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Designing and operating safer highways for older drivers: present and future research issues
ABSTRACTS beyond the limited intent of this project. Graphic design for the Prep Editor is influenced by methods of page layout that have supported collaborations in the past, seen in a type of medieval manuscript known as a glossed bible. Glosses promoted orderly access to complex information and provided tools for scholars to organize, annotate, and cross-refer between different kinds of information, working alone or in concert with others. 23.6.29 (126623) Dillon, A 'Human factors issues in the design of hypermedia interfaces' in Brown, H (ed) Hypermedia/hypertext and objectoriented databases Chapman & Hall, London (1991) pp 93-105 (27 refs) Designing a suitable interface for any hypermedia application requires an awareness of numerous factors to do with the intended users, the tasks they will perform and the information they will be dealing with. The present chapter presents a framework for viewing these issues that suggests which factors are important and where the research needs lie.
Display and control design 23.6.30 (126705) Beringer, D B 'Effects of error-proofing and chemical/ biological/radiation protective glove use on touch panel operation' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 137-140 (9 refs) Previous studies suggested that initialcontact error rates were higher for touch input devices (resistive and infrared) than for various hardware keys. A follow-up study was conducted to evaluate the effects of chemical/ biological/radiation (CBR) protective gloves on performance. Error data from this and the proceding study in this series were somewhat misleading owing to differences in the input-sampling strategies between hardware keys and touch panels. The initially high error rates for the resistive panel (21.6% using flight gloves and 26.1% using CBR gloves) were considered unrepresentative of a true operating environment because non-key contacts would be ignored by the system. Revision of the input-sensing logic produced 100% accuracy for the resistive panel in the replication study. However, multiple contacts were required in 5% (median of 4.1%) of the trials. 430
Overall, 4% required only a second contact for correct activation of the designated key while three- and fourcontact activations amounted to 0.6% of all trials. Conclusions drawn from the research were that CBR gloves do not significantly degrade performance over standard flight gloves or, for that matter, over the bare hand (errors or response times) and that the occurrence of multiple touches is small and virtually disappears with experience and adequate feedback, errors usually occurring in early trials and in no-feedback conditions. Thus systems using gloved operators are unlikely to experience serious performance degradation if adequate key sizes for bare-handed activation are used and if timely and relevant feedback is provided to the operator.
23.6.31 (126708) Mackenzie, I S, Sellen, A and Buxton, W 'A comparison of input devices in elemental pointing and dragging tasks'. in Robertson, S P, Olson, G M and Olson, J S (eds) CHI '91 - Reaching through Technology, Proc Conf on Human Factors in Computing Systems New Orleans, Louisiana, 27 April-2 May, 1991. Addison-Welsey, Reading, Massachusetts (1991) pp 161-166 (15 refs) An experiment is described comparing three devices (a mouse, a trackball, and a stylus with tablet) in the performance of pointing and dragging tasks. During pointing, movement times were shorter and error rates were lower than during dragging. It is shown that Fitts' law can model both tasks, and that within devices the index of performance is higher when pointing then when dragging. Device differences also appeared. The stylus displayed a higher rate of information processing than the mouse during pointing but not during dragging. The trackball ranked third for both tasks.
these disorders, such as repetition of task, forceful exertions, awkward joint postures, direct mechanical pressure, and prolonged constrained posture, may be applicable to keyboard use. In this study fingertip forces were measured for 10 typists using three alphanumeric keyboards that differed only in their key force and displacement characteristics. While subjects typed, peak fingertip force was collected for each keystroke using strain gauge load cells. The mean peak fingertip forces applied by all subjects for all keys for the three keyboards were 193 g, 182 g and 220 g: significantly different means. The 18% reduction in fingertip force in the second keyboard compared with the third is attributed to a higher minimum force of activation and a higher force at total key travel in the third keyboard. This study indicates that keyboard key force-displacement characteristics can be altered to reduce the fingertip forces applied by typists and theoretically this may reduce the risk of developing chronic musculoskeletal disorders. 23.6.33 (126720) Traut, L and Sehmauder, M 'Ergonomic design of the hand-machine interface for wheelchairs' in Van der Woude, L H V, Meijs, P J M and de Boer, Y A (eds) Ergonomics of manual wheelchair propulsion: state of the art Amsterdam, 17-19 October 1991. Organized by Concerted Action 'Mobility Restoration for Paralysed Persons' of the COMAC-BME and the Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1991) pp 231-240 (8 refs)
23.6.32 (126714) Rempel, D, Gerson, J, Armstrong, T, Foulke, J and Martin, B 'Fingertip forces while using three different keyboards' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, (1991) pp 253-255 (5 refs)
With regard to the strain situation of the wheelchair user, the examination of ergonomicaily relevant construction parameters of the handrim wheelchair's drive system is described. The position of the handrim within the range of motion of the hand-arm system, the gear ratio and the design of the handmachine interface are taken into consideration in the extensive study. The test plan according to which the laboratory experiments were carried out as well as the specially developed wheelchair simulator are explained briefly. The position of the handrim in the user's sagittal plane and the form and dimension of the cross-section as well as the material and profile of the handrim are considered. Together with the test results the recommendations for the fitting and construction of the wheelchair are discussed.
The relationship of chronic musculoskeletal disorders, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and wrist tendinitis, to prolonged alphanumeric keyboard use is controversial. Known risk factors for
23.6.34 (126755) Mast, T 'Designing and operating safer highways for older drivers: present and
Applied E r g o n o m i c s
ABSTRACTS future research issues' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 167-171 (2 refs) A major shift is occurring in the population age distribution resulting in a growing number of older persons with an increasing demand for mobility. For a variety of reasons, meeting the present and future mobility needs of older persons will depend primarily on the automobile. This paper discusses key issues related to ongoing and planned research sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to improve the mobility and safety of older drivers and pedestrians. The scope of FHWA research activities concerns aspects of highway design and operations that involve direct user interface. For example, geometric design and traffic control device standards explicitly consider quantifiable driver characteristics such as perception-reaction time or visual acuity. Ongoing research is addressing the extent to which existing traffic control device elements accommodate drivers with age-related diminished performance capabilities. Current work is testing older driver responses to brighter and larger signs with varying legend spacing and font characteristics in order to make recommended changes to existing highway signing standards. Older driver perception-reaction time is being evaluated in a variety of intersection, stopping, and decision sight distance situations. Studies are also under way to improve pavement markings and delineation systems to enhance their utility for older drivers. Driving simulation and field methods are being used to investigate vehicle manoeuvres which cause difficulties for older drivers so that improvements can be made to highway design and operations. Future studies will determine the capabilities and limitations of older pedestrians, address the visibility problems of symbol signs and changeable message signs, and investigate all aspects of intersection design and operations in light of older driver and pedestrian capabilities.
Workplace and equipment design 23.6.35 (126776) Coblentz, A, Mollard, R and Renaud, C ' E R G O M A N : 3-D representation of human operator and man-machine systems' Int J Hum Factors Manuf Vol 1 No 2 (1991) pp 167-178 (13 refs) Human factors must be taken into account during the early stages of the
Vol 23 No 6 D e c e m b e r 1992
design process to ensure the efficient and safe operation of man-machine systems. The fact that computer-aided design (CAD) is now widely used in industry emphasizes the need for human modelling tools in these environments. Since 1983 the authors' laboratory has developed a human body modelling application called E R G O M A N running with EUCLID-IS C A D software. This application creates geometrical models of various sizes making it possible to carry out ergonomic studies of workplaces. The E R G O M A N model is based on a 20links architecture with 22 joints and 46 degrees of freedom. Model dimensions were calculated from a set of 22 anthropometric measurements and many represent different operator populations. The interactive manipulation and motion capabilities of the models make it possible to assess working posture, research capabilities, fit of operator in confined workplaces, visibility, and control layouts. j' 23.6.36 (126777) Diaz, M F and Jensen, D G 'Task-analytic evaluations of space station Freedom workstations' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 160-163 (0 refs). Space Station Freedom will be a permanently manned multipurpose facility in low earth orbit by the late 1990s. Integral to Space Station Freedom will be data management system workstations. These workstations will provide the human-machine interface for controlling such systems as guidance, navigation and control, propulsion, and environmental control and life support. In addition, they will be used by crew members in the space station's pressurized shirtsleeve environment to control remote manipulator systems and free-flyer devices. This paper presents an overview of proposed workstations and current task-analytic evaluations being used to assess their adequacy in supporting Space Station Freedom operations. Particular emphasis is placed on the results and conclusions of the analysis. 23.6.37 (126783) Karwowski, W and Alasbi, H 'The effect of confined space on the maximum acceptable weight of lift.' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica,
California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 804-808 (9 refs) The main objectives of this study were to analyse the effect of space confinement on the maximum acceptable weight of lift, and determine the minimum acceptable space for lifting. Two different laboratory experiments were conducted. The first experiment was aimed to determine the effect of floor space confinement with adequate headroom, if any, on the maximum acceptable weight of lift, while the second experiment was designed to determine the minimum space that would be considered by the subjects as acceptable for lifting tasks. The results showed that although within the space restriction imposed in the first experiment the effect of space confinement on the selected maximum acceptable weight of lift was not statistically significant, subjects lifted on average about 9% more weight as the width and length of the working space were increased by 10 and 20 cm, respectively. Subjects also reported significantly higher levels of special comfort under increased floor space conditions. On average, subjects selected a floor area of 66 × 90 cm as the minimum acceptable space they would prefer for lifting a compact load between the floor and two tables on the sides. 23.6.38 (126792) Lee, M W, Yun, M H, Park, D, Chun, Y H, Jung, E S and Freivalds, A 'EYES - ergonomics in a conceptual design process for consumer electronic products' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 466-470 (3 refs) The purpose of the study was to develop an expert system for the conceptual design of high-touch consumer electronic products. 'High-touch' refers to a high level of ergonomic design in a product as opposed to merely 'high-tech' gadgetry in the product. Two major tasks were undertaken as part of this development: (1) the development of a conceptual design process for potential consumer electronic products using an expert systems concept; and (2) the specific evaluation of ten Daewoo prototypes (TV, VCR, audio system, microwave, vacuum cleaner, ergonomic keyboard, universal remote controller, intelligent telephone, and microcomputer for pre-schooi children) based on the above system. The expert system being developed incorporates the production model of conceptual design theory and the ergonomic principles used in the electronics products design.
431
Display and control design 23.6.30 (126705) Beringer, D B 'Effects of error-proofing and chemical/ biological/radiation protective glove use on touch panel operation' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 137-140 (9 refs) Previous studies suggested that initialcontact error rates were higher for touch input devices (resistive and infrared) than for various hardware keys. A follow-up study was conducted to evaluate the effects of chemical/ biological/radiation (CBR) protective gloves on performance. Error data from this and the proceding study in this series were somewhat misleading owing to differences in the input-sampling strategies between hardware keys and touch panels. The initially high error rates for the resistive panel (21.6% using flight gloves and 26.1% using CBR gloves) were considered unrepresentative of a true operating environment because non-key contacts would be ignored by the system. Revision of the input-sensing logic produced 100% accuracy for the resistive panel in the replication study. However, multiple contacts were required in 5% (median of 4.1%) of the trials. 430
Overall, 4% required only a second contact for correct activation of the designated key while three- and fourcontact activations amounted to 0.6% of all trials. Conclusions drawn from the research were that CBR gloves do not significantly degrade performance over standard flight gloves or, for that matter, over the bare hand (errors or response times) and that the occurrence of multiple touches is small and virtually disappears with experience and adequate feedback, errors usually occurring in early trials and in no-feedback conditions. Thus systems using gloved operators are unlikely to experience serious performance degradation if adequate key sizes for bare-handed activation are used and if timely and relevant feedback is provided to the operator.
23.6.31 (126708) Mackenzie, I S, Sellen, A and Buxton, W 'A comparison of input devices in elemental pointing and dragging tasks'. in Robertson, S P, Olson, G M and Olson, J S (eds) CHI '91 - Reaching through Technology, Proc Conf on Human Factors in Computing Systems New Orleans, Louisiana, 27 April-2 May, 1991. Addison-Welsey, Reading, Massachusetts (1991) pp 161-166 (15 refs) An experiment is described comparing three devices (a mouse, a trackball, and a stylus with tablet) in the performance of pointing and dragging tasks. During pointing, movement times were shorter and error rates were lower than during dragging. It is shown that Fitts' law can model both tasks, and that within devices the index of performance is higher when pointing then when dragging. Device differences also appeared. The stylus displayed a higher rate of information processing than the mouse during pointing but not during dragging. The trackball ranked third for both tasks.
these disorders, such as repetition of task, forceful exertions, awkward joint postures, direct mechanical pressure, and prolonged constrained posture, may be applicable to keyboard use. In this study fingertip forces were measured for 10 typists using three alphanumeric keyboards that differed only in their key force and displacement characteristics. While subjects typed, peak fingertip force was collected for each keystroke using strain gauge load cells. The mean peak fingertip forces applied by all subjects for all keys for the three keyboards were 193 g, 182 g and 220 g: significantly different means. The 18% reduction in fingertip force in the second keyboard compared with the third is attributed to a higher minimum force of activation and a higher force at total key travel in the third keyboard. This study indicates that keyboard key force-displacement characteristics can be altered to reduce the fingertip forces applied by typists and theoretically this may reduce the risk of developing chronic musculoskeletal disorders. 23.6.33 (126720) Traut, L and Sehmauder, M 'Ergonomic design of the hand-machine interface for wheelchairs' in Van der Woude, L H V, Meijs, P J M and de Boer, Y A (eds) Ergonomics of manual wheelchair propulsion: state of the art Amsterdam, 17-19 October 1991. Organized by Concerted Action 'Mobility Restoration for Paralysed Persons' of the COMAC-BME and the Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1991) pp 231-240 (8 refs)
23.6.32 (126714) Rempel, D, Gerson, J, Armstrong, T, Foulke, J and Martin, B 'Fingertip forces while using three different keyboards' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1, (1991) pp 253-255 (5 refs)
With regard to the strain situation of the wheelchair user, the examination of ergonomicaily relevant construction parameters of the handrim wheelchair's drive system is described. The position of the handrim within the range of motion of the hand-arm system, the gear ratio and the design of the handmachine interface are taken into consideration in the extensive study. The test plan according to which the laboratory experiments were carried out as well as the specially developed wheelchair simulator are explained briefly. The position of the handrim in the user's sagittal plane and the form and dimension of the cross-section as well as the material and profile of the handrim are considered. Together with the test results the recommendations for the fitting and construction of the wheelchair are discussed.
The relationship of chronic musculoskeletal disorders, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and wrist tendinitis, to prolonged alphanumeric keyboard use is controversial. Known risk factors for
23.6.34 (126755) Mast, T 'Designing and operating safer highways for older drivers: present and
Applied E r g o n o m i c s
ABSTRACTS future research issues' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 167-171 (2 refs) A major shift is occurring in the population age distribution resulting in a growing number of older persons with an increasing demand for mobility. For a variety of reasons, meeting the present and future mobility needs of older persons will depend primarily on the automobile. This paper discusses key issues related to ongoing and planned research sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to improve the mobility and safety of older drivers and pedestrians. The scope of FHWA research activities concerns aspects of highway design and operations that involve direct user interface. For example, geometric design and traffic control device standards explicitly consider quantifiable driver characteristics such as perception-reaction time or visual acuity. Ongoing research is addressing the extent to which existing traffic control device elements accommodate drivers with age-related diminished performance capabilities. Current work is testing older driver responses to brighter and larger signs with varying legend spacing and font characteristics in order to make recommended changes to existing highway signing standards. Older driver perception-reaction time is being evaluated in a variety of intersection, stopping, and decision sight distance situations. Studies are also under way to improve pavement markings and delineation systems to enhance their utility for older drivers. Driving simulation and field methods are being used to investigate vehicle manoeuvres which cause difficulties for older drivers so that improvements can be made to highway design and operations. Future studies will determine the capabilities and limitations of older pedestrians, address the visibility problems of symbol signs and changeable message signs, and investigate all aspects of intersection design and operations in light of older driver and pedestrian capabilities.
Workplace and equipment design 23.6.35 (126776) Coblentz, A, Mollard, R and Renaud, C ' E R G O M A N : 3-D representation of human operator and man-machine systems' Int J Hum Factors Manuf Vol 1 No 2 (1991) pp 167-178 (13 refs) Human factors must be taken into account during the early stages of the
Vol 23 No 6 D e c e m b e r 1992
design process to ensure the efficient and safe operation of man-machine systems. The fact that computer-aided design (CAD) is now widely used in industry emphasizes the need for human modelling tools in these environments. Since 1983 the authors' laboratory has developed a human body modelling application called E R G O M A N running with EUCLID-IS C A D software. This application creates geometrical models of various sizes making it possible to carry out ergonomic studies of workplaces. The E R G O M A N model is based on a 20links architecture with 22 joints and 46 degrees of freedom. Model dimensions were calculated from a set of 22 anthropometric measurements and many represent different operator populations. The interactive manipulation and motion capabilities of the models make it possible to assess working posture, research capabilities, fit of operator in confined workplaces, visibility, and control layouts. j' 23.6.36 (126777) Diaz, M F and Jensen, D G 'Task-analytic evaluations of space station Freedom workstations' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 160-163 (0 refs). Space Station Freedom will be a permanently manned multipurpose facility in low earth orbit by the late 1990s. Integral to Space Station Freedom will be data management system workstations. These workstations will provide the human-machine interface for controlling such systems as guidance, navigation and control, propulsion, and environmental control and life support. In addition, they will be used by crew members in the space station's pressurized shirtsleeve environment to control remote manipulator systems and free-flyer devices. This paper presents an overview of proposed workstations and current task-analytic evaluations being used to assess their adequacy in supporting Space Station Freedom operations. Particular emphasis is placed on the results and conclusions of the analysis. 23.6.37 (126783) Karwowski, W and Alasbi, H 'The effect of confined space on the maximum acceptable weight of lift.' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting. San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica,
California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 804-808 (9 refs) The main objectives of this study were to analyse the effect of space confinement on the maximum acceptable weight of lift, and determine the minimum acceptable space for lifting. Two different laboratory experiments were conducted. The first experiment was aimed to determine the effect of floor space confinement with adequate headroom, if any, on the maximum acceptable weight of lift, while the second experiment was designed to determine the minimum space that would be considered by the subjects as acceptable for lifting tasks. The results showed that although within the space restriction imposed in the first experiment the effect of space confinement on the selected maximum acceptable weight of lift was not statistically significant, subjects lifted on average about 9% more weight as the width and length of the working space were increased by 10 and 20 cm, respectively. Subjects also reported significantly higher levels of special comfort under increased floor space conditions. On average, subjects selected a floor area of 66 × 90 cm as the minimum acceptable space they would prefer for lifting a compact load between the floor and two tables on the sides. 23.6.38 (126792) Lee, M W, Yun, M H, Park, D, Chun, Y H, Jung, E S and Freivalds, A 'EYES - ergonomics in a conceptual design process for consumer electronic products' in Visions. Proc Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting San Francisco, California, 2-6 September 1991. The Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, California, Vol 1 (1991) pp 466-470 (3 refs) The purpose of the study was to develop an expert system for the conceptual design of high-touch consumer electronic products. 'High-touch' refers to a high level of ergonomic design in a product as opposed to merely 'high-tech' gadgetry in the product. Two major tasks were undertaken as part of this development: (1) the development of a conceptual design process for potential consumer electronic products using an expert systems concept; and (2) the specific evaluation of ten Daewoo prototypes (TV, VCR, audio system, microwave, vacuum cleaner, ergonomic keyboard, universal remote controller, intelligent telephone, and microcomputer for pre-schooi children) based on the above system. The expert system being developed incorporates the production model of conceptual design theory and the ergonomic principles used in the electronics products design.
431