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Detrimental effects of television advertising on consumer socialization
Detrimental Effects of Television Advertising on Consumer Socialization* Eduard Stupening, Abt Associates Forschung
As in the UnitedStores. of’ TV udvertising
there has been u heuteddiscussion
on children
in the Federul
the United
Stutes ure not reudiiy
Bused
interviews
on
documents. dimensions
with
this urticle
tries
trunsjkruble.
experts
and
to orgunbe
Republic
uboutpossible oj’Germun~.
owing to dt#erences
u yuulitutive chims
content
negutive eflects
Results obtuined
in
in mediu structure. unulysis
mude ubout detrimentul
of’ relevunt eflects
into
oj’detrimentulit~.
Since the mid- 196Os, the question of the effects of television advertising on child development has been much debated in the United States. The discussion has been inspired by Action for Children’s Television (ACT) [ 1, 151 and resulted in the restrictions imposed by the FCC and the FK [71-
In the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) this issue has been taken up in recent years as a followup to the discussion on TV violence. However, scientific progress was slower in the FRG, since research was unsystematic and confined to but a few basic topics. Also, the transfer of results from the United States was possible only to a very limited extent, owing to the differences in advertising techniques, broadcasting times, and media structure. While TV commercials are interspersed throughout the whole program in the United States, they are condensed into advertising blocks in the FRG, which are broadcast at fixed times in the preevening period (5-8 P.M.). A review of the state of research on this issue in the FRG has to be confined to bits and pieces at the present date. On the one hand there is not enough theoretical work-usually American work has to be adapted [ IO,2 1,23,24]; on the other hand empirical research still builds mainly on content analysis techniques used in mass communications research. In addition, most empirical research is qualitative, so that direct generalizations are not possible. However, extensions are currently Address
correspondence
shausstr. 15, D-5300
to Eduard
Stupening,
OF BUSINESS RESEARCH 10, 75-84 Science Pubbshing Co., Inc., 1982 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
JOUR.VAL
Abt
Associates
Forschung,
Ritter-
Bonn I, West Germany.
(1982)
0 Elsevier
75 0148-2963/82/01075-10$2.75
76
Eduard Stupening
underway [ZO] , broadening the perspectives on television effects. As in the United States, it has proved useful to supplement concepts from learning theory, mainly concerning the adoption of attitudes and behavior relevant to consumption, with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, applied to the process of developing consumer capabilities. This increased emphasis on the cognitive aspects of consumer behavior was accompanied by a reorientation of consumer research toward consumer information processing [ 1, 141. Still, in sum little knowledge exists in the area of consumer socialization, especially as far as the effects of TV advertising are concerned. In the following study, one aspect of TV effects is dealt withnegative effects of TV advertising on children, their development, and especially their consumer socialization. The lay and scientific discussion of this issue still rests on a weak empirical scaffold. The aim of this study is to structure the discussion and delineate the main points. Dimensions of Detrimental Effects of TV Advertising The following analysis shows where additional empirical work is necessary, because the assertions made are mainly hypothetical and cannot be regarded as facts, no matter how plausible they may be. The analysis summarizes and structures what at present are the main problems of detrimental effects. The study is based on a qualitative content analysis of assertions made about this topic in political, scientific, and popular documents. In addition, a number of interviews were conducted with scientists and representatives of consumer organizations and several federal departments. This resulted in a complex picture of detrimental effects, which will now be structured according to dimensions of detrimentality. The assertions are complex and usually normative. For this reason it is not astonishing that an attempt to reduce them to basic dimensions results in a considerable number of such dimensions. The following dimensions can be distinguished: Dimensions of Effect 1. Socialization dimension 2. Behavioral dimension 3. Perceptual dimension 4. Development dimension Modifying Dimensions 5. Temporal dimension 6. Supply dimension 7. Sociostructural dimension
Television Ads and Children
77
“Dimensions of effect” describe direct relationships between a certain detrimental effect and factors that cause it. “Modifying dimensions” describe factors that differentiate certain detrimental effects but do not cause them by themselves. Socialization Dimension The socialization dimension is the general heading of the other three dimensions of effect. All important negative effects are experienced within the framework of socialization, so that a model explaining negative effects has to explain the socialization process as well. Few people would question the assertion that television is a main socializer besides parents, school, and friends, and thus functions as a transmitter of norms and values [23]. This socialization function of TV has been heavily criticized [ES]. Two kinds of effects can be distinguished: socialization effects on the child as a consumer, and effects on the general developmental process of the child not directly connected to consumption-oriented topics. Bockelmann [5] believes that the ‘ ‘consumption school’ ’ of TV advertising has not been the effect of inducing concrete wants, but of reinforcing the acceptance of consumption-related orientation norms and of consumption expectations already existing. This effect of transmitting and reinforcing norms can be regarded as detrimental if the teaching of such norms is not in accord with societal consensus, or if it is one-sided. It is claimed that the consumption role as perceived by school children is, owing to TV advertising, oriented mainly toward middle- and upper-class models, yet this kind of consumption role may not be attainable by lower-class children. This one-sided view of reality transmitted by advertising and perceived by children, at least until a certain age, has to be regarded as detrimental if the receiver of the advertising is not able to reflect on it, correct it by comparing it with his or her own experiences, or is instructed to do so as a compensatory measure. Thus advertising can be regarded as essentially conservative, which has led to the claim that it reinforces traditional patterns of behavior instead of contributing to attitude change [ 161. It increases discrepancies between reality and outdated attitudes and behavior.
Behavioral Dimension This dimension encompasses actual inducements of certain kinds of behavior as well as the transfer of mental patterns that create predispositions for certain kinds of behavior. The detrimental effect can
78
Eduard Stupening
range from a concrete act of consumption to mere perception and processing of an advertising message itself, influencing certain predispositions of behavior. The example central to the discussion is the consumption of sweets advertised on television. In order for the detrimental effect to occur, the sweets must be bought and consumed. This detrimental effect has two aspects: nutritional aspect (over-nutrition) dental health aspect (caries). An Austrian study showed that two-thirds of a sample of school children interviewed spent almost all their pocket money for sweets [ 181. Similar results are reported for the FRG, where children under 16 years are believed to have a purchasing power of about one billion dollars per year [2]. Indeed, the damaging effect of a high consumption of sugar seems unquestioned, at least when it is not compensated by adequate measures of dental hygiene. Scientific research on causes and development of caries shows that high sugar consumption plays a major role, and all other factors in this multicausal process play but subordinate roles [6]. High sugar consumption, which also has detrimental long-range effects on the physical constitution, is believed to be caused by ‘ ‘consumption pressure’ ’ exerted by industry and the mass media [2]. If television advertising increases the consumption of products containing a high proportion of sugar, it has to be regarded as one of the causes of this unwanted development. If in the foregoing the negative effect of TV advertising materialized only when it actually caused a certain behavior, there are other aspects where detrimental effects are caused by the pure act of perceiving the commercial, without any subsequent act of consumption having to occur. The argument here is much more subtle: since children are not as critical as adults, advertising can more easily cause the adoption of certain ego images basically characterized by consumption-oriented cognitive patterns [9]. This effect is caused merely by persistent perception of advertising, and is thus not linked to the purchase or consumption of a certain product. Perceptual Dimension From a psychological viewpoint, advertising effects can be located in different domains of the child’s perception. Some aspects of negative effects concern the cognitive realm, others the emotional sphere. In the cognitive realm advertising transmits knowledge about consumption and products, usually one-sided information. Once this knowledge has
Television
Ads and Children
79
become part of the child’s cognitive system, it can have long-range effects in influencing behavior. Such a behavioral effect, which is desired from the viewpoint of the advertiser, is to build up enduring brand loyalty. Advertisers can thus attempt to lay the foundations for such brand loyalty early in viewers’ childhood, even though the cognitive effects of the commercial cannot become behaviorally relevant until considerably later.~ This can result, however, in the perception of products as embodying an exaggerated symbolic quality. If it is assumed that children, at least up to a certain age, perceive TV advertising as a true mirror of reality, their view of reality will become one-sided or incomplete. Advertising praises kinds of behavior, mainly productrelated, that are positive, rewarding, and immediately problem-solving, while the main contemporary economic, social, and ecological problems are not even hinted at. This is a serious problem if it is taken into account that TV advertising is a main source of information for children, from which they draw an important part of their experiences. TV is usually characterized as a medium having high coverage, credibility, and actuality [ 121. As for the emotional realm, the arguments are different. Desires, needs, and fantasies are stimulated by creating artificial symbolic values, and assigning them to the advertised products. This replaces the child’s actual sensory experience of reality and causes a segmentation of the emotional need structure according to advertising criteria. This substitution of actual sensory experience must be regarded as particularly detrimental if it is taken into account that the child may be in a phase where the development of its needs as articulated toward the social environment takes place by means of fantasies, so that the needs of the child may be influenced by advertising in a phase where they are still developing [ 131. This is the emotional equivalent to the one-sided perception of the consumer world taking place in the cognitive realm. The problem becomes even more serious when emotional effects result that are not confined to mere consumption. The consumption of products may become the most important means of satisfying needs for respect, love, or self-fulfillment [ 191. This can occur if commercials activate children emotionally by stressing advantages and gains of consumption that cannot be verified or are not part of the product and hence cannot be consided product attributes. Developmental
Dimension
The development dimension is concerned with the effects of TV advertising on the child’s developmental process. Detrimental effects
80
Eduud
Sttcpening
can occur if intensive TV socialization inhibits other activities of the child and supports a decrease of social contacts, and an increase of “silent family communication” [4]. Winn [25] has described this effect of TV very dramatically. In order to understand this effect, TV advertising has to be understood as part of the more general phenomenon “television.” Television takes children’s time, which thus cannot be used for alternative activities like playing, social contacts, and the like. If these alternative activities are a prerequisite for the development of the child, and if no compensation exists, TV viewing produces a child development wanting in certain respects and characterized by deficits. Relating this causal chain to the development of the child as a consumer, it can be argued that TV advertising results in deficits in consumer education 1. because the time used by watching is not available for education from
their parents, 2. because it influences the child’s information procesing. The transfer of consumer-related content can be characterized as follows: passive role of the child in the communication process, onesided and unrealistic presentation of products, propagation of conservative consumption ideals, a general call for consumption without stressing the financial resources that have to be expended. This could be compensated by education or other sources of information. Thus the detrimental effect exists if the one-sided content of TV advertising becomes a main socializing factor without adequate compensatory measures. An obvious example exists where parents use TV as a substitute for their own educational efforts. Scherhom [ 171 develops the hypothesis that these influences further behavioral inconsistencies of consumers, especially young consumers, and thus inhibit adult consumers’ ability to reconsider their preferences in consumer purchase decisions. The development of certain consumer capabilities is restrained at an early stage. This point is also made by Ktibler [ 121, who believes it to be unquestionable that advertising contributes to a biased and ideologized perception of social reality, thus limiting children in their search for their own personal and social identity. Temporal Dimension This modifying dimension concerns the time span that elapses between the perception of a TV commercial and the resulting behavior viewed as negative. This may be an important point if certain models of behavior have been adopted in early childhood but become observable as deviant
Telrvisiorl
Ads and Children
81
behavior only several years later. An example of this is the claim that advertising, and especially TV advertising, characterizes the consumption of alcohol as a commonplace activity and tries to endow it with social prestige. This message is perceived by children and can later result in corresponding behavior. This can be regarded as a prerequisite for alcoholism among youths, which thus can be viewed as promoted by advertising. This example shows very well that detrimental effects of advertising can result at considerable temporal distance from the original broadcast. Supply Dimension This dimension is concerned with the way advertising messages are supplied to the TV viewer (i.e., with the relation between the television medium and the advertising message). As previously stated, in the FRG, all commercials are broadcast in blocks in the preevening program. Different from the situation in the United States, the commercials are interspersed with short animated cartoon films, and the commercial blocks are framed by special programs. These contain a large part of the programs directed toward children, and they are broadcast at a time when children are most likely to be watching TV. This is problematic because children, at least up to a certain age, are not able to recognize what commercials are basically about, namely products. Also, they view commercials and programs both as part of a common reality [ 181. Besides the positioning of commercials in the daily program, the design of the spots themselves has been criticized. It has been claimed that the dramaturgical design of commercials reinforces a short-range orientation of thinking and desire, and that the rapid change of pictures, events, and situations forces the child into a role of passive perception, since children can adapt to the speed of change of stimuli neither cognitively nor emotionally.
So&structural
Dimension
Arguments about detrimental effects have also been derived in the context of social structure and its differentiation. The message lowerclass children receive from TV advertising is mainly that they are disadvantaged because of the low income of their parents. This disadvantage can be interpreted by them as personal failure of their parents. This tendency may be enhanced by the behavior of lower-class parents. In the lower class, parents are especially apt to give in to
82
Edrtard Stupeping
consumption wants of their children and to be uncritical toward an adaptation of external standards of consumption [ 1 I]. Thus on the one hand advertising, causes an articulation of wants not in accord with financial means; on the other hand, this effect is most pronounced in families where this discrepancy is most serious. A related aspect is that advertising tries to use children as “consumption pioneers,” the first to articulate a certain want, and it may thereby cause intrafamily conflicts [9]. This has to be viewed against the background of the child’s developmental process. During the age of need formation, frustrating experiences can have such serious effects that criminality can result [ 191. Wagner [2] has named this “affluence discrepancy criminality. ” Summary
and Consequences
The various dimensions follows. TV advertising because it
of detrimental effects can cause detrimental
are summarized as effects to children
can socialize children in certain ways; can cause certain kinds of behavior and attitudes; can influence certain cognitive and emotional patterns; can inhibit the developmental process; can cause certain long-range effects; uses certain ways of medial communication; reinforces disparities that exist in the social structure. The protection of children from TV advertising has been attempted mainly by self-regulation of the advertising industry [3]. The West German advertising industry has adopted rules of conduct that reflect international conventions. According to these, TV advertising should not show anything that is not cogent to the natural sphere of children; contain direct calls to consumption directed toward children; contain direct calls toward children to ask others to consume; take advantage of the confidence children have in other persons; use advertising means like contests, sweepstakes, and so on; shed positive light on behavior that can be dangerous. Contrasting this recommendations solve the problem ongoing discussion listed here:
with the problems referred to above, we see that these take account of certain aspects, but are not able to in its entirety. The problems in the center of the are not addressed. The main problems remaining are
Television
83
Ads and Children
the influences on the child’s information processing; the high consumption of sweets; the parental capability to educate their children with regard to consumption and nutrition behavior; the reinforcement of problems concerning social inequality. This confrontation of current protection rules with the remaining problems characterizes a conflict potential that includes the question of legal regulation of advertising in the FRG. Inadequate scientific treatment of the problem and a basic willingness to compromise on part of the advertising industry have both resulted in a policy of the federal government that currently favors self-regulation. Still, public discussion continues. *Interviews and content analysis referred to in this article was conducted as part qf a project sponsored by the Federal Department of Youth, Family and Health, Federal Republic of Germany.
References 1.
Alder, Richard P., Lesser, Gerald S., Meringoff, Thomas S., Rossiter, John R., and Ward, Scott, vertising on Children. Lexington Books, Lexington,
2.
AGV, 1-16.
3.
Albrecht, Uwe, Werbung mit und sehen, Der Markenartikel42 (1980):
4.
Becker, Jdrg, Werbefernsehen Rundschau (February): 4-8.
5.
Bockelmann, Frank, Werbung (February 1979): 9-l 1.
6.
Deutsche 1976.
I.
FTC, Staff mendations,
8.
Grunert, Klaus G., and Stupening, iikonomische Problematik. Campus,
9.
Hennig, Eike, Abt Associates
10.
Kinder
und
Konsumprobleme,
Gesellschaft
Verbraucher vor Kindern 546-556.
als Ausdruck vor und
fur Ernahrung,
mit
Laurence Krasny, Robertson, The Effects of Television Ad1980. Rundschau in Werbefunk
struktureller Kindern,
(February
und Werbefern-
Gewalt, Verbruucher
Enriihrungsbericht
1976.
Gespriichsprotokoll v. September Forschung, Bonn, 1980.
1980,
Verbraucher Rundschau
DGE, Frankfurt,
Report on Television Advertising to Children: Summary Public Policy Issues in Marketing 1 (1979): 63-80. Eduard, Werbung-ihre Frankfurt, 1981.
1980):
and Recom-
gesellschaftliche
unpublished
Kohlberg, Lawrence, Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive-developmental to Socialization, in Handbook of Socialization Research and Theory, lin ed., Rand McNally, Chicago, 1971, pp. 347-480.
und
manuscript, Approach D. A. Gos-
84
Eduard Werner, Konsumentenverhalten,
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Kroeber-Riel,
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Kiibler, Hans Dieter, “Kauft Kinder ischeBlZ?ter No. 3 (1980): 71-82.
13.
Lorenzer, Alfred, Gespriichsprotokoll v. September script, Abt Associates Forschung, Bonn, 1980.
14.
Meffert, Heribert, Steffenhagen, Hartwig, and Freter, uerhalten und Information. Gabler, Wiesbaden, 1979.
15.
Rubinstein, Eli A., Comstock, George, A., and Murray, John P., eds., Television and Social Behavior, Vol. IV. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1971.
16.
Scherhorn, Gerhard, Konsum, in Handbuch der empirischen 11, 2nd ed. R. Ktinig, ed., Enke, Stuttgart, pp. 193-265.
17.
Scherhorn, Gerhard, Methoden und Chancen einer Beeinflussung der Konsumenten zur rationalen Cfberprufung von Przferenzen, working paper. Institute for Consumer Research of the University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, 1980.
18.
Sierek, Karl, and Wiedner, Wolf, Kinder sellschaftspolitik, Vienna, 1979.
19.
Steffens, Heiko, “Kind chau, (February 1979):
20.
Sturm, Hertha, Vorschl’a’ge zur Abschltzung von Fernsehwirkungen auf Kinder, Fernsehkritik. A. L. Heygster, ed., Hase & K’dhler, Mainz, 1974, pp. 29-47.
21.
Wackman, Daniel, and Wartella, Ellen, A Review of Cognitive Development and Research and the Implication for Research on Children’s Responses vision, Communication Res. 4 (1977): 203-224.
22.
Wagner, Joachim, Ladendiebstahlminalistik, Heidelberg, 1979.
23.
Ward, Scott,
24.
Ward, Scott, Wackman, Daniel, Sage, Beverly Hills, 1977.
25.
Winn, Marie, The Plug-in Drug. Viking,
Consumer
kauft”,
und Werbung” 14-16.
2nd ed. Vahlen,
Stupening
1980,
Herrmann,
in der Grundschule,
1. Consum.
and Wartella,
1980.
Sozialpiidagog-
unpublished
manu-
Konsumenfen-
Sozialforschung,
und Fernsehwerbung.
Wohlstands-oder
Socialization,
Munich,
Kind und Werbung,
Institut
Verbraucher
fth GeRundsin
Theory to Tele-
NotstandskriminalitZt.
Res. 1 (1974):
Vol.
Kri-
1-14
Ellen, How Children Learn to Buy.
New York,
1977
As in the UnitedStores. of’ TV udvertising
there has been u heuteddiscussion
on children
in the Federul
the United
Stutes ure not reudiiy
Bused
interviews
on
documents. dimensions
with
this urticle
tries
trunsjkruble.
experts
and
to orgunbe
Republic
uboutpossible oj’Germun~.
owing to dt#erences
u yuulitutive chims
content
negutive eflects
Results obtuined
in
in mediu structure. unulysis
mude ubout detrimentul
of’ relevunt eflects
into
oj’detrimentulit~.
Since the mid- 196Os, the question of the effects of television advertising on child development has been much debated in the United States. The discussion has been inspired by Action for Children’s Television (ACT) [ 1, 151 and resulted in the restrictions imposed by the FCC and the FK [71-
In the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) this issue has been taken up in recent years as a followup to the discussion on TV violence. However, scientific progress was slower in the FRG, since research was unsystematic and confined to but a few basic topics. Also, the transfer of results from the United States was possible only to a very limited extent, owing to the differences in advertising techniques, broadcasting times, and media structure. While TV commercials are interspersed throughout the whole program in the United States, they are condensed into advertising blocks in the FRG, which are broadcast at fixed times in the preevening period (5-8 P.M.). A review of the state of research on this issue in the FRG has to be confined to bits and pieces at the present date. On the one hand there is not enough theoretical work-usually American work has to be adapted [ IO,2 1,23,24]; on the other hand empirical research still builds mainly on content analysis techniques used in mass communications research. In addition, most empirical research is qualitative, so that direct generalizations are not possible. However, extensions are currently Address
correspondence
shausstr. 15, D-5300
to Eduard
Stupening,
OF BUSINESS RESEARCH 10, 75-84 Science Pubbshing Co., Inc., 1982 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017
JOUR.VAL
Abt
Associates
Forschung,
Ritter-
Bonn I, West Germany.
(1982)
0 Elsevier
75 0148-2963/82/01075-10$2.75
76
Eduard Stupening
underway [ZO] , broadening the perspectives on television effects. As in the United States, it has proved useful to supplement concepts from learning theory, mainly concerning the adoption of attitudes and behavior relevant to consumption, with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, applied to the process of developing consumer capabilities. This increased emphasis on the cognitive aspects of consumer behavior was accompanied by a reorientation of consumer research toward consumer information processing [ 1, 141. Still, in sum little knowledge exists in the area of consumer socialization, especially as far as the effects of TV advertising are concerned. In the following study, one aspect of TV effects is dealt withnegative effects of TV advertising on children, their development, and especially their consumer socialization. The lay and scientific discussion of this issue still rests on a weak empirical scaffold. The aim of this study is to structure the discussion and delineate the main points. Dimensions of Detrimental Effects of TV Advertising The following analysis shows where additional empirical work is necessary, because the assertions made are mainly hypothetical and cannot be regarded as facts, no matter how plausible they may be. The analysis summarizes and structures what at present are the main problems of detrimental effects. The study is based on a qualitative content analysis of assertions made about this topic in political, scientific, and popular documents. In addition, a number of interviews were conducted with scientists and representatives of consumer organizations and several federal departments. This resulted in a complex picture of detrimental effects, which will now be structured according to dimensions of detrimentality. The assertions are complex and usually normative. For this reason it is not astonishing that an attempt to reduce them to basic dimensions results in a considerable number of such dimensions. The following dimensions can be distinguished: Dimensions of Effect 1. Socialization dimension 2. Behavioral dimension 3. Perceptual dimension 4. Development dimension Modifying Dimensions 5. Temporal dimension 6. Supply dimension 7. Sociostructural dimension
Television Ads and Children
77
“Dimensions of effect” describe direct relationships between a certain detrimental effect and factors that cause it. “Modifying dimensions” describe factors that differentiate certain detrimental effects but do not cause them by themselves. Socialization Dimension The socialization dimension is the general heading of the other three dimensions of effect. All important negative effects are experienced within the framework of socialization, so that a model explaining negative effects has to explain the socialization process as well. Few people would question the assertion that television is a main socializer besides parents, school, and friends, and thus functions as a transmitter of norms and values [23]. This socialization function of TV has been heavily criticized [ES]. Two kinds of effects can be distinguished: socialization effects on the child as a consumer, and effects on the general developmental process of the child not directly connected to consumption-oriented topics. Bockelmann [5] believes that the ‘ ‘consumption school’ ’ of TV advertising has not been the effect of inducing concrete wants, but of reinforcing the acceptance of consumption-related orientation norms and of consumption expectations already existing. This effect of transmitting and reinforcing norms can be regarded as detrimental if the teaching of such norms is not in accord with societal consensus, or if it is one-sided. It is claimed that the consumption role as perceived by school children is, owing to TV advertising, oriented mainly toward middle- and upper-class models, yet this kind of consumption role may not be attainable by lower-class children. This one-sided view of reality transmitted by advertising and perceived by children, at least until a certain age, has to be regarded as detrimental if the receiver of the advertising is not able to reflect on it, correct it by comparing it with his or her own experiences, or is instructed to do so as a compensatory measure. Thus advertising can be regarded as essentially conservative, which has led to the claim that it reinforces traditional patterns of behavior instead of contributing to attitude change [ 161. It increases discrepancies between reality and outdated attitudes and behavior.
Behavioral Dimension This dimension encompasses actual inducements of certain kinds of behavior as well as the transfer of mental patterns that create predispositions for certain kinds of behavior. The detrimental effect can
78
Eduard Stupening
range from a concrete act of consumption to mere perception and processing of an advertising message itself, influencing certain predispositions of behavior. The example central to the discussion is the consumption of sweets advertised on television. In order for the detrimental effect to occur, the sweets must be bought and consumed. This detrimental effect has two aspects: nutritional aspect (over-nutrition) dental health aspect (caries). An Austrian study showed that two-thirds of a sample of school children interviewed spent almost all their pocket money for sweets [ 181. Similar results are reported for the FRG, where children under 16 years are believed to have a purchasing power of about one billion dollars per year [2]. Indeed, the damaging effect of a high consumption of sugar seems unquestioned, at least when it is not compensated by adequate measures of dental hygiene. Scientific research on causes and development of caries shows that high sugar consumption plays a major role, and all other factors in this multicausal process play but subordinate roles [6]. High sugar consumption, which also has detrimental long-range effects on the physical constitution, is believed to be caused by ‘ ‘consumption pressure’ ’ exerted by industry and the mass media [2]. If television advertising increases the consumption of products containing a high proportion of sugar, it has to be regarded as one of the causes of this unwanted development. If in the foregoing the negative effect of TV advertising materialized only when it actually caused a certain behavior, there are other aspects where detrimental effects are caused by the pure act of perceiving the commercial, without any subsequent act of consumption having to occur. The argument here is much more subtle: since children are not as critical as adults, advertising can more easily cause the adoption of certain ego images basically characterized by consumption-oriented cognitive patterns [9]. This effect is caused merely by persistent perception of advertising, and is thus not linked to the purchase or consumption of a certain product. Perceptual Dimension From a psychological viewpoint, advertising effects can be located in different domains of the child’s perception. Some aspects of negative effects concern the cognitive realm, others the emotional sphere. In the cognitive realm advertising transmits knowledge about consumption and products, usually one-sided information. Once this knowledge has
Television
Ads and Children
79
become part of the child’s cognitive system, it can have long-range effects in influencing behavior. Such a behavioral effect, which is desired from the viewpoint of the advertiser, is to build up enduring brand loyalty. Advertisers can thus attempt to lay the foundations for such brand loyalty early in viewers’ childhood, even though the cognitive effects of the commercial cannot become behaviorally relevant until considerably later.~ This can result, however, in the perception of products as embodying an exaggerated symbolic quality. If it is assumed that children, at least up to a certain age, perceive TV advertising as a true mirror of reality, their view of reality will become one-sided or incomplete. Advertising praises kinds of behavior, mainly productrelated, that are positive, rewarding, and immediately problem-solving, while the main contemporary economic, social, and ecological problems are not even hinted at. This is a serious problem if it is taken into account that TV advertising is a main source of information for children, from which they draw an important part of their experiences. TV is usually characterized as a medium having high coverage, credibility, and actuality [ 121. As for the emotional realm, the arguments are different. Desires, needs, and fantasies are stimulated by creating artificial symbolic values, and assigning them to the advertised products. This replaces the child’s actual sensory experience of reality and causes a segmentation of the emotional need structure according to advertising criteria. This substitution of actual sensory experience must be regarded as particularly detrimental if it is taken into account that the child may be in a phase where the development of its needs as articulated toward the social environment takes place by means of fantasies, so that the needs of the child may be influenced by advertising in a phase where they are still developing [ 131. This is the emotional equivalent to the one-sided perception of the consumer world taking place in the cognitive realm. The problem becomes even more serious when emotional effects result that are not confined to mere consumption. The consumption of products may become the most important means of satisfying needs for respect, love, or self-fulfillment [ 191. This can occur if commercials activate children emotionally by stressing advantages and gains of consumption that cannot be verified or are not part of the product and hence cannot be consided product attributes. Developmental
Dimension
The development dimension is concerned with the effects of TV advertising on the child’s developmental process. Detrimental effects
80
Eduud
Sttcpening
can occur if intensive TV socialization inhibits other activities of the child and supports a decrease of social contacts, and an increase of “silent family communication” [4]. Winn [25] has described this effect of TV very dramatically. In order to understand this effect, TV advertising has to be understood as part of the more general phenomenon “television.” Television takes children’s time, which thus cannot be used for alternative activities like playing, social contacts, and the like. If these alternative activities are a prerequisite for the development of the child, and if no compensation exists, TV viewing produces a child development wanting in certain respects and characterized by deficits. Relating this causal chain to the development of the child as a consumer, it can be argued that TV advertising results in deficits in consumer education 1. because the time used by watching is not available for education from
their parents, 2. because it influences the child’s information procesing. The transfer of consumer-related content can be characterized as follows: passive role of the child in the communication process, onesided and unrealistic presentation of products, propagation of conservative consumption ideals, a general call for consumption without stressing the financial resources that have to be expended. This could be compensated by education or other sources of information. Thus the detrimental effect exists if the one-sided content of TV advertising becomes a main socializing factor without adequate compensatory measures. An obvious example exists where parents use TV as a substitute for their own educational efforts. Scherhom [ 171 develops the hypothesis that these influences further behavioral inconsistencies of consumers, especially young consumers, and thus inhibit adult consumers’ ability to reconsider their preferences in consumer purchase decisions. The development of certain consumer capabilities is restrained at an early stage. This point is also made by Ktibler [ 121, who believes it to be unquestionable that advertising contributes to a biased and ideologized perception of social reality, thus limiting children in their search for their own personal and social identity. Temporal Dimension This modifying dimension concerns the time span that elapses between the perception of a TV commercial and the resulting behavior viewed as negative. This may be an important point if certain models of behavior have been adopted in early childhood but become observable as deviant
Telrvisiorl
Ads and Children
81
behavior only several years later. An example of this is the claim that advertising, and especially TV advertising, characterizes the consumption of alcohol as a commonplace activity and tries to endow it with social prestige. This message is perceived by children and can later result in corresponding behavior. This can be regarded as a prerequisite for alcoholism among youths, which thus can be viewed as promoted by advertising. This example shows very well that detrimental effects of advertising can result at considerable temporal distance from the original broadcast. Supply Dimension This dimension is concerned with the way advertising messages are supplied to the TV viewer (i.e., with the relation between the television medium and the advertising message). As previously stated, in the FRG, all commercials are broadcast in blocks in the preevening program. Different from the situation in the United States, the commercials are interspersed with short animated cartoon films, and the commercial blocks are framed by special programs. These contain a large part of the programs directed toward children, and they are broadcast at a time when children are most likely to be watching TV. This is problematic because children, at least up to a certain age, are not able to recognize what commercials are basically about, namely products. Also, they view commercials and programs both as part of a common reality [ 181. Besides the positioning of commercials in the daily program, the design of the spots themselves has been criticized. It has been claimed that the dramaturgical design of commercials reinforces a short-range orientation of thinking and desire, and that the rapid change of pictures, events, and situations forces the child into a role of passive perception, since children can adapt to the speed of change of stimuli neither cognitively nor emotionally.
So&structural
Dimension
Arguments about detrimental effects have also been derived in the context of social structure and its differentiation. The message lowerclass children receive from TV advertising is mainly that they are disadvantaged because of the low income of their parents. This disadvantage can be interpreted by them as personal failure of their parents. This tendency may be enhanced by the behavior of lower-class parents. In the lower class, parents are especially apt to give in to
82
Edrtard Stupeping
consumption wants of their children and to be uncritical toward an adaptation of external standards of consumption [ 1 I]. Thus on the one hand advertising, causes an articulation of wants not in accord with financial means; on the other hand, this effect is most pronounced in families where this discrepancy is most serious. A related aspect is that advertising tries to use children as “consumption pioneers,” the first to articulate a certain want, and it may thereby cause intrafamily conflicts [9]. This has to be viewed against the background of the child’s developmental process. During the age of need formation, frustrating experiences can have such serious effects that criminality can result [ 191. Wagner [2] has named this “affluence discrepancy criminality. ” Summary
and Consequences
The various dimensions follows. TV advertising because it
of detrimental effects can cause detrimental
are summarized as effects to children
can socialize children in certain ways; can cause certain kinds of behavior and attitudes; can influence certain cognitive and emotional patterns; can inhibit the developmental process; can cause certain long-range effects; uses certain ways of medial communication; reinforces disparities that exist in the social structure. The protection of children from TV advertising has been attempted mainly by self-regulation of the advertising industry [3]. The West German advertising industry has adopted rules of conduct that reflect international conventions. According to these, TV advertising should not show anything that is not cogent to the natural sphere of children; contain direct calls to consumption directed toward children; contain direct calls toward children to ask others to consume; take advantage of the confidence children have in other persons; use advertising means like contests, sweepstakes, and so on; shed positive light on behavior that can be dangerous. Contrasting this recommendations solve the problem ongoing discussion listed here:
with the problems referred to above, we see that these take account of certain aspects, but are not able to in its entirety. The problems in the center of the are not addressed. The main problems remaining are
Television
83
Ads and Children
the influences on the child’s information processing; the high consumption of sweets; the parental capability to educate their children with regard to consumption and nutrition behavior; the reinforcement of problems concerning social inequality. This confrontation of current protection rules with the remaining problems characterizes a conflict potential that includes the question of legal regulation of advertising in the FRG. Inadequate scientific treatment of the problem and a basic willingness to compromise on part of the advertising industry have both resulted in a policy of the federal government that currently favors self-regulation. Still, public discussion continues. *Interviews and content analysis referred to in this article was conducted as part qf a project sponsored by the Federal Department of Youth, Family and Health, Federal Republic of Germany.
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