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Design education: on the road towards thought development
Design education: on the road towards thought development M B Portillo and J H Dohr Department of Environment, Textiles and Design, University of Wisconsin, Room 234, 1300 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
Thought development in design studies is the focus of this study. Design-specific and global thought levels were related to creative experience. An instrument was constructed to measure thought positioning in design. A statistically significant difference was found between the level of thinking in design and creative experience. Keywords: design education, creativity
' . . . Traditional design education has tended to concentrate on career preparation and social role-playing rather than on the subjective development of the individual'l. For students, thought processes used in designing are often overshadowed by production, yet design education provides more than technical skills for learners it can be an avenue for thought development 2' 3. Understanding related processes of creativity, problem solving and decision making is of vital importance to educators. These constructs are also bases of design methodologies where researchers describe, and prescribe, stages of the design process. In general, descriptions of the stages provide a prototype for planning, implementing and evaluating a project. Not emphasized, however, is the development of thought within and between individuals--an added concern of educators. For education, the aim is not only to describe design processes, but to understand and to promote development of those processes in students. What thought patterns might be found? After teaching design courses involving open-ended problem solving, differences among students' approaches
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often become evident. While some students prefer more defined problems, others want greater personal freedom for problem exploration and interpretation. Those in search of a single 'correct' solution have trouble generating alternatives when designing and seem less able to perform effectively4. If these approaches are indicative of different thought positions, then what experiences might be associated with them? In this study, creative experience was specifically selected since literature suggests lateral and divergent thinking are associated with problem solving and thus might be reflected in thought development. Creative experience was conceptualized as knowledge acquired from innovative activity that may occur through different modes of expression (e.g. figural, social, symbolic and verbal) s. Objectives of the present study were to identify developmental positions of thinking in beginning design students, and to test any association of thought positions with past related experience. It was hypothesized that experience in creative activities would be related to more advanced thought in design.
0142--694X/89/02096-07 $03.00 © 1989 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd
DESIGN STUDIES
DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO THE PERRY SCHEME In order to gauge development, the Perry scheme was used to explain thought structuring in intellectual and ethical domains over the college years. According to Perry, 'structure' refers to • . . the formal properties of the assumptions and expectancies a person holds at a given time in regard to the nature and origins of knowledge and value...6 This theory has been applied to a number of content areas describing student development such as engineering, mathematics, nursing and liberal arts education~. The developmental trajectory from simplistic to complex thinking can be categorized into major positions: dualism, multiplicity and commitment in relativism.* Both stable positions and developmental transitions are represented. According to this theory, a limited thought perspective shifts into an increasingly complex world view. Mastery of knowledge is initially approached in a dualistic fashion. In a black and white world, there are the right answers and the wrong answers. This dualism later gives way to an awareness that a large array of solutions to intellectual and ethical issues exists in a context of relativism. The world of the thinker develops into a murky place. Shades of grey emerge. The desire to eliminate internal chaos results in the formation of personal principles. It becomes possible to generate commitments within a relativistic world. Commitment is also seen as essential in higher orders of creative thought8, 9. Although global development was originally described, other researchers have broadened Perry's framework to include domain-specific growth. For instance, thought structuring has been examined in engineering, where Culver and Hackos identified some obstacles faced by engineering students: In a design course that asks them to handle complex, open-ended problems, they are afraid of the risks. As a result, they achieve little competence in open-ended problem solvingor, to use Perry's terminology, their multiplicity is reinforced.l° While the dualistic student wants one right answer to an open-ended problem, the multiplistic student vacillates among many options. Parallels can be drawn from engineering design to other fields employing ill-defined problem solving where initial information is inadequate for a clear-cut outcome (refer to Simon for further discussion of ill-defined problemsll.) Since problem information fluctuates and clearly prescribed solutions are usually absent in design, a fit must be established between the problem criteria and the problem solution. Product evaluation is also dependent on the problem type as Archer notes, 'Evaluation of * Distinct from the philosophical school of relativism which maintains that all knowledge and reality are relative to the mind.
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design is based upon the fit between imperfect criterion and imperfect solution'~2. Moreover, at this entry point the designer's ability to interpret the problem at hand is critically important. The interpretation between welldefined and ill-defined problems has been identified as more dependent on the problem solver than the structure of the problem itself13. Since the perception of the problem influences the way in which it is approached, a well-defined problem may actually be solved by drawing upon ill-defined problem solving strategies. Apparent restrictions surrounding the givens of a problem have the capacity to become liberating. Conversely, when ill-defined problems are erroneously viewed as well-defined, barriers to successful solutions may arise. This may be especially true in the case of beginning designers exhibiting dualistic thinking where alternatives are missed in the search for one 'right' answer. Actually, in the case of multiplicity, commitment to create a focus remains undeveloped. Therefore, themes surrounding faulty design strategies as well as optimal ones must be explored.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE The students who participated in this study were drawn from an introductory visual design course at a large midwestern university in the United States. A total of 31 people participated, ranging in age from 17 to 23 years. The mean age of the participants was 19.7 years. A broad range of majors was represented. Twenty-five participants were female and six were male. There were five freshmen, eight sophomores, 13 juniors and five seniors. Two cases, from a distinct population of older returning students, were eliminated from the analysis.
CONSTRUCTING THE MEASURE OF DESIGNING Since there was not a known instrument for assessing design-related thought, a measure for this study needed to be constructed, pilot tested and refined. Thus, the Measure of Designing (MOD) became the essay-form instrument used to reflect thought positions in design. Its development involved several requirements and steps: test probes for respondents, criteria by which to rate and score MOD essays, and scoring procedures and training of raters.
Test probe development Literature on design processes and design practice clearly identified essential process dimensions14' 15. These include thought regarding planning a project, production needs and evaluation. Using a nine-question format, a series of three-probe questions served to draw out the respondent's justification of his or her thinking in each design dimension (see Figure 1).
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(1) Thought process: • Think about your work on a recent design studio problem. Now describe what process you went through. • What is your opinion of preparation work 'such as rough sketches and design notebooks' on design problem results? • Where do your ideas and inspirations come from?
(2) Production Process: • If you could give advice to anyone on how to best learn in a design studio lab, what would you say? Describe what you believe is the key to designing? • What kind of directions do you prefer when being given a design problem? • What kind of art media would you select for an ideal design project?
(3) Evaluation Process: • What do you believe is the best approach for evaluating design projects? How should your instructor, peers and yourself become involved in the evaluation process? • Describe an ideal class critique. What are the roles of the instructor and the students? • How do you determine if your design project has been successful?
Figure l. MOD probe questions for measure of designing
The probes were modelled after other Perry instrumentation used for measuring global thought structuring. Further discussion with Professor Mentkowski, who has done extensive work on Perry scheme measurement, also gave insight into the test construction. Thus, respondents used the nine questions for writing explanations about their thinking in design.
Criterion d e v e l o p m e n t The criteria developed for rating the responses were derived from needed design competencies. These design concept criteria were descriptive statements that expressed developmentally Perry's positions of dualism, multiplicity and relativism. They also corresponded to the three process dimensions of thought, production and evaluation. Each criterion statement was recorded in a manual by a three-digit number for scoring. The first number represented the category of process dimension; the second number designated the Perry position; and the third number was the specific design concept criterion. For example, design has been characterized as an ill-defined form of problem solving. This specific design concept was numbered 1. It was then structured developmentally into three statements to reflect a pattern of increasingly complex thought according to Perry (designated with numbers 2, 3, 4, 5). Finally, the concept of ill-defined problem solving corresponded to the thought process dimension, which again had a designation of 1. Thus, the concept of problem solving was patterned as follows: Dualism:
(1.2.1) stays with first idea/little exploration Multiplicity: (1.3.1) explores different solutions/trouble deciding among them Relativism: (1.4.1) explores different solution based upon problems given
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Another example of a design criterion is that of material selection under production: Dualism:
(2.2.4) limited material selection and preference Multiplicity:(2.3.4) wide m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n and preference/may encounter problem having too much variety Relativism: (2.4.4) material selection and preference centres on p r o b l e m at hand/ appropriate to context while allowing for creativity Such criteria statements were then used in establishing respondents' scores.
Rating procedure After the probe questions and criteria were developed and pilot-tested, three raters were trained to score the MOD. The rating procedure occurred in two steps: (1) each respondent's essays on thought, on production process and on evaluation process were matched to the best-fitting criteria; (2) the protocol was assigned to an overall developmental position. All the probes in a dimension category (e.g. thought, production, evaluation) were analysed to identify the broad Perry position. Then the corresponding design criteria within that position were reviewed and matched with the given response. For example, to the evaluation probe: 'How do you determine if your project has been successful?' the student's response was 'I can only determine the design project's success when I receive my grade. I feel if I receive a low grade then it was unsuccessful.' This statement was matched to the specific criteria from the rating manual, 'authority omnipotent/following what the teacher says deserves a good grade.' The rating was 3.2.5, representing the
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Design process probe
Student examples
Criteria rating
Think about your work on a recent design studio problem. Now describe the process you went through
'I usually do my projects on a spontaneous level. I start and let the design create itself as I do it.'
Dualistic: 1.2.5 No control over design idea (i.e. pops in head)
'I followed the directions step by step to the best of my ability.'
Dualistic: 1.2.2 Linear approach start at first step of problem works step by step without forming an overview
'First I thought of all the different ways I could place my motif. Second I designed different texture p a t t e r n s . . . I then scrambled those six motifs around to figure out the best arrangement.'
Multiplistic: 1.3.1 Explores different solution
'They are usually a waste of time. I often have the idea formulated in my mind. Sometimes roughs help point out problems but making formalized roughs takes more time from an already overtaxed schedule.'
Dualistic: 1.2.3 Does not understand connection between preparation work (i.e. rough sketches, design notebook) in generating a variety of solutions and quality of fmal project
'I think prep work is essential to a good result. Without it, the f'mal is more like the first rough draft. I always feel like I cheated myself if I don't do rough sketches first.'
Multiplistic: 1.3.4 Uses wide variety of preparation/relies less on instructor
What is your opinion of preparation work such as rough sketches and design notebooks on design problem results?
Figure 2. Measure of designing (MOD) probes, protocol and criteria ratings evaluation dimension (3), a Perry position of dualism (2) and the designated design concept (5). The raters were allowed to use as many criteria as needed. T o ensure discriminative validity, all responses in a dimension category (e.g. production) were initially scored before moving onto the next set. After the respondents' essays were rated independently, the final, reconciled rating was determined. The three most frequently selected criteria for dualistic thinking included: • limited material selection and preference • no control over design ideas • likes tightly structured studio problems which emphasize constraints In contrast, the most used criteria for multiplistic position criteria included: • explores different solutions (does not specify context) • uses a wide variety of preparation/relies less on instructor • believes peer input legitimate even though authority has final say To contrast dualistic and multiplistic positions, examples of design process probe questions, student essays and corresponding criteria ratings are presented in Figure 2.
I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N FOR S T U D Y Three different measures were administered in addition
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to a demographic questionnaire. The Statement of Creative Activity (SPCA) is a self-report measure of creative experience ~6'17. The SPCA is organized into major and minor activity categories including: artistic, literary, performing arts, inventions, design, crafts, managerial/teaching activities and non-creative. Activities are then scored according to social value and originality. The Measure of Intellectual Development (MID) is the most widely-used Perry instrument for assessing intellectual growth. It was scored by two independent, certified raters at the Center for Applications of Developmental Instruction.t As was previously discussed, design-specific thought levels were assessed by the Measure of Designing (MOD). The data collection occurred in a session held during the fifth week of the semester. The measures were administered in the following order: background information form, MID, SPCA and MOD. Test instructions were read aloud by the researcher in addition to being printed on each page. It was emphasized that there were no right or wrong answers to any of the measures. Participants were urged to provide as much detailed information as possible. Although the testing session was untimed, the majority of participants completed the battery of instruments in approximately one hour.
]'For more information on the MID, contact Dr. William Moore, Coordinator, c/o CADI, 806 High Street, Farmille, VA 23901, USA
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RESULTS What are thought positions in design for beginning students? The MOD dimensions of process, production and evaluation criteria differentiated the positions of dualism (n-- 13) and multiplicity (n = 8), as well as a transitional group ( n = 7 ) , between the two. This differentiation validated measuring thought development in a design domain. Since only two cases rated as relativistic positions, they were excluded from further data analysis. Therefore, it is not yet known whether the MOD reliably captures this upper position, or if, in fact, the sample was composed predominantly of dualistic and multiplistic thinkers. The latter interpretation seems warranted, given the beginning level of the design students. Other evidence suggests however, that focused interviews may be the best way to tap the uppermost levels ~s. The two stable positions of dualism and multiplicity are contrasted in the following section. For the dualistic position, two types were identified: (1) a spontaneous dualism and (2) a step-by-step dualism. In the former, preparation work involving idea generation is seen as impeding spontaneity; in the latter, preparation has little use since forming a problem overview is difficult. Overall, tightly structured problems and direction from instructors are preferred in order to ensure greater mastery in the content. Dualistic thinking is thus characterized by a lack of control in designing. In contrast, muhiplistic thinking is marked by the ability to exercise more options by exploring and challenging the boundaries of assigned problems. While preparation was considered a 'waste of time' by most dualistic thinkers, muhiplistic thinkers prepared as a means of circumventing mistakes in the final project. This more advanced group often identified problemfinding as the key to designing but narrowing their options was still difficult. Remaining 'open and flexible' was a frequently used phrase describing design production. For muhiplistic thinkers, different modes for evaluation were legitimate. When critiquing a design, peers as well as the instructor were perceived to provide valuable input. Realization that a range of acceptable and even outstanding design outcomes and views on an issue existed sometimes ignited dissatisfaction about class evaluation procedures. 'Why should one person, representing a single opinion, judge my work?' Evaluation of projects by the dualistic thinkers often centred on subjective statements such as 'I like it,' without regard to
the objectives or principles of the assignment. Design work was also heavily assessed in terms of time expended in production. It was often expected that the amount of time and effort invested in a project would ensure a 'good grade'. Quantity outweighed quality concerns. Perhaps since dualists exhibited less control when designing, they wanted to be evaluated solely on effort. For some, the instructor was viewed as an omnipotent figure possessing all the answers. When assigned an open-ended design problem, this type of thinker usually asked the instructor, 'Tell me, what type of solution do you want?' Thus, instructor as evaluator had different meanings for dualistic and muhiplistic thinkers.
What relationship exists between global thought development and design-specific thinking? Is there a difference between these forms of thought and creative experience? A Pearson's rho correlation was computed to determine the relationship between the MID and the MOD. The non-significant correlation (r=0.14) indicated that the two tests were measuring different constructs. To determine if creative experience was related to thought positioning, two one-way analyses of variance employing the Scheffe procedure were used. No significant difference was found between global positions (MID) and creative positions at the 0.05 probability level with 2, 25 degrees of freedom (Table 1). However, on the design measure (MOD), a significant difference was found at the 0.05 level with 2, 25 degrees of freedom between dualism and multiplicity. Individuals represented by dualistic thought had less creative experience than the muhiplistic thinkers. A relationship was found between the level of design-related thinking and creative experience (Table 2).
DISCUSSION Several noteworthy implications stern from this study. While differences in global development were not found, dualistic thinkers in design had significantly less creative experience than did their muhiplistic counterparts. Profiles emerged from these two positions. While creativity has often been descriptively associated with design, a need has been expressed to examine this relationship empirically 19. The results of this study underscored the relationship between experience in open-ended, creative activities and thought development. Furthermore, in
Table 1. One-way analysis of variance of creative activity scores by position of global thought
Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sum of squares
Mean square
F ratio
Significance of F
Between groups Within groups Total
2 25 27
2.29 90.57 92.86
1.14 3.6
0.32
0.73
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DESIGN STUDIES
Table 2. One-way analysis of variance of creative activity scores by position of design thought
Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sum of squares
Mean square
F ratio
Significanceof F
Between groups Within groups Total
2 25 27
24.14 68.53 92.68
12.07 2.74
4.40
0.02*
*p <0.05 terms of Perry scheme research, thinking in design was differentiated from overall thought structuring. While the Perry scheme seemed theoretically wellsuited for design applications, how effective was the Measure of Designing for capturing thought progression? Using thought, production and evaluation categories, the MOD provided a multidimensional means for assessing a range of responses. More specifically, the individual probe questions generally showed differences among thought positions. As previously discussed, a very effective probe for the thought dimension concerned the role of preparation work in design. When directly asked to describe their design process, students often provided an exact account of their last project. It was unclear from these responses if they were unable to generalize beyond the last project or simply misinterpreted the question. In any case, this probe needs further refinement. The last probe from the thought dimension asked for the source of inspiration and ideas. This request prompted a number of interesting responses that were often hard to match with the given criteria. Inspirations stemmed from external sources such as advertising media, immediate environment and nature, as well as internal sources represented by dreams or preferences for particular design elements (e.g. geometric shapes). More importantly, clues surfaced about the translation of these ideas and inspirations into a design project. When thinking ability was more advanced than production skills, some dualistic thinkers had difficulty representing their ideas visually (e.g. 'hard to get ideas down on paper'). Instead of simply identifying ideas and inspirations, this probe should be refined to examine interaction between ideation and execution. The thinking and producing components of design should be studied in tandem. In the second dimension--production and object perception--two probes, concerning the key to designing and the type of directions preferred, differentiate among positions. The probe relating to art media preference did not. It was apparent from many essays that the word 'media' was not understood. Finally, questions about design evaluation were also successful. In general, the students appeared to exhibit more advanced thought about evaluation than in either the process or production dimensions of design. Perhaps evaluative operations are more familiar from their previous schooling, and are more easily generalizable to design than are the more content-specific type operations of design process and production. It appears that decalage, the unevenness of development among dimensions, warrants further research in design processes.
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CONCLUSION In summary, support can be found for measuring thought development in design. It is important to recognize that more than 'cognitive styles' of thought are being identified. While styles remain evident within the positions, as findings from dualism suggest, a developmental approach assumes progress of thought. Instead of pigeon-holing students, the shifts are recognized and students are encouraged to grow. Further research in this area promises to be exciting. More work on design-related thought structuring is needed with a focus on measurement, expecially in probe and criteria refinement. Other measures or data gathering procedures should be explored to capture the highest level of thought structuring--relativism in commitment. While thought positions have been identified in design, continued examination of individual student development over time is recommended. If design education facilitates this form of growth, pedagogic techniques could then be introduced not only in the fields regularly represented (e.g. architecture, engineering, industrial design, interior design, landscape architecture, and urban and regional planning) but in general education. Further applications might also have value outside of the classroom. In fact, an argument has already been made for continued life-span development through participation in creative activities such as designing20, 21. Describing a developmental trajectory in design represents a first step towards greater understanding of the learner and their thinking skills. Thus, the road towards thought development in design continues. REFERENCES
1 Cross A 'Design and general education' Design Studies Vol 1 No 4 (October 1980) Archer B 'Design as a discipline: whatever became of design methodology? The three Rs Design Studies Vol 1 No 1
(January 1979) 3 Jones J C Design methods: seeds of human futures John Wiley (1981) 4 Simmonds, R 'Limitations in the decision strategies of design students' Design Studies Vol 1 No 6 (October 1980) 5 Guilford, J P The nature of human intelligenceMcGraw-Hill,
New York (1967) 6 Perry, W Cognitive and ethicalgrowth: the making of meaning Jossy-Bass, New York, (1970)
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7 Perry, W 'Cognitive and ethical growth: the making of meaning' in Chiekering, A (ed) The Modern American College Jossy-Bass, New York (1981) 8 Robinson, J H The mind in the making Harper & Brothers, New York (1921) 9 Ainsworth-Land, V 'Imaging and creativity: an integrating perspective' J. Creative Behavior Vol 16 No 1 (1982) 10 Culver, R S and Hackos, J T 'Perry's model of intellectual development' Engineering Education (December 1982) 11 Simon, H A 'The structure of ill-structured problems' in Cross, N (ed) Developments in design methodology Wiley (1984)
16 Bull, K S 'The development of scales for internal sensationseeking. Curiosity, need for creative production and privacy to be used as predictor variables for four indices of creative ability among a population of college students' Unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Wisconsin-Madison (1978) 17 Bull, K S and Davis, G A 'Evaluating creative potential using the statement of past creative activities' J. Creative Behavior Vol 14 No 4 (1980) 18 Metkowski, M e t al. Using the Perry Scheme of intellectual and ethical development as a college outcomes measure: a process and criteria for judging student performance Vol l, Alverno Productions, Milwaukee (1983)
12 Archer, B L 'Systematic method for designers' in Cross, N (ed) Developments in design methodology Wiley (1984)
19 Rickards, T 'Design for creativity: a state of the art review Design Studies Vol 1 No 5 (1980)
13 Thomas, J C and Carroll, J M 'The psychological study of design' Design Studies Vol 1 No 1 (1979)
20 Dohr, J H and Portillo, M B 'Life span development and the creative process' Forum Vol 1 No 1 (1986)
14 Zeisel, J Inquiry by design Brooks/Cole Monterey, CA (1981) 15 McKim, R H Experiences in visual thinking Brooks/Cole Monterey, CA (1981)
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21 Dohr, J H and Portillo, M B 'Creative behavior and education: an avenue for development in later years' in Lumsden, D B (ed) Introduction to Educational Gerontology (in press)
DESIGN STUDIES
Thought development in design studies is the focus of this study. Design-specific and global thought levels were related to creative experience. An instrument was constructed to measure thought positioning in design. A statistically significant difference was found between the level of thinking in design and creative experience. Keywords: design education, creativity
' . . . Traditional design education has tended to concentrate on career preparation and social role-playing rather than on the subjective development of the individual'l. For students, thought processes used in designing are often overshadowed by production, yet design education provides more than technical skills for learners it can be an avenue for thought development 2' 3. Understanding related processes of creativity, problem solving and decision making is of vital importance to educators. These constructs are also bases of design methodologies where researchers describe, and prescribe, stages of the design process. In general, descriptions of the stages provide a prototype for planning, implementing and evaluating a project. Not emphasized, however, is the development of thought within and between individuals--an added concern of educators. For education, the aim is not only to describe design processes, but to understand and to promote development of those processes in students. What thought patterns might be found? After teaching design courses involving open-ended problem solving, differences among students' approaches
96
often become evident. While some students prefer more defined problems, others want greater personal freedom for problem exploration and interpretation. Those in search of a single 'correct' solution have trouble generating alternatives when designing and seem less able to perform effectively4. If these approaches are indicative of different thought positions, then what experiences might be associated with them? In this study, creative experience was specifically selected since literature suggests lateral and divergent thinking are associated with problem solving and thus might be reflected in thought development. Creative experience was conceptualized as knowledge acquired from innovative activity that may occur through different modes of expression (e.g. figural, social, symbolic and verbal) s. Objectives of the present study were to identify developmental positions of thinking in beginning design students, and to test any association of thought positions with past related experience. It was hypothesized that experience in creative activities would be related to more advanced thought in design.
0142--694X/89/02096-07 $03.00 © 1989 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd
DESIGN STUDIES
DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO THE PERRY SCHEME In order to gauge development, the Perry scheme was used to explain thought structuring in intellectual and ethical domains over the college years. According to Perry, 'structure' refers to • . . the formal properties of the assumptions and expectancies a person holds at a given time in regard to the nature and origins of knowledge and value...6 This theory has been applied to a number of content areas describing student development such as engineering, mathematics, nursing and liberal arts education~. The developmental trajectory from simplistic to complex thinking can be categorized into major positions: dualism, multiplicity and commitment in relativism.* Both stable positions and developmental transitions are represented. According to this theory, a limited thought perspective shifts into an increasingly complex world view. Mastery of knowledge is initially approached in a dualistic fashion. In a black and white world, there are the right answers and the wrong answers. This dualism later gives way to an awareness that a large array of solutions to intellectual and ethical issues exists in a context of relativism. The world of the thinker develops into a murky place. Shades of grey emerge. The desire to eliminate internal chaos results in the formation of personal principles. It becomes possible to generate commitments within a relativistic world. Commitment is also seen as essential in higher orders of creative thought8, 9. Although global development was originally described, other researchers have broadened Perry's framework to include domain-specific growth. For instance, thought structuring has been examined in engineering, where Culver and Hackos identified some obstacles faced by engineering students: In a design course that asks them to handle complex, open-ended problems, they are afraid of the risks. As a result, they achieve little competence in open-ended problem solvingor, to use Perry's terminology, their multiplicity is reinforced.l° While the dualistic student wants one right answer to an open-ended problem, the multiplistic student vacillates among many options. Parallels can be drawn from engineering design to other fields employing ill-defined problem solving where initial information is inadequate for a clear-cut outcome (refer to Simon for further discussion of ill-defined problemsll.) Since problem information fluctuates and clearly prescribed solutions are usually absent in design, a fit must be established between the problem criteria and the problem solution. Product evaluation is also dependent on the problem type as Archer notes, 'Evaluation of * Distinct from the philosophical school of relativism which maintains that all knowledge and reality are relative to the mind.
Vol 10 No 2 April 1989
design is based upon the fit between imperfect criterion and imperfect solution'~2. Moreover, at this entry point the designer's ability to interpret the problem at hand is critically important. The interpretation between welldefined and ill-defined problems has been identified as more dependent on the problem solver than the structure of the problem itself13. Since the perception of the problem influences the way in which it is approached, a well-defined problem may actually be solved by drawing upon ill-defined problem solving strategies. Apparent restrictions surrounding the givens of a problem have the capacity to become liberating. Conversely, when ill-defined problems are erroneously viewed as well-defined, barriers to successful solutions may arise. This may be especially true in the case of beginning designers exhibiting dualistic thinking where alternatives are missed in the search for one 'right' answer. Actually, in the case of multiplicity, commitment to create a focus remains undeveloped. Therefore, themes surrounding faulty design strategies as well as optimal ones must be explored.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE The students who participated in this study were drawn from an introductory visual design course at a large midwestern university in the United States. A total of 31 people participated, ranging in age from 17 to 23 years. The mean age of the participants was 19.7 years. A broad range of majors was represented. Twenty-five participants were female and six were male. There were five freshmen, eight sophomores, 13 juniors and five seniors. Two cases, from a distinct population of older returning students, were eliminated from the analysis.
CONSTRUCTING THE MEASURE OF DESIGNING Since there was not a known instrument for assessing design-related thought, a measure for this study needed to be constructed, pilot tested and refined. Thus, the Measure of Designing (MOD) became the essay-form instrument used to reflect thought positions in design. Its development involved several requirements and steps: test probes for respondents, criteria by which to rate and score MOD essays, and scoring procedures and training of raters.
Test probe development Literature on design processes and design practice clearly identified essential process dimensions14' 15. These include thought regarding planning a project, production needs and evaluation. Using a nine-question format, a series of three-probe questions served to draw out the respondent's justification of his or her thinking in each design dimension (see Figure 1).
97
(1) Thought process: • Think about your work on a recent design studio problem. Now describe what process you went through. • What is your opinion of preparation work 'such as rough sketches and design notebooks' on design problem results? • Where do your ideas and inspirations come from?
(2) Production Process: • If you could give advice to anyone on how to best learn in a design studio lab, what would you say? Describe what you believe is the key to designing? • What kind of directions do you prefer when being given a design problem? • What kind of art media would you select for an ideal design project?
(3) Evaluation Process: • What do you believe is the best approach for evaluating design projects? How should your instructor, peers and yourself become involved in the evaluation process? • Describe an ideal class critique. What are the roles of the instructor and the students? • How do you determine if your design project has been successful?
Figure l. MOD probe questions for measure of designing
The probes were modelled after other Perry instrumentation used for measuring global thought structuring. Further discussion with Professor Mentkowski, who has done extensive work on Perry scheme measurement, also gave insight into the test construction. Thus, respondents used the nine questions for writing explanations about their thinking in design.
Criterion d e v e l o p m e n t The criteria developed for rating the responses were derived from needed design competencies. These design concept criteria were descriptive statements that expressed developmentally Perry's positions of dualism, multiplicity and relativism. They also corresponded to the three process dimensions of thought, production and evaluation. Each criterion statement was recorded in a manual by a three-digit number for scoring. The first number represented the category of process dimension; the second number designated the Perry position; and the third number was the specific design concept criterion. For example, design has been characterized as an ill-defined form of problem solving. This specific design concept was numbered 1. It was then structured developmentally into three statements to reflect a pattern of increasingly complex thought according to Perry (designated with numbers 2, 3, 4, 5). Finally, the concept of ill-defined problem solving corresponded to the thought process dimension, which again had a designation of 1. Thus, the concept of problem solving was patterned as follows: Dualism:
(1.2.1) stays with first idea/little exploration Multiplicity: (1.3.1) explores different solutions/trouble deciding among them Relativism: (1.4.1) explores different solution based upon problems given
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Another example of a design criterion is that of material selection under production: Dualism:
(2.2.4) limited material selection and preference Multiplicity:(2.3.4) wide m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n and preference/may encounter problem having too much variety Relativism: (2.4.4) material selection and preference centres on p r o b l e m at hand/ appropriate to context while allowing for creativity Such criteria statements were then used in establishing respondents' scores.
Rating procedure After the probe questions and criteria were developed and pilot-tested, three raters were trained to score the MOD. The rating procedure occurred in two steps: (1) each respondent's essays on thought, on production process and on evaluation process were matched to the best-fitting criteria; (2) the protocol was assigned to an overall developmental position. All the probes in a dimension category (e.g. thought, production, evaluation) were analysed to identify the broad Perry position. Then the corresponding design criteria within that position were reviewed and matched with the given response. For example, to the evaluation probe: 'How do you determine if your project has been successful?' the student's response was 'I can only determine the design project's success when I receive my grade. I feel if I receive a low grade then it was unsuccessful.' This statement was matched to the specific criteria from the rating manual, 'authority omnipotent/following what the teacher says deserves a good grade.' The rating was 3.2.5, representing the
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Design process probe
Student examples
Criteria rating
Think about your work on a recent design studio problem. Now describe the process you went through
'I usually do my projects on a spontaneous level. I start and let the design create itself as I do it.'
Dualistic: 1.2.5 No control over design idea (i.e. pops in head)
'I followed the directions step by step to the best of my ability.'
Dualistic: 1.2.2 Linear approach start at first step of problem works step by step without forming an overview
'First I thought of all the different ways I could place my motif. Second I designed different texture p a t t e r n s . . . I then scrambled those six motifs around to figure out the best arrangement.'
Multiplistic: 1.3.1 Explores different solution
'They are usually a waste of time. I often have the idea formulated in my mind. Sometimes roughs help point out problems but making formalized roughs takes more time from an already overtaxed schedule.'
Dualistic: 1.2.3 Does not understand connection between preparation work (i.e. rough sketches, design notebook) in generating a variety of solutions and quality of fmal project
'I think prep work is essential to a good result. Without it, the f'mal is more like the first rough draft. I always feel like I cheated myself if I don't do rough sketches first.'
Multiplistic: 1.3.4 Uses wide variety of preparation/relies less on instructor
What is your opinion of preparation work such as rough sketches and design notebooks on design problem results?
Figure 2. Measure of designing (MOD) probes, protocol and criteria ratings evaluation dimension (3), a Perry position of dualism (2) and the designated design concept (5). The raters were allowed to use as many criteria as needed. T o ensure discriminative validity, all responses in a dimension category (e.g. production) were initially scored before moving onto the next set. After the respondents' essays were rated independently, the final, reconciled rating was determined. The three most frequently selected criteria for dualistic thinking included: • limited material selection and preference • no control over design ideas • likes tightly structured studio problems which emphasize constraints In contrast, the most used criteria for multiplistic position criteria included: • explores different solutions (does not specify context) • uses a wide variety of preparation/relies less on instructor • believes peer input legitimate even though authority has final say To contrast dualistic and multiplistic positions, examples of design process probe questions, student essays and corresponding criteria ratings are presented in Figure 2.
I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N FOR S T U D Y Three different measures were administered in addition
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to a demographic questionnaire. The Statement of Creative Activity (SPCA) is a self-report measure of creative experience ~6'17. The SPCA is organized into major and minor activity categories including: artistic, literary, performing arts, inventions, design, crafts, managerial/teaching activities and non-creative. Activities are then scored according to social value and originality. The Measure of Intellectual Development (MID) is the most widely-used Perry instrument for assessing intellectual growth. It was scored by two independent, certified raters at the Center for Applications of Developmental Instruction.t As was previously discussed, design-specific thought levels were assessed by the Measure of Designing (MOD). The data collection occurred in a session held during the fifth week of the semester. The measures were administered in the following order: background information form, MID, SPCA and MOD. Test instructions were read aloud by the researcher in addition to being printed on each page. It was emphasized that there were no right or wrong answers to any of the measures. Participants were urged to provide as much detailed information as possible. Although the testing session was untimed, the majority of participants completed the battery of instruments in approximately one hour.
]'For more information on the MID, contact Dr. William Moore, Coordinator, c/o CADI, 806 High Street, Farmille, VA 23901, USA
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RESULTS What are thought positions in design for beginning students? The MOD dimensions of process, production and evaluation criteria differentiated the positions of dualism (n-- 13) and multiplicity (n = 8), as well as a transitional group ( n = 7 ) , between the two. This differentiation validated measuring thought development in a design domain. Since only two cases rated as relativistic positions, they were excluded from further data analysis. Therefore, it is not yet known whether the MOD reliably captures this upper position, or if, in fact, the sample was composed predominantly of dualistic and multiplistic thinkers. The latter interpretation seems warranted, given the beginning level of the design students. Other evidence suggests however, that focused interviews may be the best way to tap the uppermost levels ~s. The two stable positions of dualism and multiplicity are contrasted in the following section. For the dualistic position, two types were identified: (1) a spontaneous dualism and (2) a step-by-step dualism. In the former, preparation work involving idea generation is seen as impeding spontaneity; in the latter, preparation has little use since forming a problem overview is difficult. Overall, tightly structured problems and direction from instructors are preferred in order to ensure greater mastery in the content. Dualistic thinking is thus characterized by a lack of control in designing. In contrast, muhiplistic thinking is marked by the ability to exercise more options by exploring and challenging the boundaries of assigned problems. While preparation was considered a 'waste of time' by most dualistic thinkers, muhiplistic thinkers prepared as a means of circumventing mistakes in the final project. This more advanced group often identified problemfinding as the key to designing but narrowing their options was still difficult. Remaining 'open and flexible' was a frequently used phrase describing design production. For muhiplistic thinkers, different modes for evaluation were legitimate. When critiquing a design, peers as well as the instructor were perceived to provide valuable input. Realization that a range of acceptable and even outstanding design outcomes and views on an issue existed sometimes ignited dissatisfaction about class evaluation procedures. 'Why should one person, representing a single opinion, judge my work?' Evaluation of projects by the dualistic thinkers often centred on subjective statements such as 'I like it,' without regard to
the objectives or principles of the assignment. Design work was also heavily assessed in terms of time expended in production. It was often expected that the amount of time and effort invested in a project would ensure a 'good grade'. Quantity outweighed quality concerns. Perhaps since dualists exhibited less control when designing, they wanted to be evaluated solely on effort. For some, the instructor was viewed as an omnipotent figure possessing all the answers. When assigned an open-ended design problem, this type of thinker usually asked the instructor, 'Tell me, what type of solution do you want?' Thus, instructor as evaluator had different meanings for dualistic and muhiplistic thinkers.
What relationship exists between global thought development and design-specific thinking? Is there a difference between these forms of thought and creative experience? A Pearson's rho correlation was computed to determine the relationship between the MID and the MOD. The non-significant correlation (r=0.14) indicated that the two tests were measuring different constructs. To determine if creative experience was related to thought positioning, two one-way analyses of variance employing the Scheffe procedure were used. No significant difference was found between global positions (MID) and creative positions at the 0.05 probability level with 2, 25 degrees of freedom (Table 1). However, on the design measure (MOD), a significant difference was found at the 0.05 level with 2, 25 degrees of freedom between dualism and multiplicity. Individuals represented by dualistic thought had less creative experience than the muhiplistic thinkers. A relationship was found between the level of design-related thinking and creative experience (Table 2).
DISCUSSION Several noteworthy implications stern from this study. While differences in global development were not found, dualistic thinkers in design had significantly less creative experience than did their muhiplistic counterparts. Profiles emerged from these two positions. While creativity has often been descriptively associated with design, a need has been expressed to examine this relationship empirically 19. The results of this study underscored the relationship between experience in open-ended, creative activities and thought development. Furthermore, in
Table 1. One-way analysis of variance of creative activity scores by position of global thought
Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sum of squares
Mean square
F ratio
Significance of F
Between groups Within groups Total
2 25 27
2.29 90.57 92.86
1.14 3.6
0.32
0.73
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Table 2. One-way analysis of variance of creative activity scores by position of design thought
Source of variation
Degrees of freedom
Sum of squares
Mean square
F ratio
Significanceof F
Between groups Within groups Total
2 25 27
24.14 68.53 92.68
12.07 2.74
4.40
0.02*
*p <0.05 terms of Perry scheme research, thinking in design was differentiated from overall thought structuring. While the Perry scheme seemed theoretically wellsuited for design applications, how effective was the Measure of Designing for capturing thought progression? Using thought, production and evaluation categories, the MOD provided a multidimensional means for assessing a range of responses. More specifically, the individual probe questions generally showed differences among thought positions. As previously discussed, a very effective probe for the thought dimension concerned the role of preparation work in design. When directly asked to describe their design process, students often provided an exact account of their last project. It was unclear from these responses if they were unable to generalize beyond the last project or simply misinterpreted the question. In any case, this probe needs further refinement. The last probe from the thought dimension asked for the source of inspiration and ideas. This request prompted a number of interesting responses that were often hard to match with the given criteria. Inspirations stemmed from external sources such as advertising media, immediate environment and nature, as well as internal sources represented by dreams or preferences for particular design elements (e.g. geometric shapes). More importantly, clues surfaced about the translation of these ideas and inspirations into a design project. When thinking ability was more advanced than production skills, some dualistic thinkers had difficulty representing their ideas visually (e.g. 'hard to get ideas down on paper'). Instead of simply identifying ideas and inspirations, this probe should be refined to examine interaction between ideation and execution. The thinking and producing components of design should be studied in tandem. In the second dimension--production and object perception--two probes, concerning the key to designing and the type of directions preferred, differentiate among positions. The probe relating to art media preference did not. It was apparent from many essays that the word 'media' was not understood. Finally, questions about design evaluation were also successful. In general, the students appeared to exhibit more advanced thought about evaluation than in either the process or production dimensions of design. Perhaps evaluative operations are more familiar from their previous schooling, and are more easily generalizable to design than are the more content-specific type operations of design process and production. It appears that decalage, the unevenness of development among dimensions, warrants further research in design processes.
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CONCLUSION In summary, support can be found for measuring thought development in design. It is important to recognize that more than 'cognitive styles' of thought are being identified. While styles remain evident within the positions, as findings from dualism suggest, a developmental approach assumes progress of thought. Instead of pigeon-holing students, the shifts are recognized and students are encouraged to grow. Further research in this area promises to be exciting. More work on design-related thought structuring is needed with a focus on measurement, expecially in probe and criteria refinement. Other measures or data gathering procedures should be explored to capture the highest level of thought structuring--relativism in commitment. While thought positions have been identified in design, continued examination of individual student development over time is recommended. If design education facilitates this form of growth, pedagogic techniques could then be introduced not only in the fields regularly represented (e.g. architecture, engineering, industrial design, interior design, landscape architecture, and urban and regional planning) but in general education. Further applications might also have value outside of the classroom. In fact, an argument has already been made for continued life-span development through participation in creative activities such as designing20, 21. Describing a developmental trajectory in design represents a first step towards greater understanding of the learner and their thinking skills. Thus, the road towards thought development in design continues. REFERENCES
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21 Dohr, J H and Portillo, M B 'Creative behavior and education: an avenue for development in later years' in Lumsden, D B (ed) Introduction to Educational Gerontology (in press)
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