K (19861) 50 m s/day
~LAT(1994)
NEOT HAKIKAR (1982)
5o m~i~
PLANTS
I~OR W A T E R
~ a t , T (19853 50m 31day
~NAldtlX I,~A_R.DARC~#I (1959)
EIN YAffAV (199"2_)
50 m : g d a z ~ _ _
50 m % ' d a L _ _ _ _
N A H A L MOR.AG (1991) 50 m3Idav
LOrAt~ ~19S3)
BEER ORA (1983) 50 ra~td~_______ _
YAHEL (1979) 50 m~dny
50 mJId~
ETLOT (1986)
K T U R A (1983)
50 m3/dty x
2
0
GROFIT (1974)
~
~ S F O R
50 matdag. 50 m ~ !
WATER
YOTVATA (1973) 50 m~/day MAAGAN MICI-LA~ ~19~) ~&k.a.LE ~ C K A R V r B W - SAP,H A 'A" (!975) ELIPA~Z (1983) B W . S A B H A "B' (I~93) !0,000 m J/day
S A M A R 0979)
:>~,V. SABHA 'C" (t997)
SDE U V D A I (1979) 250 m~tday (I~T@f¢)
_
SDE D~,/DA 2 (1980) 500 m~d~y fl~E~l~V.)
Fig. 1, Map of the desalination unit distribution.
Starting from management, an overall plan is required to oversee all necessary operations in accordance with the budget. A trained engineer is needed to monitor the overall operation, analyze
the trends of accumulated information and anticipate problems in advance, etc. Trained operators are needed to supervise the day-to-day activities, including equipment maintenance,
194
R. Semiat/Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
operation monitoring, data collection and general troubleshooting. It is important to mention that the technical staff of the plant is recruited based on their education and experience. Even a well-educated engineer needs to accumulate know-how in order to perform properly at the plant facilities. This is especially true for the low-knowledge, low-level operators, who usually have no prior appropriate training and who are usually trained on the job. Another important point to consider is the difference in training needs between employees with prior work experience in a desalination plant and new employees without prior experience. Training needs may also differ depending on whether the plant in question is well operated or not. The diversification between different techniques and different producers of desalination techniques is also an important point to consider for a general training program.
A graduate student may participate in higher education programs. MSc and PhD programs are available at the three universities. Subjects related to fluid dynamics, multi-phase flow and heat transfer - - the basis for evaporation techniques - - are available at the Technion and Tel-Aviv universities. Membrane-related subjects such as production, surface enhancement for the different types of membranes, fouling prevention, etc., are also subjects for postgraduate education programs, mainly at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and the Technion. The Weizmann Institute of Science has also educated scientists and researchers in the membrane field. Some of these programs are financed by the water and desalination companies. Other sources of funds are the National Academy of Science, Middle East Desalination Research Center, and the European Community. Graduate studies are very effective in preparing highly skilled professionals to deal with the problems of this industry.
3. Academic facilities
Table 2 Summary of recent desalination conferences and workshops in Israel
The professional teams behind the design, construction and operation of the various desalination projects were mostly educated at local universities. Most of the engineers studied at the Technion faculties of Chemical and Mechanical Engineering, and others were educated at the Ben-Gurion University in Beer Sheva. Both universities have programs in Chemical Engineering. Tel-Aviv University also has an engineering school that specializes in fluid mechanics, including two-phase flow and heat transfer. The universities provide basic courses on fluid mechanics, heat and mass transfer, separation processes and chemistry. Laboratory courses include membrane processes, evaporation techniques, etc. Fig. 2 shows some of the student desalination experiments at the Technion's Faculty of Chemical Engineering. Special courses are also given on desalination at the university level.
Date and location
Subject
February 1998, Eilat Water DesalinationTechnology Symposium [1] Desalination in Israel Present May 1998, Haifa and Future [2] Fouling Mitigation in Membrane January 1999, Haifa Processes [3] Large Seawater Desalination December 1999, Projects [4] Haifa Euromembrane2000 September2000, Jerusalem New Developmentsin the December 2000, Treatment and Desalinationof Tel-Aviv Effluents, Brackish and other Marginal Waters Membrane Technology for September2001, Wastewater Reclamationand Tel-Aviv Reuse
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
Sum~r Rc~m O ~
195
$~tem
I~llialt film
Nmo-Uwa-Hltrstl,m $~1¢m
Mlcro-lgRmtima,~lwat
B~DJdysi, #~m
Fig. 2. Some of the teaching and research facilities at the Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Technion.
Postgraduate courses are also available at all universities. Students can enroll in graduate level courses at various locations in the country. The universities also collaborate in organizing
conferences and workshops with industry and other organizations. The last few conferences related to desalination are summarized in Table 2.
196
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
4. Companies and organizations Among the various companies that deal with desalination at home and abroad, only IDE Technologies utilizes evaporating techniques. All local desalination companies, including IDE, design and build RO units of different capacities. The training of new employees is primarily focused on education and takes place at various installations in Israel and abroad. Fig. 3 shows an IDE MED plant during the installation stage. Mekorot Ltd. founded its own R&D facilities in order to investigate new directions in desalination while improving manpower capabilities. Fig. 4 shows three main pilot plants located in different areas. The Eilat plant is located next to the production line and is used to monitor different types of membranes at different operational conditions. The pilot plant in Ashdod
is used mainly for RO operations on Mediterranean water. The third facility is the pilot plant in Nahal Taninim, which is used to desalinate brackish water polluted with rejects from fish ponds. This pilot is also used for alternative pretreatment using ultra-filtration membranes. The establishment of the newly created Desalination Society has boosted public information transfer due to frequent desalination conferences and workshops. Conferences help increase public awareness in order to prepare for future, large-capacity desalination plants along the Mediterranean shore. It is still imperative to transfer ideas to the decision makers and make them aware of the available techniques and know-how. Table 2 shows the main desalination conferences and workshops held over the last 3 years.
Fig. 3. IDE TechnologiesMED plant during the installationstage.
t~ Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
197
Ashdod- Sea-water
N~Taninim
Eilat Red Sea Fig. 4. Mekorot's pilot plants at different locations. 5. Current situation
Israel is facing a severe water shortage problem due to increased demand followed by over-pumping from depleted resources. Israel's water crisis is shared by its neighboring countries. The operation of large-scale desalination plants is only a question of time, beginning with the time needed to install the first large unit. More professionals will be required in the future to deal with the developing water industry. Leading experts in the field must share their knowledge with those who are interested through existing university courses, specially designed programs and even "operation and maintenanceon-the-spot" courses. Experts in a variety of
different subjects are willing to cooperate on any possible level to contribute their share to increasing the regional capability and know-how.
6. The future of desalination
Needs for new water resources are severe in many locations on earth and in the Middle East and North Africa region on one hand, but the cost is still high in comparison with common water supplies. It is easier to introduce desalinated water in developed cities where people pay almost threefold or more than the cost of desalination for their water. Usually those locations do not suffer from water scarcity. Water is needed in locations where agriculture is still
198
R. Semiat / Desalination 141 (2001) 191-198
the basis for life, and simple agriculture cannot afford even the currently relatively low costs. It is a global question o f the same type as the usage of alternative energy sources to solve environmental problems. The future o f mankind depends on finding the proper answers to those questions, in addition to the quest for global peace. At the moment, without international intervention, only local solutions may be given for the water problems. The relationship between R&D and personnel training in desalination is quite obvious. By providing more highly skilled desalination experts, costs may be reduced and extraordinary advances can be made in this important field.
References [1] Water Desalination Technology Symposium, AbsWactsand presentations,Eilat, February, 1998. [2] R. Semiat, D. Hasson and A. Shauly, Desalinationin Israel,ConferenceProceedings,May 1998,T~hnion, Israel. [3] D, Hasson and R. Semiat, Fouling Mitigation in Membrane Processes, Abstracts Book of the Conferenc~,January 1999, Technion, Israel. [4] R. Semiat, D. Hasson, I. and Sutzcover,Large Sewwater DesalinationProjects- - A Timely Solutionto Israel's Pressing WaterNeeds, AbstractsBook of the Conference,December 1999, Technion, Israel.