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Determination of thermal comfort of religious buildings by measurement and survey methods: Examples of mosques in a temperate-humid climate
Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
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Determination of thermal comfort of religious buildings by measurement and survey methods: Examples of mosques in a temperate-humid climate A.B. Atmaca *, G. Zorer Gedik Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, 34349, Turkey
A B S T R A C T
Thermal comfort in buildings is an important parameter affecting the physiological and psychological conditions of the users as well as their working efficiency and activity levels. Acceptable thermal comfort levels specified in the standards are created within certain limits. This raises the question whether it is appropriate to use the same acceptable comfort ranges in different building types and climatic conditions. In this study, the design-usage of the example mosques in temperate-humid climate was evaluated by using thermal comfort level measurements and survey methods. The aim of this study is to compare the indoor thermal comfort conditions measured in mosques according to standards, to determine the thermal comfort perception of the users, to evaluate the difference between the measured and perceived thermal comfort levels. In the scope of the study, two mosques with different heating and cooling systems were measured with thermal comfort devices. The thermal sensation survey was conducted with the users on Fridays of the measurement weeks. When the thermal comfort levels that measured and perceived were compared, the indoor conditions were within acceptable ranges according to the measured results whereas the user thermal sensation survey results revealed that the environment was hotter. In order to create similar thermal comfort in the interior, it was determined that design innovations or mechanical solutions should be made for the prayer zones in the entrance areas of the mosques. In light of the findings, suggestions were made for the design of the new mosques and the usage program of the existing ones.
1. Introduction Mosques are generally used five times a day at different time in tervals with a variable number of prayers. On Fridays at noon and during the month of Ramadan for the Tarawih prayer, the mosques reach full occupancy rates. In these days of intensive use, mosques fill up in time until the beginning of worship and empty in a short time after the end of worship. There are also various activities in the mosques such as reading the Qur’an, chatting and visiting (touristic sightseeing). For the reasons mentioned, mosques have a variable number of users and different usage schedules from other buildings. The design and form characteristics of mosques vary according to regional, cultural and geographical factors. The orientation of these structures is always towards Qibla (Mecca, Arabia). The mosques generally are single or multi-domed in a rectangular layout; composed of architectural elements such as pulpit, mihrab, minaret, and courtyard. Suitable thermal, acoustic, and visual comfort conditions should be provided in the mosques for users to worship efficiently and comfortably. Thermal comfort is the state of being satisfied with the thermal environment [1]. In order to increase the thermal comfort level of users in buildings, many studies have been carried out by various methods
such as experimental study, measurement, and survey from 1897 to the present day [2]. P. O. Fanger researched over 1300 people of college-age and developed a model for detecting stable environmental conditions in air-conditioned buildings in temperate-humid climatic zones [3,4]. In this model, psychological perception and statistical data were combined and a scale that predicts the thermal sensitivity of the individuals was prepared. Fanger developed the PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) - PPD (Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied) scale which conveys the sensation of satisfaction to the numerical data, using the parameters of ambient temperature, air circulation rate, average radiation temperature, rela tive humidity, the activity level of the people and clothing insulation value [5]. PMV-PPD thermal comfort scale is included in the ASHRAE Standart 55 (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) and ISO 7730 (International Organization for Standardization). However, the PMV-PPD scale cannot be considered as a general application in determining thermal comfort [6]. Since PMV-PPD thermal comfort scale was formed by measurements in the laboratory environment in buildings that were air-conditioned with a limited number of users, it can determine that the indoor thermal comfort is colder or warmer than it should be in different geographies, various climate types or buildings with natural ventilation [7–11]. Especially the determination of the thermal comfort of people living in
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.B. Atmaca). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101246 Received 30 October 2019; Received in revised form 30 January 2020; Accepted 2 February 2020 Available online 7 February 2020 2352-7102/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
the regions where the hot-dry and cold climate prevails, leads to different results than the satisfaction level specified in the standard [3, 12]. Therefore, the Actual Mean Vote (AMV) Analytical Comfort Zone Method has been developed for the thermal sensation of the users of the environment in order to provide and measure thermal comfort in buildings in diverse geographies. Through the AMV model, indoor users in various geographies and buildings of different climate types are able to express their satisfaction levels with the ASHRAE-7 thermal sensing scale [13]. AMV and PMV models are used to determine the thermal comfort level in the most accurate way. In recent years, many studies have been carried out to increase the indoor thermal comfort level of buildings. Fanger and Toftum [14] evaluated the development of the PMV model in non-air-conditioned buildings in hot climates. De Gear and Brager [15] stated that the Adaptive Comfort Standard gives closer results than the PMV thermal comfort standard about the thermal sensation of the users in naturally ventilated buildings. Kim et al. [16] conducted a study to investigate the thermal comfort feeling of primary and secondary school students in classrooms. In 2012 and 2013, thermal sensations were investigated by the survey method in six primary and five secondary school classrooms with and without air conditioning in Australia. Ferraro et al. [17] studied thermal comfort based on gender and age in a hospital in Italy. PMV measurements and AMV studies were performed in the building where patients and hospital staff were in different age ranges. Wu et al. [18] conducted a survey on users of the building for determining the level of thermal comfort in an office building. Cardoso et al. [19] investigated the thermal sensation of users by survey method to deter mine the difference between thermal comfort models such as PMV-PPD, aPMV (adaptive Predicted Mean Vote) and MTP (Thermal Preference) at a bus station in a temperate-humid climate. The density and hours of use of mosques are quite different from the types of buildings such as offices, schools, shopping centers, and hos pitals. Therefore, their thermal comfort should be evaluated separately from other building types. However, there are very few studies on determining the thermal comfort level of mosques. Saeed [20] con ducted a study to determine the level of thermal comfort during a Friday prayer at a mosque in Saudi Arabia. In this study, survey questions were asked to mosque users to investigate their thermal feelings. Al-Homoud et al. [21] observed the energy consumption of three mosques and measured the thermal comfort level. In the mosques with air condi tioning systems, different thermal comfort levels were found between Friday and other days as a result of the studies. Insulation properties of mosques were determined to be an important factor in thermal load and energy consumption. Ibrahim et al. [22] collected data according to the CET (Corrected Effective Temperature) method to determine the ther mal comfort conditions of a mosque in Sarawak which is in a hot-humid climate zone. It was detected that roof cover materials and building shell shading elements significantly affect the indoor thermal comfort level. Al-ajmi [23] analyzed the thermal comfort level of the mosques in Kuwait during the hot period in a dry desert climate by collecting 140 PMV data and 140 AMV data through questions posed to users. He compared the obtained data with the standards and made studies on energy efficient designs. Bughrara et al. [24] examined the thermal comfort level created by underfloor heating in a historic mosque in hot-humid climatic conditions in a simulation program according to the adaptive thermal comfort model (aPMV). Al-Homoud [25] developed a model for the thermal optimization of mosques with variable time in tervals. In line with this model, the shell and design parameters of two mosques in Riyadh and Jeddah were used as case studies. Hussin et al. [26] determined the level of thermal comfort and thermal comfort pa rameters by measuring thermal comfort during a day at the mosque in Malaysia. In addition, they collected information on thermal comfort feelings from 330 users through surveys. As can be seen, thermal com fort studies on mosques are concentrated in hot-humid or dry and desert climate areas. For this study, different mosques of different sizes, ar chitecture and especially mechanical reinforcement characteristics were
selected as examples from the temperate-humid climate region. The aim of this study is to evaluate the suitability of the mosques which are different sizes and similar construction dates in Istanbul which is in Turkey’s temperate-humid climate zone, in terms of stan dards and user perception of thermal comfort. Therefore, thermal comfort measurements were carried out in two mosques in Istanbul in different sizes, different architectural and mechanical properties for five days in winter, spring and summer seasons. Furthermore, questionnaires about thermal feelings in the mosques were administered to the users at the end of the noon prayer on Friday during the measurement weeks of three different seasons. By comparing thermal comfort measurements and survey results, the thermal sensibility of users and the suitability of the measurement results according to the standards were evaluated. In light of the findings, suggestions are made concerning both designs of future mosques and the usage schedule of the existing mosques. This study reveals that using thermal comfort standards to evaluate in a different building types like mosques that have different schedule in temperate-humid climate does not always give an accurate assessment. For this reason, the determination of thermal comfort perceptions of the people of the region will contribute positively to the creation of thermal comfort. The main criteria for the design of mosques are presented about thermal comfort and energy efficient design. 2. Methodology Due to the variable number of prayers and different usage times, it is difficult to establish similar conditions and provide thermal comfort in the worship areas as a whole in mosques [27]. The majority of people use mosques are generally men. However, age ranges and physical characteristics (height, weight, etc.) of male users may differ from each other. The diversity of the physical structure of people along with the geographic and climatic differences in Turkey may cause variation in the perception of thermal comfort. The environmental elements located around the mosques (buildings, trees, roads), the building envelope characteristics of the mosques, the geometric structure, and the design parameters affect the thermal comfort in the worship areas [28]. In this study, the approach and steps for the evaluation of mosques in terms of thermal comfort are given in Fig. 1. In the approach presented in Fig. 1, measurements and surveys were performed on different days and in times of different user density for determining the level of thermal comfort in two mosques in Turkey’s Istanbul province. Objectives of the measurement and survey studies can be listed as: � To compare the indoor thermal comfort conditions measured in mosques according to ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO 7730 standards, � To determine the thermal comfort perception of the users, � To evaluate the difference between the measured and perceived thermal comfort levels by the users with the standards, � To compare the measurement and survey results at different points of the mosques. 2.1. Selection of mosques and determination of their characteristics The mosques in the same climate zone have been determined ac cording to the similar user profile, location and area features of the built environment elements. The heating, cooling and ventilation systems of the two mosques are different from each other. Marmara Theology Mosque is a structure in which modern style and traditional architecture are interpreted. A/C systems are used for heating, cooling and venti lating of the mosque. Moreover, the floor heating system under the carpet helps to heat the mosque during the heating period. Hz. Ali Mosque is a single-domed mosque influenced by traditional Ottoman architecture. Traditional methods are used for heating, cooling and ventilation systems. The underfloor heating system and radiator 2
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 1. Steps of the thermal comfort measurement and user thermal sensation analysis.
resistance is 1.299 W/m2K, opaque area U value is 0.699 W/m2K. The HVAC system of Marmara Theology Mosque is continuously operated under the supervision of expert teams, and Hz. Ali Cami heating-cooling system is started 30 min before the start of worship.
type split air conditioners that work with electrical energy in front of the walls help to heat the mosque during the heating period. The sizes of the mosques’ prayer areas are different from each other. In Fig. 2, the exterior views of the mosques are presented. The heating period in Istanbul is between December and February, the transition period (spring) is between March and May and the cooling period is between June and August. The area where the mosques are located is 103 m above sea level, at 41 � 10 18.825600 North latitude and � 20 53.988000 East longitude. Table 1 shows the locations of the mosques. The building envelope characteristics of the mosques are given in Table 2. The transparency ratio of Marmara Theology Mosque is 68,15% and the transparency ratio of Hz. Ali Mosque is 8,5%. Marmara Theology Mosque transparent area thermal conductivity resistance (U value) is 0.841 W/m2K, Ali Mosque transparent area thermal conductivity
2.2. Determination of measurement and survey days and requirements according to climate conditions Measurement and survey studies were conducted during the winter, spring and summer months (December, April, July) which are heating, climatic transition and cooling periods in A.C. 2017/A.H. 1438. In December, April and July (Rabi’ al-Awwal, Rajab, Shawwal), measure ments were made at six different points of the mosques for five days (Monday to Friday) between 12.00-14.00. The measured days were
Fig. 2. Exterior views of Marmara Theology (a) and Hz. Ali (b) Mosques. 3
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Table 1 Geographical and climatic data of mosques. City
Latitude
Istanbul
41 1 18.8256 �
0
Longitude 00
29 2 53.9880 �
0
00
Altitude
Wind Direction
Climatic Type
Heating Period
Cooling Period
103 m
North-east
Temperate -Humid Climate
December–April
May–October
Table 2 The building envelope characteristics of mosques. Mosques
Transparency Ratio
Layers of the Building Envelope
U Value
Marmara Theology Mosque
68,15%
0.841 W/m2K
Hz. Ali Mosque
8,5%
Solar Control Fibroin Concrete (100 mm) Air Gap (100 mm) Low-e Coating Double Glass (13 mm) Air Gap (20 mm) Low-e Coating Double Glass (13 mm) Exterior Wall Stone Cladding (40 mm) Air Gap (50 mm) Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (250 mm) Air Gap (50 mm) Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (250 mm) Indoor Plaster (30 mm) Gypsum Plaster (10 mm) Thermal Insulated Double Glass (4 þ 16 þ 4 mm)
determined in accordance with the weather conditions representing that season. Fig. 3 demonstrates the measurements areas in the mosques. The measurement areas selected in the mosques were decided according to the parameters such as entrance, middle area, transparent and filled area. 180 PMV-PPD data were obtained in two mosques for six different measuring points, three different seasons and five days of each season. The measurements were carried out with the Testo 480 Climate Measuring Equipment. During the measurement week, on Friday, when the mosques reached the maximum occupancy rate, the surveys were administered to the prayers about the thermal comfort level of the interior. Questionnaires in Appendix A were prepared by following ASHRAE 55–2013 (Appendix K). Ten questions were inquired about thermal comfort parameters and thermal comfort perception. 462 users participated in the surveys conducted on Fridays in three different sea sons in two mosques.
1.299 W/m2K (Transparent Area) 0.699 W/m2K (Opaque Area)
2.2.1. Determination of thermal comfort measurement conditions The measurement points were determined according to orientation, furnishing, and building envelope openings in order to control the level and homogeneity of mosque indoor thermal comfort conditions. Mea surement parameters were decided according to the Fanger model. The thermal comfort model developed by Fanger is included in ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards. In this model, objective parameters are listed as the indoor temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature and air velocity; and subjective parameters are listed as clothing and thermal insulation and activity level. The mean radiation temperature (MRT) is measured in the thermal comfort device by means of a black sphere thermometer probe. The black sphere thermometer and other probes in the instrument perform measurements according to the equations in the ISO 7726 and ISO 7730 standard [1,32]. In the litera ture, thermal comfort evaluation ranges are available according to
Fig. 3. Marmara theology mosque (a) and Hz. Ali mosque (b) plans & measurement zones.
4
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Table 3 Thermal Comfort Measuring Device Data Inputs and location [28]. Time
Activity Level
5 min
1,2 met
Device Location
Clothing-Thermal Insulation
Altitude from Floor
Distance from Surface
Winter
Spring
Summer
1m
1m
1,1 clo
0,9 clo
0,5 clo
3. Results
function and renewal status of buildings. The sample mosques of this study are classified in the renovated or currently used category. There fore, acceptable thermal comfort ranges in the study were determined as þ0.5> PMV > -0.5 and PPD <10% [29,30]. Data inputs and device location information for the thermal comfort meter are presented in Table 3. Clothing and thermal insulation values in winter, spring and summer periods were determined by following ASHRAE and ISO standards in the thermal comfort measurements. The activity level is processed into the device as 1.2 met in accordance with the level of movement of a worshiper. At each measurement point, it has been waited for 3 min before the measurement to allow the black sphere thermometer in the device to adapt to the environment. The measure ment duration at each point was determined as 5 min, considering the prayer lengths [13]. The position of the device is adjusted to 1 m apart from the floor and the building surfaces taking into account the height of a person standing and sitting during praying. The physical and me chanical properties of the two selected mosques are presented in Table 4 and the visuals from the days when thermal comfort measurements were performed are demonstrated in Fig. 4.
3.1. Determination of PMV-PPD values by measurements In this study, indoor air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity values, which are thermal comfort parameters, were measured instantaneously for 5 min at six different points of mosques. The weekly average results of mosque measurement zones in three different seasons are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Addi tionally, thermal comfort levels of the zones are indicated in the table. According to the data in the table, the thermal comfort level of Marmara Theology Mosque in December measurements is appropriate to the standards, however, the relative humidity is low. When the evaluation is made according to the inner zones of the mosque, the 1st and 2nd points are at low temperatures compared to the other regions. The air velocity inside the mosque is acceptable. In December measurements of Hz. Ali Mosque, indoor air temperatures were considerably lower than accept able. The temperature of the 1st Zone at the entrance of the mosque was lower than the other points. Relative humidity and air velocity in the mosque are under the standards. Incompatible levels according to the standards in temperature and relative humidity parameters are also reflected in the thermal comfort conditions. In the winter period December measurements, the 6th point has the highest temperature values in both mosques. The most uncomfortable area of the mosques in the thermal comfort measurements of the winter period is the 1st Zone which is close to the entrance. The highest thermal comfort level is in the 6th Zone which is located in the middle area and is least affected by external factors. The temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity values of the Marmara Theology Mosque in April are at appropriate levels in terms of thermal comfort. Although HVAC systems in the mosque were at the lowest operating levels at the time of measurement, the thermal comfort level is acceptable. During the spring term measurements in the Hz. Ali Mosque, the indoor temperature of the mosque is below acceptable levels. In this case, even though the relative humidity and air velocity in the mosque are suitable, thermal comfort is below acceptable due to the low air temperature. The temperature and thermal comfort of the 1st Zone in the entrance area of Hz. Ali Mosque is the lowest compared to the other zones. Relative humidity and indoor air velocity parameters are at appro priate levels according to the standards in thermal comfort measure ments of mosques in July. While the operative temperature is convenient in Marmara Theology Mosque, it is higher than the acceptable level in Hz. Ali Mosque. Also, this situation affects thermal comfort level of Hz. Ali Mosque. In the measurements of the Hz. Ali Mosque in July, the 6th Zone is the region with the lowest thermal comfort level. This is due to
2.2.2. Determination of user thermal sensation survey conditions Surveys were conducted to analyze the comfort levels of users at different points in mosques according to climate and local conditions. In the surveys, users were asked about their age, gender and clothing sta tus. In addition, questions were asked about the thermal sensation of users felt during their stay in the environment. A total of 462 users, 116 in December, 172 in April and 174 in July, participated in the studies conducted in two different mosques in three different periods. All of the survey participants were male. Since the people coming to the mosque can be of various ages, the age range of the respondents varies between 14 and 68. However, the majority of participants vary between the ages of 25–-35. In order to provide accurate results from the survey analyzes, activity levels (met) and clothing and thermal insulation levels (clo) of the participants should be determined [13]. The ASHRAE Fundamentals 2013 standard specifies the level of clothing and thermal insulation and activity levels of individuals in detail [31]. In the survey study, clothing and thermal insulation levels and thermal sensation of prayers were questioned according to ASHRAE seven-point scale. Obtained answers were used to find AMV (Actual Mean Vote) and APD (Actual Percentage Dissatisfied) data. In the ASHRAE standard, the acceptable comfort range AMV is classified as þ1, 0, -1. Specified values were expressed in the survey as hot (þ3), warm (þ2), slightly warm (þ1), neutral (0), slightly cool (-1), cool (-2), cold (-3) for users to perceive options with ease.
Table 4 Physical and mechanical features of the mosques [28]. Mosque Name
Marmara Theology Mosque Hz. Ali Mosque
Type of use (prayer)
Daily þ Friday þ Complex (library, classroom) Daily þ Friday
Natural Ventilation
Capacity (persons)
Physical Data Dimensions (m) LxWxH (area, m2)
Air-conditioning and ventilation systems, number of units, type
-
1256
Main Zone (1015 m2)
24 Blowing Pipe Mouth 16 Dirty Air Supply Grille 650 m2 Floor Heating System 11 Radiator type Split Unit 220 m2 Floor Heating System
via window
2
605
Front Zone(401,25 m ) Rear Zone(64,38 m2)
5
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 4. Marmara theology mosque (a) and Hz. Ali mosque (b) sample measurement days. Table 5 Thermal Comfort Parameters Data of The Marmara Theology Mosque acording to months and zones. Marmara Theology Mosque PMV-PPD Data Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Relative Humidity (%) Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Operative Temperature (⁰C) PMV PPD
December
April
July
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
19,8
19,3
19,8
20,5
20,8
22,3
20,2
18,7
18,6
18,9
18,7
19,6
24,6
24,8
25
25,1
25
25,3
39,9 0,24 19,9
41,9 0,14 18,9
40,7 0,08 20,4
39 0,18 20,5
38,9 0,19 20,5
40,4 0,21 22
43,8 0,07 19,5
46,4 0,08 18,6
45,8 0,09 19
46,2 0,12 19,3
46 0,12 19,1
47,1 0,18 19,9
55,3 0,28 25,1
54,5 0,18 25,3
53,6 0,18 25,6
53,2 0,21 25,8
54,1 0,21 25,7
56,2 0,42 25,9
19,8 0,38 8,92
19,1 0,35 9,96
20,1 0,21 7,46
20,5 0,29 8,4
20,6 0,28 8,58
22,1 0,05 9,26
19,8 0,36 10,1
18,6 0,46 10,8
18,8 0,38 9,4
19,1 0,38 9,25
18,9 0,46 10,1
19,7 0,39 10,2
24,8 0,16 5,68
25,0 0,03 4,68
25,3 0,1 5
25,4 0,08 5,04
25,3 0,07 5,4
25,6 0,08 9,01
Table 6 Thermal Comfort Parameters Data of The Hz. Ali Mosque acording to months and zone. Hz. Ali Mosque PMV-PPD Data Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Relative Humidity (%) Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Operative Temperature (⁰C) PMV PPD
December
April
July
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
12,7
13,4
12,8
13,2
12,8
14
15,5
17,8
16,8
16,8
16,8
17,2
28,3
28,1
27,9
28,5
28,3
27,7
57,8 0,1 12,9
55 0,13 13,5
55,7 0,15 12,9
55,8 0,13 13,4
55,9 0,17 13,2
55,4 0,22 14,4
55,6 0,12 15,7
52,4 0,13 17,6
55,8 0,1 17
56,3 0,14 17,3
55,8 0,11 17,2
57,5 0,18 18
55,8 0,19 27,9
55,1 0,27 28,4
54,8 0,1 27,8
56,7 0,34 28,3
58,2 0,15 28,2
54,1 0,25 27,9
12,8 1,93 72,5
13,4 1,63 58,0
12,8 1,74 63,9
13,3 1,68 60,7
13 1,66 59,5
14,2 1,27 44,0
15,6 -1,1 31,3
17,7 0,45 16,2
16,9 0,79 18,7
17,0 0,82 19,7
17 0,79 18,7
17,6 0,62 17,1
28,1 0,66 18,0
28,2 0,49 18,8
27,8 0,58 24,1
28,4 0,44 18,6
28,2 0,44 26,1
27,8 0,71 22,0
the increase in the number of users in the mosque, lack of cooling system and insufficient ventilation of the environment with windows. In Mar mara Theology Mosque, the lowest operative temperature was measured in the 1st Zone in the entrance area and the highest operative temper ature in the 6th Zone in the middle area. During the summer period, the temperature level in the mosques increased according to the measure ment order of the zones. This situation is caused by the increase in the number of users in time and the radiative heating of the sun rays inside the mosque depending on the directions. In the measured values created according to the zones, the thermal comfort level at the points close to the entrance was lower than the other points in both mosques. As the measurement sequence from point 1 to point 6 followed, the operative temperature is generally higher at point 6. This situation caused the mosques to be uncomfortable in some days. The increase in the number of users in the mosque over time causes the indoor air temperature to rise. Tables 7 and 8 show the seasonal thermal comfort parameter data of Marmara Theology Mosque and Hz. Ali Mosque. In the Marmara The ology Mosque, the lowest operative temperature was observed in the spring season. The low setting of HVAC systems and the variability of
climatic conditions are effective in the mentioned situation. Air velocity is higher in the summer season compared to other seasons. The thermal comfort level of the Marmara Theology Mosque is at the appropriate level in monthly measurement averages. However, the lowest distur bance is observed in the spring season when HVAC systems are operated at a minimum performance. According to Hz. Ali Mosque’s seasonal thermal comfort parameter data, the operative temperature was experienced in the lowest in the winter season and the highest in the summer season. Air velocity and relative humidity values are within acceptable limits in accordance with the seasons. However, indoor air temperature in winter affects thermal comfort levels. Indoor air conditions of the mosque are influenced by the climatic conditions of the outdoor weather. During the measurement weeks in winter, spring and summer, thermal comfort level is outside the comfort range according to the standards. The lowest comfort level is determined in winter. The comparison of PMV-PPD average values of the sample mosques is presented in Fig. 5. Marmara Theology Mosque is within the thermal comfort range according to the standards. Hz. Ali mosque has remained outside the thermal comfort range in all seasonal conditions. 6
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
prevailing wind direction. These factors will contribute to get the high level of thermal comfort in the mosques.
Table 7 Marmara theology mosque PMV-PPD parameter data. PMV Parameters Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Relative Humidity (%) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Operative Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. PMV (�0,5) PPD (<10%)
Winter
Spring
Summer
20,4 1,73 22,3 17,8
19,1 1,63 20,9 17,2
25,3 0,57 25,6 24,3
20,4 1,59 22,5 18,4
19,2 1,55 21 17,2
25,9 0,52 26 25,2
40,1 7,22 51,6 31,2
45,9 7,15 56,6 39,2
56,2 6,6 63,8 44,7
0,17 0,21 1,33 0,03
0,11 0,06 0,28 0,03
0,42 0,27 1,12 0,04
20,4 1,68 22,4 18,1 -0,3 8,76
19,2 1,57 20,9 17,2 -0,4 10
25,6 0,53 25,8 24,8 þ0,03 5,8
Winter
Spring
Summer
13,2 1,97 15,7 11,5
16,8 1,33 18,5 15,8
27,7 2,34 28,8 26,7
13,4 2,01 15,8 11,9
17,1 1,33 18,7 16,2
27,9 1,81 28,7 27,1
55,9 3,4 62 52
55,6 3,28 60,9 51,1
54,1 3,82 59,5 50,7
0,15 0,07 0,36 0,02
0,13 0,06 0,32 0,04
0,25 0,22 0,62 0,14
13,3 1,98 15,8 11,7 -1,7 59,8
17 1,33 18,6 16 -0,8 20,3
27,8 2,08 28,8 26,9 þ0,6 22,48
3.2. Determination of AMV-APD values through user sensations The thermal sensation surveys were conducted to the users at the end of the prayer on Friday. Many prayers of different ages and weights participated in the surveys. The weight and age distributions of the surveyed people are shown in Table 9. The mean age of the participants was between 25-35. The average weight of the survey participants is between 75-85 kg. In AMV evaluations, the comfort range is taken as þ1, 0, -1. The actual mean vote (AMV) values of Marmara Theology Mosque by months are presented in Table 10. 53 people from mosque users participated in the survey conducted during the winter season in Mar mara Theology Mosque. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 67.9%. In the winter survey, the participants found the thermal comfort of the mosque slightly warm. 90 people participated in the spring survey. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 78.9%. Comfort satisfaction rates in the spring season are higher than the winter season rates. 100 people participated in the survey conducted in the summer season. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 60.6%. Since the seasonal conditions are cold and windy in December, the number of participants in the survey is lower than the other months. When the data in Table 10 is examined according to ASHRAE 55–2013 standard, it is seen that the mosque is out of comfort range in winter and spring seasons. The thermal comfort perception of the summer season is within the comfort range according to the standard. The thermal sensation survey results of the Hz. Ali Mosque users according to the seasons are presented in Table 11. In December, 63 users participated in the winter survey. When it is evaluated according to ASHRAE 55 standard, 68.2% of the users are satisfied with the ther mal comfort inside the mosque. 82 users participated in the spring survey. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 86.4%. 74 users participated in the survey conducted in the summer season. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 45.9%. AMV values in Table 8 are acceptable according to the standard.
Table 8 Hz. Ali mosque PMV-PPD parameter data. PMV Parameters Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Relative Humidity (%) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Operative Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. PMV (�0,5) PPD (<10%)
4. Discussion 4.1. Comparison of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and actual mean vote (AMV) results Table 12 demonstrates the measurement and survey results of the mosques according to the PMV-PPD and AMV-APD thermal sensing scale in ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards. The acceptable PMV thermal comfort range is between þ0.5 and -0.5. PPD thermal dissatisfaction rate should be less than 10%. PMV scale is given in the table as the seasonal arithmetic average of the measurement results in mosques. According to the measurement results, the thermal comfort level of the Marmara Theology Mosque is acceptable in winter, spring and summer periods and PPD thermal dissatisfaction rate is acceptable in all three seasons. Hz. Ali Cami PMV-PPD thermal comfort level was measured as un comfortable in cold zone in winter and spring seasons and in hot zone in the summer season. The AMV acceptable thermal sensation scale in the ASHRAE 55 standard has a comfort range of -1 (slightly cool), 0 (neutral), þ1 (slightly warm). The ranges of -3 (cold), -2 (cool), þ2 (warm) and þ3 (hot) constitute the uncomfortable zone. According to the results of the survey, the AMV value is presented in Table 12 by taking the arithmetic average of the options in the thermal sensing scale. The percentage of users who select the -3, -2, þ2, þ3 options which are outside the APD value comfort range is given in the table. According to the survey results of the Marmara Theology Mosque, 32.10% of users in winter, 21.10% of
The parameters that make up thermal comfort are a whole. When one of the parameters is low, the comfort level decreases. When the operative temperature is lower than the acceptable level or the air ve locity is higher than the acceptable level, the thermal comfort level changes negatively. Therefore, the indoor thermal comfort level should be ensured by paying attention to all parameters in the HVAC system schedule. In this study, the thermal comfort level in mosques is generally high in the middle areas and low in the entrance areas of the mosques. At the design stage of the mosques, the entrance and openings of the mosque should be positioned according to the directions and the 7
Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
A.B. Atmaca and G.Z. Gedik
Fig. 5. PMV-PPD comparison of the sample mosques. Table 9 Number of User in terms of Age and Weight. Data/Range
10–19
20–29
30–39
40–49
50–59
60–69
70–79
80–89
90–99
100–109
110–140
User Weight Data User Age Data
0 30
0 127
2 94
0 62
9 46
47 19
88 4
130 2
42 0
20 0
8 0
Table 10 Marmara theology mosque actual mean vote values (AMV). Season
Number of samples
AMV
Std. Dev.
Thermal Sensation Values (%) -3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Winter Spring Summer
53 90 100
þ1,55 þ1,09 þ0,1
1,18 1,14 1,49
0 0 2
5,7 6,7 13,1
13,2 26,7 20,2
28,3 32,2 31,3
26,4 20 9,1
26,4 14,4 19,2
0 0 5,1
Thermal Sensation Values (%)
Table 11 Hz. Ali mosque actual mean vote values (AMV). Season
Number of samples
Mean
Std. Dev.
Winter Spring Summer
63 81 74
-0,05 -0,04 þ0,77
1,43 0,968 1,81
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
7,9 0 1,4
4,8 8,6 10,8
22,2 14,8 16,2
33,3 54,3 21,6
12,7 17,3 8,1
19 3,7 14,9
0 1,2 27
Table 12 Comparison of PMV-PPD ve AMV-APD Thermal Comfort Scales. Thermal Comfort Scales
Winter (December) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Spring (April) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Summer (July) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Predicted Mean Vote Actual Mean Vote Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied Actual Percentage Dissatisfied
-0,3 1,55 8,76%
-1,7 -0,05 59,8%
-0,4 1,09 10%
-0,8 -0,04 20,3%
0,03 0,1 5,8%
0,6 0,77 22,48%
32,10%
31,80%
21,10%
13,60%
39,40%
54,10%
8
ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 Standards Comfort Range -0,5 < PMV < 0,5 -1, 0, þ1 <10%
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 6. Linear regression analysis of AMV and PMV values.
were evaluated comparatively. In addition, the average thermal comfort levels and thermal sensation surveys of the two mosques were controlled according to the standards. In this context, thermal comfort measure ments were carried out in two mosques in three different seasons, during five days at noon prayer. On the Fridays of the weeks when thermal comfort measurements were made, a thermal sensation survey was conducted with the users. In light of the analyzes and findings, the following results have been obtained in order to contribute to the design of the new mosques and to assist the usage schedules of the existing mosques.
users in spring and 39.40% of users in summer are dissatisfied with the thermal comfort of the environment. According to the survey results of Hz. Ali Mosque, 31,80% of the users in winter, 13,60% of users in spring and 54,10% of users in summer are displeased with the thermal comfort of the environment. The comparisons of PMV and AMV values at the end of the studies are shown in Fig. 6. In the regression equation, the estimation equation is developed by using the linear curve equation and the relationship between dependent and independent variables. According to this equation, the significance and the relationship between the variables are controlled. R value is the correlation coefficient. This coefficient is be tween �1. R-values close to 0 indicate that the relationship between the variables is meaningless. The relationship significance between Pre dicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Actual Mean Vote (AMV) values is considerably low. The linear regression equation obtained from Fig. 6 can be expressed as follows:
� In the plans of the mosques, First Zone (near the entrance) is at the lowest temperatures in winter (December) measurements compared to other zones. Designing additional architectural details (through entrance hall, narthex or mechanical equipment) for areas close to the entrance will facilitate the creation of homogeneous thermal comfort conditions in mosques. � The thermal comfort level measured in the mosque with the airconditioning system is more acceptable than the mosque heated by radiator type split air conditioners (see Tables 5–6, 7-8 and Fig. 5). Continuous operation of the air conditioning system, the presence of expert officials regulating the performance of the HVAC system and the correct design of the HVAC system are effective in the formation of this situation. In other words, the thermal comfort level of the mosque which is heated by radiator type split air conditioners is outside the acceptable ranges. The irregular use of radiators in the mosque and the positioning of radiators in front of the walls, not just in front of the windows, and the lack of sufficient heating-cooling equipment caused the thermal comfort level to fall outside the desired ranges. � As a result of the simultaneous worship of the users at noon prayer on Friday, high heat energy is generated in the mosques in a short time. This leads to sudden changes in the thermal comfort level of the mosque. Automation systems that can detect users, outside temper ature and indoor temperature should be developed especially for the
AMV ¼ 0,38PMV þ0,73 According to this equation, while the mosque users have a neutral thermal feeling (AMV ¼ 0), the measurement results can show a cooler environment (PMV ¼ -1.92). In other words, users can perceive the environment warmer (AMV ¼ þ0.73) when the results of the measured region are neutral (PMV ¼ 0). In the context of the study, the compar ison of PMV and AMV values reveals that mosque users living in temperate-humid climate type feel the indoor environment warmer than the measurement results (according to Fanger’s model) in terms of thermal comfort. 5. Conclusions In this study, thermal comfort measurements and user thermal sensation surveys were carried out in a mosque with air-conditioning system and another mosque with radiator type split air conditioners in temperate-humid climate type. The measured thermal comfort levels of the mosques according to zones and the thermal sensations of the users 9
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
important day and night prayers. Automation systems should regu late indoor thermal comfort parameters according to indoor climate data and the number of users of mosques. � The lowest level of thermal satisfaction of the users in mosques was experienced in July (60.6%–45.9%). The highest thermal sensation contentment was observed in April (78.6%–86.4%). In order to prevent mosques from external climatic changes, the properties of the building envelope should be determined according to the appropriate material selection. The use of shading elements in the building envelope, the zoning with the entrance zone of mosques can be used in the design of new mosques as a precaution against the change of climatic conditions. � When the measured and sensated thermal comfort levels in temperate-humid climate type were compared, differences were found between comfort results. While the indoor conditions are within acceptable thermal comfort levels (-0.5/0/þ0.5), users find the thermal comfort level warmer. This study demonstrates that the acceptable thermal comfort conditions specified by the standards are not always valid for all building types in the temperate-humid climate type.
[8] R. Yao, J. Liu, Baizhan Li, Occupants’ adaptive responses and perception of thermal environment in naturally conditioned university classrooms, Appl. Energy 87 (2010) 1015–1022. [9] T.S. Mors, J.L.M. Hensen, M.G.L.C. Loomans, Boerstra, Adaptive thermal comfort in primary school classrooms: creating and validating PMV-based comfort chats, Build. Environ. 46 (2012) 2454–2461. [10] L.D. Pereira, D. Raimondo, S.P. Corgnati, M.G.D. Silva, Assessment of indoor air quality and thermal comfort in Portuguese secondary classrooms: methodology and results, Build. Environ. 81 (2014) 69–80. [11] X.L. Ji, W.Z. Lou, Z.Z. Dai, B.G. Wang, S.Y. Liu, Predicting thermal comfort in Shanghai’s non-air-conditioned buildings, Build. Res. Inf. 34 (5) (2006) 507–514. [12] R. Yao, B. Li, J.A. Liu, Theoretical adaptive model of thermal comfort- Adaptive Predicted Mean Vode (aPMV), Build. Environ. 44 (10) (2009) 2089–2096. [13] G. Calis, M. Kuru, Assessing user thermal sensation in the Aegean region against standards, Sustain. Cities Soc. 29 (2017) 77–85. [14] P.O. Fanger, J. Toftum, Extension of the PMV model ton on-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates, Energy Build. 34 (2002) 533–536. [15] R.J. De Gear, G.S. Brager, Thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings: revisions to ASHRAE Standart 55, Energy Build. 34 (2002) 549–561. [16] J. Kim, R. Dear, Thermal comfort expectations and adaptive behavioural characteristics of primary and secondary school students, Build. Environ. 127 (2018) 13–22. [17] FerraroSD, S. Lavicoli, S. Russo, V. Molinaro, A field study on thermal comfort in a Italian hospital considering differences in gender and age, Appl. Ergon. 50 (2015) 177–184. [18] T. Wu, B. Cao, Y. Zhu, A field study on thermal comfort and air-conditioning energy use in a Office building in Guangzhou, Energy Build. 168 (2018) 428–437. [19] V.E.M. Cardoso, N.M.M. Ramos, R.M.S.F. Almedia, E. Barreira, J.P. Martins, M. L. Simoes, Sanhudo, A discussion about thermal comfort evaluation in a bus terminal, Energy Build. 168 (2018) 86–96. [20] S.A.R. Saeed, Thermal comfort requirements in hot dry regions with special reference to Riyadh part 2: for Friday prayer, Int. J. Ambient Energy 17 (1996) 17–21. [21] M.S. Al Homoud, A.A. Abdou, I.M. Budaiwi, Assessment of monitored energy use and thermal comfort conditions in mosques in hot-humid climates, Energy Build. 41 (2009) 607–614. [22] S.H. Ibrahim, A. Baharun, M.N.M. Nawi, E. Junaidi, Assessment o thermal comfort in mosque in Sarawak, Malaysia, Int. J. Energy Environ. 5 (3) (2014) 327–334. [23] F.F. Al-ajmi, Thermal comfort in air-conditioned mosques in the dry desert climate, Build. Environ. 45 (2010) 2407–2413. [24] K.S.M. Bughrara, Z.D. Arsan, G.G. Akkurt, Applying underfloor heating system for improvement of thermal comfort in historic mosques: the case of Salepçio� glu Mosque, Izmir, Turkey, Energy Procedia 133 (2017) 290–299. [25] M.S. Al-Homoud, Envelope thermal comfort design optimization of buildings with intermittent occupancy, J. Build. Phys. 33 (1) (2009) 65–82. [26] A. Hussin, E. Salleh, H.Y. Chan, S. Mat, The reliability of Predicted Mean Vote model predictions in air-conditioned mosque during Daily prayer times in Malaysia, Architect. Sci. Rev. 58 (2015) 67–76. [27] A.B. Atmaca, G. Zorer Gedik, Determining Heat Losses and Heat Gaing through the Building Envelope of the Mosques, IRCSEEME, England, 2017, pp. 248–255. [28] A.B. Atmaca, G. Zorer Gedik, Evaluation of the mosques in terms of thermal comfort and energy consumption in temperate-humid climate, Energy Build. 195 (2019) 195–204. [29] ASHRAE Standart 55-2013, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, ANSI/ASHRAE, Atlanta, 2013. [30] M. Saffari, A. Gracia, S. Ushak, L.F. Cabezza, Economic impact of integrating PCM as passive system in building using fanger comfort model, Energy Build. 112 (2016) 159–172. [31] ASHRAE, Fundamentals Handbook, Sl Edition, Atlanta, USA, 2013, 1523-7230. [32] ISO 7726 Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment - Instruments for Measuring Physical Quantities, British Standart, 2001.
Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101246. References [1] EN ISO 7730, Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment-Analytical Determination _ and Interpretation of Thermal Comfort Using Calculation of the PMV and PPD _ Indices and Local Thermal Comfort Criteria, British Standard, UK.2005, 2005. [2] M. Taleghani, M. Tenpierik, S. Kurvers, A.V.D. Dobbelsteen, A review into thermal comfort in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 26 (2013) 201–205. [3] J.V. Hoof, Forty years of Fanger’s model of thermal comfort: comfort for all? Indoor Air, Singapore 18 (2008) 182–201. [4] K.E. Charles, Fanger’s thermal comfort and draught models, IRC Res. Rep. (2003) 1–29. [5] P.O. Fanger, Thermal Comfort Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering, 1970, ISBN 0-07-019915-9. USA. [6] M.A. Humphreys, Thermal comfort temperatures World wide the current position, Renew. Energy 7 (1996) 139–144. [7] F. Nicol, Adaptive thermal comfort standarts in the hot-humid tropics, Energy Build. 36 (2004) 628–637.
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Determination of thermal comfort of religious buildings by measurement and survey methods: Examples of mosques in a temperate-humid climate A.B. Atmaca *, G. Zorer Gedik Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, 34349, Turkey
A B S T R A C T
Thermal comfort in buildings is an important parameter affecting the physiological and psychological conditions of the users as well as their working efficiency and activity levels. Acceptable thermal comfort levels specified in the standards are created within certain limits. This raises the question whether it is appropriate to use the same acceptable comfort ranges in different building types and climatic conditions. In this study, the design-usage of the example mosques in temperate-humid climate was evaluated by using thermal comfort level measurements and survey methods. The aim of this study is to compare the indoor thermal comfort conditions measured in mosques according to standards, to determine the thermal comfort perception of the users, to evaluate the difference between the measured and perceived thermal comfort levels. In the scope of the study, two mosques with different heating and cooling systems were measured with thermal comfort devices. The thermal sensation survey was conducted with the users on Fridays of the measurement weeks. When the thermal comfort levels that measured and perceived were compared, the indoor conditions were within acceptable ranges according to the measured results whereas the user thermal sensation survey results revealed that the environment was hotter. In order to create similar thermal comfort in the interior, it was determined that design innovations or mechanical solutions should be made for the prayer zones in the entrance areas of the mosques. In light of the findings, suggestions were made for the design of the new mosques and the usage program of the existing ones.
1. Introduction Mosques are generally used five times a day at different time in tervals with a variable number of prayers. On Fridays at noon and during the month of Ramadan for the Tarawih prayer, the mosques reach full occupancy rates. In these days of intensive use, mosques fill up in time until the beginning of worship and empty in a short time after the end of worship. There are also various activities in the mosques such as reading the Qur’an, chatting and visiting (touristic sightseeing). For the reasons mentioned, mosques have a variable number of users and different usage schedules from other buildings. The design and form characteristics of mosques vary according to regional, cultural and geographical factors. The orientation of these structures is always towards Qibla (Mecca, Arabia). The mosques generally are single or multi-domed in a rectangular layout; composed of architectural elements such as pulpit, mihrab, minaret, and courtyard. Suitable thermal, acoustic, and visual comfort conditions should be provided in the mosques for users to worship efficiently and comfortably. Thermal comfort is the state of being satisfied with the thermal environment [1]. In order to increase the thermal comfort level of users in buildings, many studies have been carried out by various methods
such as experimental study, measurement, and survey from 1897 to the present day [2]. P. O. Fanger researched over 1300 people of college-age and developed a model for detecting stable environmental conditions in air-conditioned buildings in temperate-humid climatic zones [3,4]. In this model, psychological perception and statistical data were combined and a scale that predicts the thermal sensitivity of the individuals was prepared. Fanger developed the PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) - PPD (Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied) scale which conveys the sensation of satisfaction to the numerical data, using the parameters of ambient temperature, air circulation rate, average radiation temperature, rela tive humidity, the activity level of the people and clothing insulation value [5]. PMV-PPD thermal comfort scale is included in the ASHRAE Standart 55 (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) and ISO 7730 (International Organization for Standardization). However, the PMV-PPD scale cannot be considered as a general application in determining thermal comfort [6]. Since PMV-PPD thermal comfort scale was formed by measurements in the laboratory environment in buildings that were air-conditioned with a limited number of users, it can determine that the indoor thermal comfort is colder or warmer than it should be in different geographies, various climate types or buildings with natural ventilation [7–11]. Especially the determination of the thermal comfort of people living in
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.B. Atmaca). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101246 Received 30 October 2019; Received in revised form 30 January 2020; Accepted 2 February 2020 Available online 7 February 2020 2352-7102/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
the regions where the hot-dry and cold climate prevails, leads to different results than the satisfaction level specified in the standard [3, 12]. Therefore, the Actual Mean Vote (AMV) Analytical Comfort Zone Method has been developed for the thermal sensation of the users of the environment in order to provide and measure thermal comfort in buildings in diverse geographies. Through the AMV model, indoor users in various geographies and buildings of different climate types are able to express their satisfaction levels with the ASHRAE-7 thermal sensing scale [13]. AMV and PMV models are used to determine the thermal comfort level in the most accurate way. In recent years, many studies have been carried out to increase the indoor thermal comfort level of buildings. Fanger and Toftum [14] evaluated the development of the PMV model in non-air-conditioned buildings in hot climates. De Gear and Brager [15] stated that the Adaptive Comfort Standard gives closer results than the PMV thermal comfort standard about the thermal sensation of the users in naturally ventilated buildings. Kim et al. [16] conducted a study to investigate the thermal comfort feeling of primary and secondary school students in classrooms. In 2012 and 2013, thermal sensations were investigated by the survey method in six primary and five secondary school classrooms with and without air conditioning in Australia. Ferraro et al. [17] studied thermal comfort based on gender and age in a hospital in Italy. PMV measurements and AMV studies were performed in the building where patients and hospital staff were in different age ranges. Wu et al. [18] conducted a survey on users of the building for determining the level of thermal comfort in an office building. Cardoso et al. [19] investigated the thermal sensation of users by survey method to deter mine the difference between thermal comfort models such as PMV-PPD, aPMV (adaptive Predicted Mean Vote) and MTP (Thermal Preference) at a bus station in a temperate-humid climate. The density and hours of use of mosques are quite different from the types of buildings such as offices, schools, shopping centers, and hos pitals. Therefore, their thermal comfort should be evaluated separately from other building types. However, there are very few studies on determining the thermal comfort level of mosques. Saeed [20] con ducted a study to determine the level of thermal comfort during a Friday prayer at a mosque in Saudi Arabia. In this study, survey questions were asked to mosque users to investigate their thermal feelings. Al-Homoud et al. [21] observed the energy consumption of three mosques and measured the thermal comfort level. In the mosques with air condi tioning systems, different thermal comfort levels were found between Friday and other days as a result of the studies. Insulation properties of mosques were determined to be an important factor in thermal load and energy consumption. Ibrahim et al. [22] collected data according to the CET (Corrected Effective Temperature) method to determine the ther mal comfort conditions of a mosque in Sarawak which is in a hot-humid climate zone. It was detected that roof cover materials and building shell shading elements significantly affect the indoor thermal comfort level. Al-ajmi [23] analyzed the thermal comfort level of the mosques in Kuwait during the hot period in a dry desert climate by collecting 140 PMV data and 140 AMV data through questions posed to users. He compared the obtained data with the standards and made studies on energy efficient designs. Bughrara et al. [24] examined the thermal comfort level created by underfloor heating in a historic mosque in hot-humid climatic conditions in a simulation program according to the adaptive thermal comfort model (aPMV). Al-Homoud [25] developed a model for the thermal optimization of mosques with variable time in tervals. In line with this model, the shell and design parameters of two mosques in Riyadh and Jeddah were used as case studies. Hussin et al. [26] determined the level of thermal comfort and thermal comfort pa rameters by measuring thermal comfort during a day at the mosque in Malaysia. In addition, they collected information on thermal comfort feelings from 330 users through surveys. As can be seen, thermal com fort studies on mosques are concentrated in hot-humid or dry and desert climate areas. For this study, different mosques of different sizes, ar chitecture and especially mechanical reinforcement characteristics were
selected as examples from the temperate-humid climate region. The aim of this study is to evaluate the suitability of the mosques which are different sizes and similar construction dates in Istanbul which is in Turkey’s temperate-humid climate zone, in terms of stan dards and user perception of thermal comfort. Therefore, thermal comfort measurements were carried out in two mosques in Istanbul in different sizes, different architectural and mechanical properties for five days in winter, spring and summer seasons. Furthermore, questionnaires about thermal feelings in the mosques were administered to the users at the end of the noon prayer on Friday during the measurement weeks of three different seasons. By comparing thermal comfort measurements and survey results, the thermal sensibility of users and the suitability of the measurement results according to the standards were evaluated. In light of the findings, suggestions are made concerning both designs of future mosques and the usage schedule of the existing mosques. This study reveals that using thermal comfort standards to evaluate in a different building types like mosques that have different schedule in temperate-humid climate does not always give an accurate assessment. For this reason, the determination of thermal comfort perceptions of the people of the region will contribute positively to the creation of thermal comfort. The main criteria for the design of mosques are presented about thermal comfort and energy efficient design. 2. Methodology Due to the variable number of prayers and different usage times, it is difficult to establish similar conditions and provide thermal comfort in the worship areas as a whole in mosques [27]. The majority of people use mosques are generally men. However, age ranges and physical characteristics (height, weight, etc.) of male users may differ from each other. The diversity of the physical structure of people along with the geographic and climatic differences in Turkey may cause variation in the perception of thermal comfort. The environmental elements located around the mosques (buildings, trees, roads), the building envelope characteristics of the mosques, the geometric structure, and the design parameters affect the thermal comfort in the worship areas [28]. In this study, the approach and steps for the evaluation of mosques in terms of thermal comfort are given in Fig. 1. In the approach presented in Fig. 1, measurements and surveys were performed on different days and in times of different user density for determining the level of thermal comfort in two mosques in Turkey’s Istanbul province. Objectives of the measurement and survey studies can be listed as: � To compare the indoor thermal comfort conditions measured in mosques according to ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO 7730 standards, � To determine the thermal comfort perception of the users, � To evaluate the difference between the measured and perceived thermal comfort levels by the users with the standards, � To compare the measurement and survey results at different points of the mosques. 2.1. Selection of mosques and determination of their characteristics The mosques in the same climate zone have been determined ac cording to the similar user profile, location and area features of the built environment elements. The heating, cooling and ventilation systems of the two mosques are different from each other. Marmara Theology Mosque is a structure in which modern style and traditional architecture are interpreted. A/C systems are used for heating, cooling and venti lating of the mosque. Moreover, the floor heating system under the carpet helps to heat the mosque during the heating period. Hz. Ali Mosque is a single-domed mosque influenced by traditional Ottoman architecture. Traditional methods are used for heating, cooling and ventilation systems. The underfloor heating system and radiator 2
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 1. Steps of the thermal comfort measurement and user thermal sensation analysis.
resistance is 1.299 W/m2K, opaque area U value is 0.699 W/m2K. The HVAC system of Marmara Theology Mosque is continuously operated under the supervision of expert teams, and Hz. Ali Cami heating-cooling system is started 30 min before the start of worship.
type split air conditioners that work with electrical energy in front of the walls help to heat the mosque during the heating period. The sizes of the mosques’ prayer areas are different from each other. In Fig. 2, the exterior views of the mosques are presented. The heating period in Istanbul is between December and February, the transition period (spring) is between March and May and the cooling period is between June and August. The area where the mosques are located is 103 m above sea level, at 41 � 10 18.825600 North latitude and � 20 53.988000 East longitude. Table 1 shows the locations of the mosques. The building envelope characteristics of the mosques are given in Table 2. The transparency ratio of Marmara Theology Mosque is 68,15% and the transparency ratio of Hz. Ali Mosque is 8,5%. Marmara Theology Mosque transparent area thermal conductivity resistance (U value) is 0.841 W/m2K, Ali Mosque transparent area thermal conductivity
2.2. Determination of measurement and survey days and requirements according to climate conditions Measurement and survey studies were conducted during the winter, spring and summer months (December, April, July) which are heating, climatic transition and cooling periods in A.C. 2017/A.H. 1438. In December, April and July (Rabi’ al-Awwal, Rajab, Shawwal), measure ments were made at six different points of the mosques for five days (Monday to Friday) between 12.00-14.00. The measured days were
Fig. 2. Exterior views of Marmara Theology (a) and Hz. Ali (b) Mosques. 3
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Table 1 Geographical and climatic data of mosques. City
Latitude
Istanbul
41 1 18.8256 �
0
Longitude 00
29 2 53.9880 �
0
00
Altitude
Wind Direction
Climatic Type
Heating Period
Cooling Period
103 m
North-east
Temperate -Humid Climate
December–April
May–October
Table 2 The building envelope characteristics of mosques. Mosques
Transparency Ratio
Layers of the Building Envelope
U Value
Marmara Theology Mosque
68,15%
0.841 W/m2K
Hz. Ali Mosque
8,5%
Solar Control Fibroin Concrete (100 mm) Air Gap (100 mm) Low-e Coating Double Glass (13 mm) Air Gap (20 mm) Low-e Coating Double Glass (13 mm) Exterior Wall Stone Cladding (40 mm) Air Gap (50 mm) Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (250 mm) Air Gap (50 mm) Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (250 mm) Indoor Plaster (30 mm) Gypsum Plaster (10 mm) Thermal Insulated Double Glass (4 þ 16 þ 4 mm)
determined in accordance with the weather conditions representing that season. Fig. 3 demonstrates the measurements areas in the mosques. The measurement areas selected in the mosques were decided according to the parameters such as entrance, middle area, transparent and filled area. 180 PMV-PPD data were obtained in two mosques for six different measuring points, three different seasons and five days of each season. The measurements were carried out with the Testo 480 Climate Measuring Equipment. During the measurement week, on Friday, when the mosques reached the maximum occupancy rate, the surveys were administered to the prayers about the thermal comfort level of the interior. Questionnaires in Appendix A were prepared by following ASHRAE 55–2013 (Appendix K). Ten questions were inquired about thermal comfort parameters and thermal comfort perception. 462 users participated in the surveys conducted on Fridays in three different sea sons in two mosques.
1.299 W/m2K (Transparent Area) 0.699 W/m2K (Opaque Area)
2.2.1. Determination of thermal comfort measurement conditions The measurement points were determined according to orientation, furnishing, and building envelope openings in order to control the level and homogeneity of mosque indoor thermal comfort conditions. Mea surement parameters were decided according to the Fanger model. The thermal comfort model developed by Fanger is included in ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards. In this model, objective parameters are listed as the indoor temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature and air velocity; and subjective parameters are listed as clothing and thermal insulation and activity level. The mean radiation temperature (MRT) is measured in the thermal comfort device by means of a black sphere thermometer probe. The black sphere thermometer and other probes in the instrument perform measurements according to the equations in the ISO 7726 and ISO 7730 standard [1,32]. In the litera ture, thermal comfort evaluation ranges are available according to
Fig. 3. Marmara theology mosque (a) and Hz. Ali mosque (b) plans & measurement zones.
4
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Table 3 Thermal Comfort Measuring Device Data Inputs and location [28]. Time
Activity Level
5 min
1,2 met
Device Location
Clothing-Thermal Insulation
Altitude from Floor
Distance from Surface
Winter
Spring
Summer
1m
1m
1,1 clo
0,9 clo
0,5 clo
3. Results
function and renewal status of buildings. The sample mosques of this study are classified in the renovated or currently used category. There fore, acceptable thermal comfort ranges in the study were determined as þ0.5> PMV > -0.5 and PPD <10% [29,30]. Data inputs and device location information for the thermal comfort meter are presented in Table 3. Clothing and thermal insulation values in winter, spring and summer periods were determined by following ASHRAE and ISO standards in the thermal comfort measurements. The activity level is processed into the device as 1.2 met in accordance with the level of movement of a worshiper. At each measurement point, it has been waited for 3 min before the measurement to allow the black sphere thermometer in the device to adapt to the environment. The measure ment duration at each point was determined as 5 min, considering the prayer lengths [13]. The position of the device is adjusted to 1 m apart from the floor and the building surfaces taking into account the height of a person standing and sitting during praying. The physical and me chanical properties of the two selected mosques are presented in Table 4 and the visuals from the days when thermal comfort measurements were performed are demonstrated in Fig. 4.
3.1. Determination of PMV-PPD values by measurements In this study, indoor air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity values, which are thermal comfort parameters, were measured instantaneously for 5 min at six different points of mosques. The weekly average results of mosque measurement zones in three different seasons are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Addi tionally, thermal comfort levels of the zones are indicated in the table. According to the data in the table, the thermal comfort level of Marmara Theology Mosque in December measurements is appropriate to the standards, however, the relative humidity is low. When the evaluation is made according to the inner zones of the mosque, the 1st and 2nd points are at low temperatures compared to the other regions. The air velocity inside the mosque is acceptable. In December measurements of Hz. Ali Mosque, indoor air temperatures were considerably lower than accept able. The temperature of the 1st Zone at the entrance of the mosque was lower than the other points. Relative humidity and air velocity in the mosque are under the standards. Incompatible levels according to the standards in temperature and relative humidity parameters are also reflected in the thermal comfort conditions. In the winter period December measurements, the 6th point has the highest temperature values in both mosques. The most uncomfortable area of the mosques in the thermal comfort measurements of the winter period is the 1st Zone which is close to the entrance. The highest thermal comfort level is in the 6th Zone which is located in the middle area and is least affected by external factors. The temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity values of the Marmara Theology Mosque in April are at appropriate levels in terms of thermal comfort. Although HVAC systems in the mosque were at the lowest operating levels at the time of measurement, the thermal comfort level is acceptable. During the spring term measurements in the Hz. Ali Mosque, the indoor temperature of the mosque is below acceptable levels. In this case, even though the relative humidity and air velocity in the mosque are suitable, thermal comfort is below acceptable due to the low air temperature. The temperature and thermal comfort of the 1st Zone in the entrance area of Hz. Ali Mosque is the lowest compared to the other zones. Relative humidity and indoor air velocity parameters are at appro priate levels according to the standards in thermal comfort measure ments of mosques in July. While the operative temperature is convenient in Marmara Theology Mosque, it is higher than the acceptable level in Hz. Ali Mosque. Also, this situation affects thermal comfort level of Hz. Ali Mosque. In the measurements of the Hz. Ali Mosque in July, the 6th Zone is the region with the lowest thermal comfort level. This is due to
2.2.2. Determination of user thermal sensation survey conditions Surveys were conducted to analyze the comfort levels of users at different points in mosques according to climate and local conditions. In the surveys, users were asked about their age, gender and clothing sta tus. In addition, questions were asked about the thermal sensation of users felt during their stay in the environment. A total of 462 users, 116 in December, 172 in April and 174 in July, participated in the studies conducted in two different mosques in three different periods. All of the survey participants were male. Since the people coming to the mosque can be of various ages, the age range of the respondents varies between 14 and 68. However, the majority of participants vary between the ages of 25–-35. In order to provide accurate results from the survey analyzes, activity levels (met) and clothing and thermal insulation levels (clo) of the participants should be determined [13]. The ASHRAE Fundamentals 2013 standard specifies the level of clothing and thermal insulation and activity levels of individuals in detail [31]. In the survey study, clothing and thermal insulation levels and thermal sensation of prayers were questioned according to ASHRAE seven-point scale. Obtained answers were used to find AMV (Actual Mean Vote) and APD (Actual Percentage Dissatisfied) data. In the ASHRAE standard, the acceptable comfort range AMV is classified as þ1, 0, -1. Specified values were expressed in the survey as hot (þ3), warm (þ2), slightly warm (þ1), neutral (0), slightly cool (-1), cool (-2), cold (-3) for users to perceive options with ease.
Table 4 Physical and mechanical features of the mosques [28]. Mosque Name
Marmara Theology Mosque Hz. Ali Mosque
Type of use (prayer)
Daily þ Friday þ Complex (library, classroom) Daily þ Friday
Natural Ventilation
Capacity (persons)
Physical Data Dimensions (m) LxWxH (area, m2)
Air-conditioning and ventilation systems, number of units, type
-
1256
Main Zone (1015 m2)
24 Blowing Pipe Mouth 16 Dirty Air Supply Grille 650 m2 Floor Heating System 11 Radiator type Split Unit 220 m2 Floor Heating System
via window
2
605
Front Zone(401,25 m ) Rear Zone(64,38 m2)
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 4. Marmara theology mosque (a) and Hz. Ali mosque (b) sample measurement days. Table 5 Thermal Comfort Parameters Data of The Marmara Theology Mosque acording to months and zones. Marmara Theology Mosque PMV-PPD Data Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Relative Humidity (%) Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Operative Temperature (⁰C) PMV PPD
December
April
July
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
19,8
19,3
19,8
20,5
20,8
22,3
20,2
18,7
18,6
18,9
18,7
19,6
24,6
24,8
25
25,1
25
25,3
39,9 0,24 19,9
41,9 0,14 18,9
40,7 0,08 20,4
39 0,18 20,5
38,9 0,19 20,5
40,4 0,21 22
43,8 0,07 19,5
46,4 0,08 18,6
45,8 0,09 19
46,2 0,12 19,3
46 0,12 19,1
47,1 0,18 19,9
55,3 0,28 25,1
54,5 0,18 25,3
53,6 0,18 25,6
53,2 0,21 25,8
54,1 0,21 25,7
56,2 0,42 25,9
19,8 0,38 8,92
19,1 0,35 9,96
20,1 0,21 7,46
20,5 0,29 8,4
20,6 0,28 8,58
22,1 0,05 9,26
19,8 0,36 10,1
18,6 0,46 10,8
18,8 0,38 9,4
19,1 0,38 9,25
18,9 0,46 10,1
19,7 0,39 10,2
24,8 0,16 5,68
25,0 0,03 4,68
25,3 0,1 5
25,4 0,08 5,04
25,3 0,07 5,4
25,6 0,08 9,01
Table 6 Thermal Comfort Parameters Data of The Hz. Ali Mosque acording to months and zone. Hz. Ali Mosque PMV-PPD Data Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Relative Humidity (%) Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Operative Temperature (⁰C) PMV PPD
December
April
July
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
12,7
13,4
12,8
13,2
12,8
14
15,5
17,8
16,8
16,8
16,8
17,2
28,3
28,1
27,9
28,5
28,3
27,7
57,8 0,1 12,9
55 0,13 13,5
55,7 0,15 12,9
55,8 0,13 13,4
55,9 0,17 13,2
55,4 0,22 14,4
55,6 0,12 15,7
52,4 0,13 17,6
55,8 0,1 17
56,3 0,14 17,3
55,8 0,11 17,2
57,5 0,18 18
55,8 0,19 27,9
55,1 0,27 28,4
54,8 0,1 27,8
56,7 0,34 28,3
58,2 0,15 28,2
54,1 0,25 27,9
12,8 1,93 72,5
13,4 1,63 58,0
12,8 1,74 63,9
13,3 1,68 60,7
13 1,66 59,5
14,2 1,27 44,0
15,6 -1,1 31,3
17,7 0,45 16,2
16,9 0,79 18,7
17,0 0,82 19,7
17 0,79 18,7
17,6 0,62 17,1
28,1 0,66 18,0
28,2 0,49 18,8
27,8 0,58 24,1
28,4 0,44 18,6
28,2 0,44 26,1
27,8 0,71 22,0
the increase in the number of users in the mosque, lack of cooling system and insufficient ventilation of the environment with windows. In Mar mara Theology Mosque, the lowest operative temperature was measured in the 1st Zone in the entrance area and the highest operative temper ature in the 6th Zone in the middle area. During the summer period, the temperature level in the mosques increased according to the measure ment order of the zones. This situation is caused by the increase in the number of users in time and the radiative heating of the sun rays inside the mosque depending on the directions. In the measured values created according to the zones, the thermal comfort level at the points close to the entrance was lower than the other points in both mosques. As the measurement sequence from point 1 to point 6 followed, the operative temperature is generally higher at point 6. This situation caused the mosques to be uncomfortable in some days. The increase in the number of users in the mosque over time causes the indoor air temperature to rise. Tables 7 and 8 show the seasonal thermal comfort parameter data of Marmara Theology Mosque and Hz. Ali Mosque. In the Marmara The ology Mosque, the lowest operative temperature was observed in the spring season. The low setting of HVAC systems and the variability of
climatic conditions are effective in the mentioned situation. Air velocity is higher in the summer season compared to other seasons. The thermal comfort level of the Marmara Theology Mosque is at the appropriate level in monthly measurement averages. However, the lowest distur bance is observed in the spring season when HVAC systems are operated at a minimum performance. According to Hz. Ali Mosque’s seasonal thermal comfort parameter data, the operative temperature was experienced in the lowest in the winter season and the highest in the summer season. Air velocity and relative humidity values are within acceptable limits in accordance with the seasons. However, indoor air temperature in winter affects thermal comfort levels. Indoor air conditions of the mosque are influenced by the climatic conditions of the outdoor weather. During the measurement weeks in winter, spring and summer, thermal comfort level is outside the comfort range according to the standards. The lowest comfort level is determined in winter. The comparison of PMV-PPD average values of the sample mosques is presented in Fig. 5. Marmara Theology Mosque is within the thermal comfort range according to the standards. Hz. Ali mosque has remained outside the thermal comfort range in all seasonal conditions. 6
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
prevailing wind direction. These factors will contribute to get the high level of thermal comfort in the mosques.
Table 7 Marmara theology mosque PMV-PPD parameter data. PMV Parameters Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Relative Humidity (%) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Operative Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. PMV (�0,5) PPD (<10%)
Winter
Spring
Summer
20,4 1,73 22,3 17,8
19,1 1,63 20,9 17,2
25,3 0,57 25,6 24,3
20,4 1,59 22,5 18,4
19,2 1,55 21 17,2
25,9 0,52 26 25,2
40,1 7,22 51,6 31,2
45,9 7,15 56,6 39,2
56,2 6,6 63,8 44,7
0,17 0,21 1,33 0,03
0,11 0,06 0,28 0,03
0,42 0,27 1,12 0,04
20,4 1,68 22,4 18,1 -0,3 8,76
19,2 1,57 20,9 17,2 -0,4 10
25,6 0,53 25,8 24,8 þ0,03 5,8
Winter
Spring
Summer
13,2 1,97 15,7 11,5
16,8 1,33 18,5 15,8
27,7 2,34 28,8 26,7
13,4 2,01 15,8 11,9
17,1 1,33 18,7 16,2
27,9 1,81 28,7 27,1
55,9 3,4 62 52
55,6 3,28 60,9 51,1
54,1 3,82 59,5 50,7
0,15 0,07 0,36 0,02
0,13 0,06 0,32 0,04
0,25 0,22 0,62 0,14
13,3 1,98 15,8 11,7 -1,7 59,8
17 1,33 18,6 16 -0,8 20,3
27,8 2,08 28,8 26,9 þ0,6 22,48
3.2. Determination of AMV-APD values through user sensations The thermal sensation surveys were conducted to the users at the end of the prayer on Friday. Many prayers of different ages and weights participated in the surveys. The weight and age distributions of the surveyed people are shown in Table 9. The mean age of the participants was between 25-35. The average weight of the survey participants is between 75-85 kg. In AMV evaluations, the comfort range is taken as þ1, 0, -1. The actual mean vote (AMV) values of Marmara Theology Mosque by months are presented in Table 10. 53 people from mosque users participated in the survey conducted during the winter season in Mar mara Theology Mosque. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 67.9%. In the winter survey, the participants found the thermal comfort of the mosque slightly warm. 90 people participated in the spring survey. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 78.9%. Comfort satisfaction rates in the spring season are higher than the winter season rates. 100 people participated in the survey conducted in the summer season. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 60.6%. Since the seasonal conditions are cold and windy in December, the number of participants in the survey is lower than the other months. When the data in Table 10 is examined according to ASHRAE 55–2013 standard, it is seen that the mosque is out of comfort range in winter and spring seasons. The thermal comfort perception of the summer season is within the comfort range according to the standard. The thermal sensation survey results of the Hz. Ali Mosque users according to the seasons are presented in Table 11. In December, 63 users participated in the winter survey. When it is evaluated according to ASHRAE 55 standard, 68.2% of the users are satisfied with the ther mal comfort inside the mosque. 82 users participated in the spring survey. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 86.4%. 74 users participated in the survey conducted in the summer season. In the comfort range, the thermal sensation satisfaction of the users is 45.9%. AMV values in Table 8 are acceptable according to the standard.
Table 8 Hz. Ali mosque PMV-PPD parameter data. PMV Parameters Indoor Air Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Mean Radiant Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Relative Humidity (%) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Air Velocity (m/s) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. Operative Temperature (⁰C) Mean Std. Dev. Max. Min. PMV (�0,5) PPD (<10%)
4. Discussion 4.1. Comparison of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and actual mean vote (AMV) results Table 12 demonstrates the measurement and survey results of the mosques according to the PMV-PPD and AMV-APD thermal sensing scale in ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 standards. The acceptable PMV thermal comfort range is between þ0.5 and -0.5. PPD thermal dissatisfaction rate should be less than 10%. PMV scale is given in the table as the seasonal arithmetic average of the measurement results in mosques. According to the measurement results, the thermal comfort level of the Marmara Theology Mosque is acceptable in winter, spring and summer periods and PPD thermal dissatisfaction rate is acceptable in all three seasons. Hz. Ali Cami PMV-PPD thermal comfort level was measured as un comfortable in cold zone in winter and spring seasons and in hot zone in the summer season. The AMV acceptable thermal sensation scale in the ASHRAE 55 standard has a comfort range of -1 (slightly cool), 0 (neutral), þ1 (slightly warm). The ranges of -3 (cold), -2 (cool), þ2 (warm) and þ3 (hot) constitute the uncomfortable zone. According to the results of the survey, the AMV value is presented in Table 12 by taking the arithmetic average of the options in the thermal sensing scale. The percentage of users who select the -3, -2, þ2, þ3 options which are outside the APD value comfort range is given in the table. According to the survey results of the Marmara Theology Mosque, 32.10% of users in winter, 21.10% of
The parameters that make up thermal comfort are a whole. When one of the parameters is low, the comfort level decreases. When the operative temperature is lower than the acceptable level or the air ve locity is higher than the acceptable level, the thermal comfort level changes negatively. Therefore, the indoor thermal comfort level should be ensured by paying attention to all parameters in the HVAC system schedule. In this study, the thermal comfort level in mosques is generally high in the middle areas and low in the entrance areas of the mosques. At the design stage of the mosques, the entrance and openings of the mosque should be positioned according to the directions and the 7
Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
A.B. Atmaca and G.Z. Gedik
Fig. 5. PMV-PPD comparison of the sample mosques. Table 9 Number of User in terms of Age and Weight. Data/Range
10–19
20–29
30–39
40–49
50–59
60–69
70–79
80–89
90–99
100–109
110–140
User Weight Data User Age Data
0 30
0 127
2 94
0 62
9 46
47 19
88 4
130 2
42 0
20 0
8 0
Table 10 Marmara theology mosque actual mean vote values (AMV). Season
Number of samples
AMV
Std. Dev.
Thermal Sensation Values (%) -3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Winter Spring Summer
53 90 100
þ1,55 þ1,09 þ0,1
1,18 1,14 1,49
0 0 2
5,7 6,7 13,1
13,2 26,7 20,2
28,3 32,2 31,3
26,4 20 9,1
26,4 14,4 19,2
0 0 5,1
Thermal Sensation Values (%)
Table 11 Hz. Ali mosque actual mean vote values (AMV). Season
Number of samples
Mean
Std. Dev.
Winter Spring Summer
63 81 74
-0,05 -0,04 þ0,77
1,43 0,968 1,81
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
7,9 0 1,4
4,8 8,6 10,8
22,2 14,8 16,2
33,3 54,3 21,6
12,7 17,3 8,1
19 3,7 14,9
0 1,2 27
Table 12 Comparison of PMV-PPD ve AMV-APD Thermal Comfort Scales. Thermal Comfort Scales
Winter (December) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Spring (April) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Summer (July) Marmara Theology Mosque
Hz. Ali Mosque
Predicted Mean Vote Actual Mean Vote Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied Actual Percentage Dissatisfied
-0,3 1,55 8,76%
-1,7 -0,05 59,8%
-0,4 1,09 10%
-0,8 -0,04 20,3%
0,03 0,1 5,8%
0,6 0,77 22,48%
32,10%
31,80%
21,10%
13,60%
39,40%
54,10%
8
ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55 Standards Comfort Range -0,5 < PMV < 0,5 -1, 0, þ1 <10%
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
Fig. 6. Linear regression analysis of AMV and PMV values.
were evaluated comparatively. In addition, the average thermal comfort levels and thermal sensation surveys of the two mosques were controlled according to the standards. In this context, thermal comfort measure ments were carried out in two mosques in three different seasons, during five days at noon prayer. On the Fridays of the weeks when thermal comfort measurements were made, a thermal sensation survey was conducted with the users. In light of the analyzes and findings, the following results have been obtained in order to contribute to the design of the new mosques and to assist the usage schedules of the existing mosques.
users in spring and 39.40% of users in summer are dissatisfied with the thermal comfort of the environment. According to the survey results of Hz. Ali Mosque, 31,80% of the users in winter, 13,60% of users in spring and 54,10% of users in summer are displeased with the thermal comfort of the environment. The comparisons of PMV and AMV values at the end of the studies are shown in Fig. 6. In the regression equation, the estimation equation is developed by using the linear curve equation and the relationship between dependent and independent variables. According to this equation, the significance and the relationship between the variables are controlled. R value is the correlation coefficient. This coefficient is be tween �1. R-values close to 0 indicate that the relationship between the variables is meaningless. The relationship significance between Pre dicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Actual Mean Vote (AMV) values is considerably low. The linear regression equation obtained from Fig. 6 can be expressed as follows:
� In the plans of the mosques, First Zone (near the entrance) is at the lowest temperatures in winter (December) measurements compared to other zones. Designing additional architectural details (through entrance hall, narthex or mechanical equipment) for areas close to the entrance will facilitate the creation of homogeneous thermal comfort conditions in mosques. � The thermal comfort level measured in the mosque with the airconditioning system is more acceptable than the mosque heated by radiator type split air conditioners (see Tables 5–6, 7-8 and Fig. 5). Continuous operation of the air conditioning system, the presence of expert officials regulating the performance of the HVAC system and the correct design of the HVAC system are effective in the formation of this situation. In other words, the thermal comfort level of the mosque which is heated by radiator type split air conditioners is outside the acceptable ranges. The irregular use of radiators in the mosque and the positioning of radiators in front of the walls, not just in front of the windows, and the lack of sufficient heating-cooling equipment caused the thermal comfort level to fall outside the desired ranges. � As a result of the simultaneous worship of the users at noon prayer on Friday, high heat energy is generated in the mosques in a short time. This leads to sudden changes in the thermal comfort level of the mosque. Automation systems that can detect users, outside temper ature and indoor temperature should be developed especially for the
AMV ¼ 0,38PMV þ0,73 According to this equation, while the mosque users have a neutral thermal feeling (AMV ¼ 0), the measurement results can show a cooler environment (PMV ¼ -1.92). In other words, users can perceive the environment warmer (AMV ¼ þ0.73) when the results of the measured region are neutral (PMV ¼ 0). In the context of the study, the compar ison of PMV and AMV values reveals that mosque users living in temperate-humid climate type feel the indoor environment warmer than the measurement results (according to Fanger’s model) in terms of thermal comfort. 5. Conclusions In this study, thermal comfort measurements and user thermal sensation surveys were carried out in a mosque with air-conditioning system and another mosque with radiator type split air conditioners in temperate-humid climate type. The measured thermal comfort levels of the mosques according to zones and the thermal sensations of the users 9
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Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020) 101246
important day and night prayers. Automation systems should regu late indoor thermal comfort parameters according to indoor climate data and the number of users of mosques. � The lowest level of thermal satisfaction of the users in mosques was experienced in July (60.6%–45.9%). The highest thermal sensation contentment was observed in April (78.6%–86.4%). In order to prevent mosques from external climatic changes, the properties of the building envelope should be determined according to the appropriate material selection. The use of shading elements in the building envelope, the zoning with the entrance zone of mosques can be used in the design of new mosques as a precaution against the change of climatic conditions. � When the measured and sensated thermal comfort levels in temperate-humid climate type were compared, differences were found between comfort results. While the indoor conditions are within acceptable thermal comfort levels (-0.5/0/þ0.5), users find the thermal comfort level warmer. This study demonstrates that the acceptable thermal comfort conditions specified by the standards are not always valid for all building types in the temperate-humid climate type.
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