Determinants of compulsive buying behavior among young adults: The mediating role of materialism

Journal of Adolescence 61 (2017) 117–130

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Determinants of compulsive buying behavior among young adults: The mediating role of materialism

MARK

Tahir Islam∗, Jiuchang Wei, Zaryab Sheikh, Zahid Hameed, Rauf I. Azam School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, PR China

AR TI CLE I NF O

AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Materialism Compulsive behavior Peer group Media celebrity endorsement TV advertisement

This research seeks to determine what makes young adults materialistic. The study examines the mediating role of materialism between the contextual factors and compulsive buying. Data was gathered from 219 Pakistani undergraduate university students. Partial Least Square (PLS) technique was used to analyze the data. The study confirms the intuition that more materialistic young adults are more likely to be involved in compulsive buying than are less materialistic young adults. The results were similar with the previous literature conducted in the western culture, indicating that also applies in a modern Islamic society. The findings of the study reveal that materialism mediated the relationship between certain sociological factors (i.e., group, media Celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisement) and compulsive buying. The study highlights the importance of understanding young adults' materialistic attitudes and consumption decisions and provides key knowledge for researchers, policymakers, and managers of leading brands.

1. Introduction The increasing level of materialism has become a hot issue among parents, young adults, policymakers, and marketers around the world (Duh, 2016; Pilch & Górnik-Durose, 2016; Wang & Liao, 2007). This study addresses the antecedents and consequences' of materialism, particularly as related to compulsive buying. The motives for materialistic attitudes can be traced back to rapid urbanization, parents' high purchasing power, and the role of young adults in family purchase decisions (Chan, 2008; Hultman, Kazeminia, & Ghasemi, 2015; McNeal & Yeh, 1997; Pugliese & Okun, 2014; Tsang, Carpenter, Roberts, Frisch, & Carlisle, 2014). Scholars have extensively studied materialism's nature (Belk, 1988; Cole et al., 2015; Richins & Dawson, 1992), antecedents (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Kasser & Ahuvia, 2002; Parr, Zeman, Braunstein, & Price, 2016), and consequences (Dittmar, Bond, Hurst, & Kasser, 2014; Pieters, 2013; Unanue, Dittmar, Vignoles, & Vansteenkiste, 2014). In the marketing literature, materialism is addressed as a negative value that tends to have a negative impact on the subjective well-being and life satisfaction of youth (Ahuvia & Wong, 2002; Christopher, Saliba, & Deadmarsh, 2009; Froh, Emmons, Card, Bono, & Wilson, 2011) and is positively related to compulsive buying (Manolis & Roberts, 2012). A survey conducted at the Singapore Business School found that students who are more materialistic are unhappy, less satisfied, and have lower levels of self-actualization than students who are less materialistic (Mueller et al., 2011). In recent years, a dramatic increase in materialism has emerged as a social issue among youth (Ahuvia & Wong, 2002; Kasser et al., 2014). Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, and Kasser (2004) found that individuals gain materialistic principles in the course of social learning from

∗

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] (T. Islam), [email protected] (J. Wei), [email protected] (Z. Sheikh), [email protected] (Z. Hameed), raufi[email protected] (R.I. Azam). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.10.004 Received 28 July 2016; Received in revised form 9 October 2017; Accepted 12 October 2017 0140-1971/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents.

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relatives, peers, television, and social media, all of which are often supportive of a materialistic way of life. Adolescents who are exposed to this kind of social learning tend to be fascinated with innovative products and are particularly receptive to advertisements and promotional offers (Marvin, Cooper, Hoffman, & Powell, 2002). Schor (2004) concluded that modern youth are “the most brandoriented, consumer-involved, and materialistic generation in history.” For highly materialistic persons, such expensive item ownership is believed to provide the greatest life satisfaction. With every passing day, materialism affects young adult behavior with more power. For example, compared to Baby Boomers graduating from high school in the 1970s, recent high school students are more materialistic; 62 percent of students surveyed in 2005–07 think it is important to “have a lot of money” while just 48 percent had the same belief in 1976–78 (Twenge, 2013). Similarly, a survey conducted in the UK revealed that children have become more materialistic these days compared to previous generations (Lenka, 2014). Compulsive buying behavior has captured much attention from scholars researching marketing psychology (Chan, Zhang, & Wang, 2006; Inglehart & Baker, 2000). This is because compulsive buying behavior affects more than fifty million US citizens (Dittmar & Drury, 2000) and has serious psychological consequences. Ninan et al. (2000) defined compulsive buying behavior is as “impulsive and/or compulsive buying of unneeded objects.” Scholars identified significant constructs such as TV advertisements, peer group, and media celebrity endorsement which is responsible for materialistic values and compulsive buying behavior among young adults (Richins, 1995; Sirgy et al., 2016). However, Yurchisin and Johnson (2004) found materialism is the key factor of compulsive buying, and thus affects all buying decisions of consumers. Compulsive buyers believe that material procession is an important way to happiness, success, and self-identity, and 5.8% of American customers were assessed to be compulsive buyers (Koran, Faber, Aboujaoude, Large, & Serpe, 2006). Pakistan was chosen as the research context of this study. As an emerging market, there has been a noticeable demographic shift in Pakistan so that half of the population is under the age of 30 and middle-class group income is increasing. Pakistan is experiencing fast changes in its social structure (Qadeer, 2006). The youth of today believe in independence and individuality (Kampmeier & Simon, 2001). As a result, a rise has been seen in the psychological disorders and unique consumption behaviors of young adults (Wang, Liu, Jiang, & Song, 2017). The growing number of excessive buying behaviors among young adults may be the cause of materialism and compulsive buying. Despite the extensive research on materialism among children in developed nations, no study can be found on the topic of materialism in Pakistan. To fill this research gap, the present study makes several important contributions to the existing literature. First, we propose a conceptual model based on existing literature to explore the reasons for materialistic attitudes among youth in Pakistan. Second, we extend the scope of the literature by testing and validating the conceptual model by involving various antecedents and outcomes of materialism among youth. Third, we focus on materialism as a possible mediator between social contextual factors and compulsive buying behavior among young adults. 2. Literature review and hypothesis development 2.1. Materialism From last four decades, scholars have found that increasing role of materialism has become a central construct of the consumer behavior (Arndt, Solomon, Kasser, & Sheldon, 2004; Graham, 1999). Belk (Belk, 1983; Belk, Bahn, & Mayer, 1982; Belk & Pollay, 1985; Belk, Sherry, & Wallendorf, 1988; Ger & Belk, 1996) and Richins (Richins & Dawson, 1992; Richins & Rudmin, 1994; Richins, 1995, 2004) have discussed materialism conceptually as a latent construct. According to Belk (1988), materialism is a significant utilization pattern, as young people frequently use material possessions to convey their extended selves. Belk (1984) explains materialism as a stage in which a person thinks certain material goods are mandatory for enjoyment in life. Richins and Dawson (1992) conceptualize materialism as personal values and a choice between tangible and intangible life goals. Materialism can be defined as “the extent to which individuals attempt to engage in the construction and maintenance of the self through the acquisition and use of products, services, and experience” (Shrum et al., 2013). The present study measures the materialism by using the materialism value scale approach in (Richins & Dawson, 1992). The scale is composed of three domains (centrality, happiness, and success) where; (1) centrality refers to possession, which plays an important role in materialists' lives, (2) happiness is the belief that an individual is happier if the individual has many expensive things, and (3) success is measured through what one owns. Materialistic young adults are always motivated towards excessive purchases because getting wealth and material possession is their vital life goals. They use expensive products as a medium to represent the social position, reputation, and success. Scholars found materialistic behavior is aroused among young adults due to external and internal stimuli. According to Kasser and Kanner (2004), materialistic values focus on two major factors: the socialization stimuli and the psychological stimuli. The socialization factor consists of social agents that are, peer pressure, media celebrity, family roles, media exposure, and television advertisements. On the other hand, the psychological factor is internal and consists of stress and subjective well-being (Chang & Arkin, 2002; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). 2.2. Compulsive buying The topic of compulsive buying behavior has received considerable attention from researchers (Kwak, Zinkhan, & Dominick, 2002; Roberts, Manolis, & Tanner, 2003). Edwards and Potter (1992) defined compulsive buying as “a chronic abnormal form of shopping and spending characterized by the extreme, uncontrollable, and repetitive urge to buy, disregarding the consequences.” Research has described compulsive buying behavior as a mental state in which an isolated individual who lacks impulse control and has low self-esteem combined with anxiety and materialism seeks excitement (Desarbo & Edwards, 1996; Faber & O'guinn, 1992; 118

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O'Guinn & Faber, 1989; Valence, d'Astous, & Fortier, 1988). According to Dittmar and Drury (2000), compulsive buyers believe that expensive material is essential for happiness and success much more than normal buyers believe this. Researchers concluded that high levels of compulsive buying behavior might be developed from materialism, peer communication, television advertisements, and media exposure (Halliwell, Dittmar, & Howe, 2005). Factors such as the latter three are considered in the current work as antecedents of materialism. Dittmar and Drury (2000) suggested adults who have a significant tendency toward materialism are also likely to exhibit compulsive buying behavior leading to uncontrolled buying, and this relationship is a focus of this current paper. 2.3. Antecedents of materialism Górnik-Durose and Pilch (2016) considered materialism as a subjective concept. In the literature, scholars have introduced some conceptual frameworks to identify the key constructs responsible for materialistic values and compulsive buying behavior (Manchanda, 2010). Sweetman, McGowan, Croker, and Cooke (2011) revealed that people aged 13–14 have similar lifestyles and consumption habits. Adolescents tend to be more interested in innovative products than older adults and to be receptive to peer group pressure, advertisements, and promotional offers (Marvin et al., 2002). Therefore, socialization agents and marketing factors influence their purchase decisions and psychological development (Weiss & Ebbeck, 1996). On the basis of the extant literature, we propose three major antecedents that affect materialistic values and compulsive buying: peer groups, media celebrities, and TV advertisements. Peer groups are important socialization agents (Chang & Schaller, 2000), as young adults see their peer groups as a source of accurate and reliable information (Reindl, Gniewosz, & Reinders, 2016). Peer group and media celebrity endorsement play a key role in raising the materialistic behavior among young individuals (Chan & Fang, 2007; Chan, 2011; Prendergast, Cheung, & West, 2008). Scholars agree that TV advertisement is a key determinant of materialism and compulsive buying (Bijmolt, Claassen, & Brus, 1998; Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2003; Goldberg, Gorn, Peracchio, & Bamossy, 2003). 2.4. Peer groups and materialism Research has established that youngsters who correspond regularly with their peers are inclined to succumb to peer pressure and are more materialistic than those who do not have a close peer-group association (Achenreiner & John, 2003; Achenreiner, 1997; Benmoyal-Bouzaglo & Moschis, 2010). Children and youngsters learn about social norms, culture, and how to behave in particular situations in many ways (Benmoyal-Bouzaglo & Moschis, 2010; Korgaonkar & Moschis, 1987). A survey conducted on adolescents in China found a significant relationship between peer contact, the inclination to peer pressure, and materialism (Chan & Fang, 2007; Chan & Prendergast, 2007). Peers are more influential than parents in the adoption of materialistic behavior (Chaplin & John, 2010). Peer group pressure leads to high levels of materialism, perhaps because peer acceptance is seen as the best way to gain the confidence and close friendship of one's peers in a particular community (Isaksen & Roper, 2012). Comprehensive social assessment theory indicates that people evaluate themselves against others by means of their personal material possessions to establish their social standing (Motl et al., 2001, 2002). High peer group pressure increases materialism among young adults (BenmoyalBouzaglo & Moschis, 2010). Based on a review of the literature, this subsequent hypothesis is proposed: H1. Young adults who are highly influenced by their peers are more materialistic than those who are less influenced. 2.5. Influence of TV advertising on materialism Research has revealed that TV advertisements stimulate materialism among young adults (Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2003; Valkenburg & Buijzen, 2005; Wulfemeyer & Mueller, 1992). According to the past literature, advertisements have positively influenced materialism because it is intended to stimulate a desire for company products (Chan, 2003; Moore & Homer, 2000; Yang & Ganahl, 2004). Watching TV is directly linked to materialism among adolescents. Chan (2003) found there is a positive relationship between one's attitude toward TV advertisement and materialism. In addition, consumer behavior researchers have recommended a causal link between TV and materialism (Zinkhan & Pereira, 1994). TV advertisements aim at creating a culture that encourages the audience to seek success, happiness, status, and popularity as well as embracing social stereotypes (Bristol & Mangleburg, 2005; Opree, Valkenburg, & Buijzen, 2012). Buijzen and Valkenburg (2003) conducted a study of adolescents and found that TV advertisements have both short and long-term effects on materialistic values. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2. Young adults who watch more television advertisements will be more materialistic than those who watch fewer television advertisements. 2.6. The influence of media celebrity endorsements on materialism Celebrity worship is a global phenomenon among adolescents, and young consumers (Yue & Cheung, 2000) and celebrity admiration is common in communities of youth around the world. In fact, a recent estimate indicates that approximately 20 percent of all advertisements worldwide use well-known personalities as spokespersons (Shimp & Andrews, 2013). In the US, according to Shimp and Andrews (2013), television and print advertisements often feature celebrities. The use of celebrity endorsement in Japan is particularly popular, as about 70 percent of all commercials feature local or foreign celebrities (Praet, 2008). Consumers often admire 119

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celebrities and trust them to be a credible source of information (Atkin & Block, 1983), which gives them power as product spokespersons, so using celebrities in advertising attracts prospective consumers and increases materialism (McCracken, 1989; Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). Young people are particularly prone to celebrity endorsements (Yue & Cheung, 2000). Lafferty and Goldsmith (1999) reported young consumers tend to use brands that are endorsed by film actors and famous sports figures (Chan & Prendergast, 2007; Chan & Zhang, 2007). Therefore, we hypothesize: H3. Young adults who report a greater tendency to imitate celebrities are more materialistic than those with a lower tendency to imitate celebrities. 3. Materialism and compulsive buying behavior People with high materialistic values desire higher levels of status and want to possess expensive things as a way to help them achieve major life goals (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004; Halliwell et al., 2005). Materialism is a consistent predictor of compulsive buying behavior (d'Astous, 1990; Mowen & Spears, 1999; Yurchisin & Johnson, 2004). A number of scholars (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Kasser, Ryan, Couchman, & Sheldon, 2004; Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995) have found that compulsive buying is a mixture of low impulse control and a high level of materialism, where consumer goods play a major emotional role in an individual's life (Dittmar & Drury, 2000; Halliwell & Dittmar, 2005) such that he or she buys things only to associate with material goods (Dittmar, 1992, 2005). Compulsive buying has a strong relationship with money, social image, and possession (Frost, Steketee, & Williams, 2002; Hanley & Wilhelm, 1992), suggesting that acquisitions and possessions are vital facets of compulsive buying. Therefore, we hypothesize: H4. Materialism is positively related to compulsive buying in youth. 3.1. Mediating effect of materialism This research seeks to determine whether materialism acts as a mediator between certain sociological factors and compulsive buying. A number of studies have provided the theoretical background for the mediation effect of materialism on compulsive behavior (Nga, Yong, & Sellappan, 2011; Rose, 2007). Weaver, Moschis, and Davis (2011) tested peer communication empirically as a mediator between the independent variables (gender and family) and the dependent variables (materialism and compulsive behavior). Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe (2008) investigated materialism as a predictor of compulsive buying behavior. Scholars have extensively discussed how sociological factors like peer pressure, media celebrity endorsements, and television advertisement are related to materialism and compulsive buying among adults (Dittmar, 2005; Lindstrom, 2004; Linn, 2004; Manchanda, 2010; Schor, 2004). Based on the extant literature, we propose that materialism plays a mediating role between the sociological factors of peer pressure, media celebrity endorsements, and television advertisements and compulsive behavior. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H5. Materialism mediates the relationship between the sociological factors peer pressure, media celebrity endorsements, and television advertisements, and compulsive buying behavior. 3.2. Theoretical framework The consumer behavior and marketing literature provide scarce evidence on the relationship between the antecedents of materialism and compulsive buying behavior among young adults in the Pakistani context. We propose the conceptual model for this study on the basis of previous literature (Chan et al., 2006; T.; Kasser et al., 2004; La Ferle & Chan, 2008): (1) young adults who have high levels of media exposure and peer group pressure are more materialistic than those who do not, (2) materialism is a strong predictor of compulsive buying behavior among young adults, and (3) materialism is a strong mediator between the indicated contextual factors and compulsive buying behavior. 4. Research methodology 4.1. Measurement development The questionnaire for this research was adapted from published literature. We measured materialism using six items from Richins and Dawson (1992). The Materialism construct was measured by asking respondents to state their level of agreement with statements such as “Acquiring valuable things is important for my happiness.” Media celebrity endorsement was measured by using four items from Sheldon et al. (2004). A Media Celebrities Endorsement construct was measured by asking respondents questions such as “Media Celebrities influence me looking good and appearing attractive to others.” The TV Advertisement effect was assessed using four items from Moschis and Moore (1982). A TV Advertisement construct was measured by asking respondents questions such as “Advertisements help me decide what things to buy.” Peer group communication assessment used three items from Mangleburg and Bristol (1998). The Peer Group construct was measured by asking respondents questions such as “I always preferred my friends' opinion while shopping.” Compulsive buying behavior was assessed using five items from Valence et al. (1988). The Compulsive Buying 120

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construct was measured by asking respondents questions such as “I sometimes feel that something inside pushing me to go shopping.” Therefore, the entire questionnaire consisted of items adapted from extant literature (the questionnaire is presented in Appendix A). The variables selected and combined in our conceptual model are among those that have been considered responsible for materialism and compulsive buying behavior among young adults. Data was collected using a quantitative approach. A five-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree” was used to measure all items. In Pakistan, instruction in all universities is provided in English, so content validity was not a problem, as all of the items were originally developed in English (Rasool, Kiyani, Khan Khattak, & Ahmed, 2012). However, the final questionnaire was checked by two experts to ensure consistency in the meaning of the items. These experts are university professors who are fluent in English. Two control variables, gender, and media use, both of which research has shown to have significant effects on materialism (Chan, Leung Ng, & Luk, 2013; Francisco Dávila and Casabayó, 2013; La Ferle & Chan, 2008), were incorporated in the conceptual model (see Table 1). 4.2. Data collection Data were collected from undergraduate university students. There were 265 respondents (152 male and 113 female). To improve the validity of data, the survey method was used. For quantitative research, the survey is a good method for checking the relationship between variables, and surveys are commonly used by scholars in the social sciences (Zhang, Lu, Gupta, & Zhao, 2014). Data were collected in the spring of 2014 from undergraduate students of universities located in the capital territory of Pakistan. University students are the right population for this study, mostly because university students have leisure time and extra money as compared to students in other types of schools (Chan et al., 2006; Chou, 2001; Pinto, Parente, & Palmer, 2000). A fully structured questionnaire was distributed to students during lectures in the presence of their instructors. Before the students were asked to fill in the questionnaire, the researchers provided a brief introduction to the study's variables. In total, 46 out of 265 responses were discarded due to missing data. Thus, the final sample was comprised of results from 219 students. Among the respondents 55.3% were male, and 44.7% were female. They ranged in age from 18 to 23 years (Mage = 21.75 years, SD = 0.97). Demographic profiles of the respondents are presented in Table 2. 4.3. Data analysis To assess measurement and structure model, we applied structural equation modeling (SEM) using Partial Least Squares (PLS) method to analyze the data and check the adequacy of the measurement model through validation of both reliability and validity of the proposed constructs. PLS is a strong method which measures regression and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) concurrently Table 1 Past Literature of factors that responsible for Materialism. Study Variables Samples Findings ( ± ) Churchill Jr and Moschis (1979) Moschis and Moore (1982) Goldberg et al. (2003) Chan (2003) Valkenburg and Buijzen (2005) Chan et al. (2006) La Ferle and Chan (2008)

Banerjee and Dittmar (2008) Lu Wang et al. (2009)

Smith Speck and Peterson (2010) Chia (2010) Chaplin and John (2010) Adib and El-Bassiouny (2012) Jiang, Zhang, Ke, Hawk, and Qiu (2015) Lenka (2014) Weaver et al. (2011)

TV Viewing Peer communication TV Ad exposure Celebrity endorsement TV Viewing TV ad exposure Peer communication TV viewing TV ads exposure Peer influence Media celebrities Marketing promotion Perceived Peer Pressure TV ad exposure Living in rural area Age

806 adolescents

Advertising exposure Perceptions of parents' and friends' Parents' materialism Peers' materialism Parents' materialism Peer influence Peer rejection

695 students in Singapore, 12–23 years old

Role of media Peer Communication Role of gender

– 129 undergraduate

211 adolescents age 12–18 old 540 parents and 996 children between 9 and 14 240children in Hong Kong between 6 and 13 years old 360 children age between 8 and 12 Total number of adolescents used 710, but divided into different age interval Data collected from Singapore, Children age between 13 and 14 (65) 15-16 (103) 17-18 (7) Data collected from UK aged between 8 and 11 (181) 646 adolescents in China, 11–17 years (379 urban, 267 rural) 150 adolescents,

100 adolescents, 12–18 years old 104 children in Egypt 11–14 and 70 parents

121

(+) related (+) related (+) related (+) related (+) related (+) related (+) Non-significant (+) related Non-significant (+) related (+) related Non-significant (+) related (+) related (+) related Increased from 8 to 12 (+) related (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+)

related related related related related related related

(+) related (+) related (+) related

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Table 2 Demographics of respondents. Table. 1

Sample Profile N = 219

Demographics

Frequency

Percentage

N

%

121 97

56 44

80 139

37 63

Sex M F Age 18–20 21–23 Media Use (Minutes per day) Internet TV Newspaper *Celebrity Section of Newspaper

290 155 15 10

(Hair, Sarstedt, Ringle, & Mena, 2012). Therefore, in this study, we used PLS 3.0 to do the data analysis. 5. Results 5.1. Common method bias When data is collected from a single source and all at the same time, the data may face an issue of common bias that might raise serious concerns about the validity of the research. To check the common bias method, we use Harman's single factor test. According to the Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003), Harman's single-factor test is a diagnostic technique that “actually does nothing to statistically control for (or partial out) method effects.” The results showed that all items of the conceptual model could be categorized into five factors, and the first factor only explains 21.747% of the variance. The results suggest that common bias is less than 50%. Thus there is no issue in this data. 5.2. Measurement model In the current study, the measurement model was assessed based on CFA (Hair et al., 2012). Initially, we assessed the measurement model by testing the content, convergence, and discernment. Construct validity is the most difficult approach (Malhotra, 2010), but it is necessary for the present research because the meaning of the construct may change during data collection, and respondents might perceive different meaning (Drost, 2011). Therefore, researchers put special attention on the data collection phase. For content validation, a pilot test of 50 samples responses to the questionnaire was conducted before the major data collection to measure the reliability, validity, and average variance extracted (AVE). During this process, we dropped some items, as well as improving the convergent and discriminant validities and the alpha values. Convergent validity examines the degree to which a construct is correlated with the conceptual model's other constructs. Convergent validity was measured by testing the AVE, Cronbach's alpha, and composite reliability (CR) values and the factor loadings. Cronbach's alpha is the most frequently used statistical tool for measuring construct reliability (Gefen & Straub, 2000), which refers to internal consistency between the items of a latent variable. Construct reliability indicates that construct items are free from random error and results are consistent. Acceptable values for construct reliability are higher than 0.70 (Keil et al., 2000), and all constructs in the current analysis have Cronbach's alpha values higher than 0.70, as can be seen in Table 3. Discriminant validity means that each construct is different from other constructs in the conceptual model. We used two approaches to measure the discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). First, the discriminant validity of the construct was assessed at the item level of the variable. This means that the items' factor loadings should be high in their respective constructs compared with the loadings in the other constructs. As presented in Table 4, all the items loadings of the corresponding variables are greater than the cross-loadings values of the conceptual model variables. Second, we examined discriminant validity at the construct level. We compared the relationship between correlations among variables and the square root of the AVE of variables. The results indicated that in the current study, the discriminant validity is good. Researchers have recommended thresholds for AVE, CR, and Cronbach's alpha of 0.50, 0.80, and 0.70 respectively (Faqih, 2016; Flynn, Sakakibara, Schroeder, Bates, & Flynn, 1990). All the required values of measurement model are above the minimum level, as presented in Table 4. Therefore, the results indicate good discriminant and convergent validity. 5.3. Structural model assessment The statistical tests of the theoretical model in terms of reliability and validity showed a good fit of the data to the conceptual 122

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Table 3 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Constructs

Items

Loading

Cronbach’ s Alpha

Composite reliability

Average Variance Extracted

Peer Group Communication (PGC)

PGC PGC PGC MCD1 MCD2 MCD3 MCD4 TVA1 TVA2 TVA3 TVA4 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 CBB1 CBB2 CBB3 CBB4 CBB5

0.914 0.852 0.877 0.826 0.701 0.723 0.767 0.718 0.849 0.868 0.810 0.842 0.821 0.894 0.807 0.795 0.764 0.834 0.772 0.787 0.732 0.915

0.877

0.911

0.773

0.762

0.840

0.680

0.818

0.880

0.648

0.856

0.899

0.697

0.757

0.827

0.712

Media Celebrities Endorsement (MCD)

TV Advertisement (TVA)

Materialism (M)

Compulsive Buying Behavior (CBB)

Table 4 Cross items loading. Constructs

Items

PGC

MCD

TVA

M

CBB

Peer Group Communication (PGC)

PGC PGC PGC MCD1 MCD2 MCD3 MCD4 TVA1 TVA2 TVA3 TVA4 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 CBB1 CBB2 CBB3 CBB4 CBB5

0.914 0.852 0.877 0.364 0.412 0.531 0.435 0.361 0.314 0.384 0.401 0.179 0.158 0.135 0.183 0.146 0.347 0.416 0.421 0.564 0.461 0.442

0.399 0.475 0.419 0.826 0.701 0.723 0.767 0.880 0.523 0.574 0.497 0.574 0.554 0.531 0.587 0.504 0.541 0.493 0.465 0.498 0.536 0.477

0.428 0.575 0.463 0.457 0.521 0.387 0.597 0.718 0.849 0.868 0.810 0.441 0.574 0.417 0.478 0.331 0.497 0.394 0.246 0.565 0.526 0.493

0.418 0.345 0.497 0.367 0.499 0.521 0.519 0.401 0.505 0.481 0.551 0.842 0.821 0.894 0.807 0.795 0.764 0.504 0.587 0.554 0.529 0.481

0.399 0.325 0.336 0.517 0.325 0.336 0.517 0.133 0.141 0.442 0.647 0.351 0.474 0.492 0.359 0.457 0.543 0.834 0.772 0.787 0.732 0.915

Media Celebrities Endorsement (MCD)

TV Advertisement (TVA)

Materialism (M)

Compulsive Buying Behavior (CBB)

Table 5 Correlation analysis. Constructs

Mean

S.D

1

2

3

4

5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

3.7859 3.2741 3.0400 2.8311 3.3114

0.8665 0.9618 0.8531 0.9484 0.8146

0.879 0.478 0.428 0.287 0.357

0.825 0.563 0.624 0.537

0.801 0.556 0.462

0.835 0.542

0.843

Peer Group (PG) Media Celebrities Endorsement (MCD) TV Advertisement (TVA) Materialism (M) Compulsive Buying Behavior (CBB)

Note: Diagonal elements are the square root of the average variance extracted of each construct; Pearson correlations are shown below the diagonal.

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Fig. 1. Proposed model.

model, a positive sign that the model was ready for hypotheses testing. First, correlation analysis was performed to measure the linear relationship between the constructs. Correlation means the association between the variables. Peer group, media celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisement were positively associated with materialism (respectively, r = 0.47, r = 0.62, r = 0.55 P < 0.001). Materialism was positively related with the compulsive buying among these young adults (r = 0.54, P < 0.001). Correlation analysis values can be seen in Table 5 (see Fig. 1). The second step was to run the structural equation model using PLS 3.0 to determine whether the hypotheses find support. SEM technique was used to examine the impact of the independent variables on dependent variables. Data analysis of the conceptual model shows that the antecedents' variables (peer group, media celebrity endorsements, and TV advertisement) have a significant influence on dependent variables (materialism & compulsive buying behavior). The results indicate that path coefficients of peer groups (β = 0.163***, p < 0.01), media celebrity endorsements (β = 0.363***, p < 0.01), and television advertisements (β = 0.292***, p < 0.01) all have significant predictors of materialism, with all independent study variables together explaining 38.7% of the variance in materialism. Therefore, H1, H2, and H3 are supported. Materialism significantly predicted (β = 0.363***, p < 0.01) compulsive buying behavior among young adults, and materialism explaining 24.7% of the variance in compulsive buying, so H4 is also supported. Parameter coefficients results have shown that materialism was a significant determinant of compulsive buying behavior. Regression analysis (path coefficients & R2) values are presented in Fig. 2.

5.4. Mediation analysis In the present study, materialism acted as a mediator between the antecedents of materialism and compulsive buying behavior. Several scholars in the social sciences and psychology have discussed the mediation effect (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Hayes & Scharkow, 2013; MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002; Preacher & Hayes, 2004, 2008; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). We employ the mediation approach explained by (Preacher & Hayes, 2008), using the bootstrapping approach with a 95% confidence interval. As Table 6 shows, the indirect effect is significant with a 95% confidence interval, excluding zero. The results show that materialism mediates between the antecedents (peer groups, media celebrity endorsements, and television advertisements) and compulsive buying behavior. As Table 6 shows, the indirect effect of materialism on relationships between determinants (peer group, media celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisement) and compulsive buying behavior is significant at a 95% bootstrap confidence interval, excluding zero. This result indicates that materialism mediates the effect between the determinants (peer group, media celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisement) on compulsive buying behavior. The bootstrapping results are presented in Table 6.

Fig. 2. Structural model results.

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Table 6 Bootstrapping results. 95% Bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effect Materialism

Effect

SE

CIs

Peer group Media Celebrities Endorsement TV advertisement

0.047 0.131 0.091

0.023 0.217 0.011

(0.033, 0.115) (0.077, 0.197) (0.059, 0.134)

6. Discussion The present research examines the relationship among social and marketing factors, materialism, and compulsive buying behavior among young adults in Pakistan, and found that Pakistani young adults are exhibiting high materialistic values. The findings can provide valuable inputs for further understanding the Pakistani market and Pakistani consumers. Based on the extant literature (Cole et al., 2015; Evrard & Boff, 1998), we divided our conceptual framework into two models. In the first model, three significant facets: peer groups, media celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisements, were analyzed. With the second model, we examined the effect of materialism on compulsive buying behavior among young adults. The results of this study supported our hypotheses, confirming that materialism is one of the primary causes of compulsive buying behavior among young adults. The findings of this study are in accordance with the extant literature (Chan, 2003, 2011, 2013; Chan & Prendergast, 2007, 2008; Chan et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2013; Dietz & Strasburger, 1991; Diwan, 2000; Greenfield, 2016; Inglehart & Baker, 2000). The results indicated that peer group pressure is helping to arouse the materialistic values and compulsive buying behavior among young adults. Pakistani youth have a strong aspiration for material possession. In Pakistan, as in other countries, there is a strong link between possessions and friendships, because those young adults who engage significantly with peers are more materialistic than those who do not (Chan, 2003). This result confirms that young adults who are involved in peer groups experience pressure to comply with their friends' suggestions while shopping. In the learning and working environments young individuals also receive influence from their peers, which affects their materialistic attitudes. According to the social exchange theory, young adults are inclined to evaluate their material possessions with their friends. The results in the Pakistani context are positive in this aspect and in accord with past studies (Chan & Prendergast, 2007; La Ferle & Chan, 2008). Looking at hypothesis H3, TV advertisement seems to have the propensity to influence the development of materialistic behavior among young adults in Pakistan. TV affects people's perception, so those who are watching television very frequently are more materialistic. Due to the tendency toward high materialistic values, the past literature supported that high materialistic values may impact greatly the compulsive buying level. As youth became a huge market segment for multinational companies for promoting brands, companies have allocated heavy budgets for advertising campaigns. Advertisements often persuade viewers to spend by using imagery of nice-looking or well-known consumers who use the product, by indicating a societal incentive for consuming the product, and by relating the product to those who are well off (Sheldon et al., 2004). Previous findings suggested high exposure to TV advertisements can be lead towards high materialistic values (La Ferle & Chan, 2008) and the current survey confirms that is valid in Pakistan also. The media celebrity effect was found to be a stronger predictor of materialism as compared to peer group and media exposure, which means celebrities have more effect on building materialistic values in Pakistan. Youth always have idealized media celebrities so celebrities in advertising appeal to customers as well as those who have never tried the brand. Celebrities demonstrate their wealth to the audience through expensive products (Chan & Zhang, 2007) and this can lead to compulsive buying and overspending among those who idolize the celebrities. This effect is particularly noteworthy in Pakistan since Indian film media celebrities are very famous among young adults of Pakistan. Most companies want to target the young adults, so Pakistani companies have contracted with Bollywood stars to promote their brands. In Pakistan, cricket is the most watched sport, and there is wild enthusiasm when there are matches. Cricketers are the top celebrities, so they are also the brand ambassadors of successful companies. Our results show that in Pakistan, as in other countries, celebrity endorsement is the main predictor of materialism (Kim, Agrusa, Lee, & Chon, 2007; La Ferle & Chan, 2008; Lu Wang, Chan, & Cai, 2009; Pugliese & Okun, 2014). This is of interest because Pakistan is an Islamic state, where Muslims are in the majority, and such a society is quite different from the Western multi-religious contexts of most previous studies. Islam has nothing against the growth of individual and quality of life and in fact, motivates and provides the direction for the development of a good life. It promotes improving life, wanting today to be better than yesterday, but speaks against having one's life focus on only acquiring material things. Islam strictly prohibits materialism and compulsive buying. Pakistani culture, though founded on Islamic values, is not monolithic and it is being influenced by different cultures, as indicated by the current study. Our results prove that Pakistani young adults, like their international counterparts, are influenced by similar social and marketing factors. That is the conclusion to be drawn from the fact that the current study's findings are similar to the studies conducted in different cultures (Chan, 2003; Chan et al., 2006; La Ferle & Chan, 2008). Although strong Islamic values exist in the country, globalization has produced consumer attitudes in Pakistan that are similar to those worldwide. From the current research findings, it is concluded that Pakistani young adults are just as materialistic as young adults in other developed nations. Pakistani society is undergoing cultural change. The following features are responsible for these changes: High increase in the middle-class group, expansion of mass media (TV, radio, and social media), and technological innovations. The society has been reacting against these cultural changes, but no segment of life has been free from the effect of these changes. The following changes can be observed as a result of the cultural transformation. First, a numerical increase in the middle-class income group has changed 125

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the overall consumption habits of the society. Today, young adults are highly concerned about material possessions and obtaining expensive things as this appears to be a significant factor of modern life. As a result, the family system is also in transition and moving from collectivism to individualism. The basic reason is the high proportion of young adults. Second, mass media has also influenced the individual lifestyle. Media has played an important role in shaping behaviors, and youth is strongly influenced by media. Media use is incorporated as a control variable in this research, as media use increases materialistic behavior among young adults. Pakistan is an emerging country that is passing through cultural and social changes, and the reason behind this change is the immense usage of social media among the country's youth. In Pakistan, young adults use media for many purposes, including collecting information about products, brands, and discounts, and today's youth have greater media exposure (i.e., Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn) than the youth of the past (Lee, Jolles, & Krabbendam, 2016). This has had a significant influence on the materialistic values and compulsive buying. Therefore, this empirical research reported herein gives insight into these factors and also indicates that young adults in a modern Islamic culture (Pakistan) are remarkably similar to those in other cultures in their materialistic outlooks. Finally, from the research findings, it is concluded that our study variables (Peer group, Media celebrities, and TV advertisement) are primary causes of materialism and compulsive buying among young adults of Pakistan. Materialism mediated relationship between the study variables, representing sociological factors, and compulsive buying. 6.1. Theoretical contribution Our research makes contributions to the existing literature. First, our study extends a theoretical model by testing and validating the predictors responsible for materialistic attitudes among young adults, and the results revealed that all hypotheses included in the conceptual model were accepted. Our study provides theoretical support for theories about the factors responsible for materialism as suggested in the extant literature dealing with a variety of societal contexts. This study, however, is the first study to test the interrelationships between the social and marketing factors, compulsive buying behavior, and materialism among young adults in Pakistan and, by extension, other societies with majority Islamic influence empirically. Second, this study finds that in a modern Islamic culture, sociological factors are the key constructs for the development of compulsive buying, confirming the findings of (Chan & Prendergast, 2008; Chan & Zhang, 2007) and extending them by incorporating materialism as a mediator in the conceptual model. Third, our proposed model provides a novel, theoretical point of view on materialistic values and compulsive buying behavior. This is because only a few studies have observed a mediating role of the materialism between the contextual factors and compulsive buying. Therefore, the current research supplements the literature about compulsive buying behavior determinants. 6.2. Implications For policymakers, the current research findings give further insight into guidelines to minimize the materialists' desire among young adolescents. Governmental policy managers can also learn from these results which tell us that in Pakistan, just as in other countries, young adults are either currently infected by materialism or at the risk of becoming materialistic. Policy makers may wish to determine what can be done to restrain this growing trend. If so, since this paper indicates that this is a worldwide problem, solutions that work in radically different societies should be considered. First, governments should start an education program for young adults to develop a healthy buyer's attitude to avoid materialism and compulsive buying. Second, TV advertisement has a strong correlation with compulsive behavior and material procession, so policymakers should institute policies to minimize the effect. Third, new visual and ethical courses would be introduced at the university level to limit the materialism which affects young adults. Fourth, in Pakistan, where the collective family system prevails, materialism is against the culture because it is always focusing on individual values. Parents should spend their time with youngsters and pass on their basic values. They should discourage children to compare consumption patterns with their peers. 7. Limitations and future research Our study has several limitations. First, we gathered data from respondents who were all university students. The results of this model could be different in other environments, so the study findings have limited external validity; the results of this study might differ with a different target audience. Future researchers should retest the conceptual model and validate it in other contexts as well. Second, the data was collected from the capital territory of Pakistan where young people are more affected by contextual factors (peer group, media celebrity endorsement, and TV advertisement) as compared to the rural area residents. Thus, the study findings are limited to metropolitan cities. Future research should focus on a large sample size and collecting data from across the country because that would help to get a more comprehensive view of young adult attitudes towards the study constructs. Third, our research used cross-sectional data. Behavior changes over time, and compulsive buying behavior is not unidimensional construct, so a longitudinal study could help to clarify this concept. Fourth, further study should also consider the type of products (luxury vs. inexpensive) as a predictor variable of materialism and compulsive buying. A future study could also consider the role of family communication on materialism. Acknowledgement I would like to thank the University undergraduate students who actively participated in this study. There is no funding source for this present study. 126

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Appendix A

Constructs

Items measures

Sources

Peer Group PGC Communication (PGC) PGC PGC Media Celebrities MCD1 Endorsement (MCD) MCD2 MCD3

Mangleburg and Bristol (1998)

TV Advertisement (TVA)

Moschis and Moore (1982)

Materialism (M)

Compulsive Buying Behavior (CBB)

I always preferred my friends' opinion while shopping. During shopping, I think whether my friends like this product or not. My friends' opinion is very important for me about the products. I want to be as smart as movie idols I want to be as fashionable as celebrities looks like Media celebrities influenced me to good looking and attractive appearance MCD4 I want to look like media celebrity TVA1 Advertisements to help me decide what things to buy TVA2 Advertisements to know what I can buy to impress others TVA3 I consume advertisements to know what brand has the product features I need TVA4 Advertisements to have something to talk about with others M1 Acquiring valuable things is important for my happiness M2 Having luxury items is important to a happy life M3 I feel good when I buy expensive things. People think of me as a success M4 I would pay more for a product if people think of it as a sign of success M5 I like to own expensive things than most people because this is a sign of success M6 I love to buy new products that affect status and prestige CBB1 When I have money, I cannot help but spend part or all of it. CBB2 I sometimes feel that something inside pushed me to go shopping. CBB3 There are times when I have a strong urge to buy. CBB4 I am often impulsive in my buying behavior CBB5 I have often bought a product that I did not need, while knowing that I have very little money left.

Sheldon et al. (2004)

Richins and Dawson (1992)

Valence et al. (1988)

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