Development and Evaluation of a Text Mapping Strategy

DISCOURSE PROCESSING

A . FIammerand W. Kintsch (eds.) @ North-Holland Publishing Company, 1982

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY Donald F. Dansereau Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y Charles D. H o l l e y Texas C o l l e o e o f O s t e o p a t h i c M e d i c i n e

Networking i s a content-independent t e x t l e a r n i n a stragegy t h a t requires the student t o transform t e x t m a t e r i a l i n t o two-dimensional maps. Key ideas (nodes) a r e r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r by a s e t c f s i x e m p i r i c a l l y derived r e l a t i o n s h i o s ( l i n k s ) . This chapter consists o f a presentation o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f n e t w o r k i n g , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l assessments, a comoari s o n o f n e t w o r k i n c w i t h s D a t i a l t e x t s t r a t e o i e s developed i n o t h e r l a b o r a t o r i e s , and a d i s c u s s i o n o f the f u t u r e o f networking. INTRODUCTION U n t i l r e c e n t l y e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t s have been d i r e c t e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a t t h e improvement o f t e a c h i n g . As has been argued n r e v i o u s l y , t h i s endeavor has been o n l y m a r g i n a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n i m p r o v i n g s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g (Dansereau,l978). I n addition, i t i s clear that an e x c l u s i v e focus on i m p r o v i n o t e a c h i n g methods may l e a d t o i n a d v e r t e n t r e i n f o r c e n e n t o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e and n o n t r a n s f e r a b l e l e a r n i n p s t r a t e g i e s . For example, many t e a c h i n a and t e s t i n a methods i r n p l i c i t 1 . y encouraae r o t e m e m o r i z a t i o n by s p e c i f y i n o e x a c t l y what must be l e a r n e d , r e w a r d i n o verbat i m answers on t e s t s , and p u t t i n g l i t t l e emphasis on t h e development o f r e l a t i o n s h i o s between incominq and s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n . Rote memorization u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s m u l t i p l e r e a d i n g s o f t h e m a t e r i a l w i t h l i t t l e o r no e f f o r t devoted t o a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e m a t e r i a l l e a r n e d t h r o u g h t h i s method u s u a l l y i s n o t m e a n i n g f u l l y r e l a t e d t o o t h e r s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , which l i m i t s t h e f a c i l i t y w i t h which such i n f c r i l i a t i o n can be r e t r i e v e d a t a l a t e r d a t e . Such a s t r a t e o y , a l t h o u g h perhaos u s e f u l i n o u r p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l environments, i s m a l a d a o t i v e i n many j o b s i t u a t i o n s , where u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s more i m p o r t a n t than mere s t o r a g e . Although t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f r o t e m e m o r i z a t i o n have been emphasized, t h e same arguments p r o b a b l y a p p l y t o a l a r o e number o f o t h e r s t r a t e g i e s developed by s t u d e n t s t o cope w i t h a t e a c h i n g - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n . By n o t s t r e s s i n g l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s , e d u c a t o r s , i n essence, d i s c o u r a g e s t u d e n t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g and e x p l o r i n g new s t r a t e g i e s , and, i n S O d o i n g , l i m i t s t u d e n t s ' awareness o f t h e i r c o g n i t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s . For example, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f an e x t e n s i v e l e a r n i n p s t r a t e a y i n v e n t o r y (Dansereau, Lono, McDonald, & Actkinson, 1975a) i n d i c a t e t h a t even good c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s have v e r y l i t t l e knowledge o f a l t e r n a t i v e l e a r n i n c l techniques. T h i s l a c k o f awareness o b v i o u s l y l i m i t s an i n d i v i d u a l ' 5 5 36

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

537

a b i l i t y in a s i t u a t i o n requiring new learninq s t r a t e g i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , i f the s t r a t e g i e s t h a t individuals have spontaneously adopted d o not match t h e i r cognitive c a p a b i l i t i e s , the emotional t o l l may be very l a r q e . Most of us know individuals who spend inordinate amounts of time merorizina college o r high school t e x t materials and are s t i l l barely " q e t t i n q by." Such an i n d i v i d u a l ' s personal, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and social development must c e r t a i n l y s u f f e r from the pressures created by t h i s use of a r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t learnino s t r a t e g y . I n summary, exclusive emphasis on teaching methods may lead t o i n e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l manipulations, force students t o develop nontransferable and i n e f f i c i e n t s t r a t e g i e s , l i m i t a s t u d e n t ' s cognitive awareness, and, consequently, e x t r a c t a l a r g e emotional t o l l . The solution t o t h i s problem i s c l e a r : Educators and researchers should r e d i r e c t a t l e a s t some of t h e i r e f f o r t s t o t h e development and t r a i n i n g of appropriate learning s t r a t e g i e s and s k i l l s .

Over the l a s t four years t h e r e has been s u b s t a n t i a l progress made i n t h i s redirection of e f f o r t s . Two major volumes on learning s t r a t e g i e s have been published (O'Neil, 1978; O'Neil & Spielberger, 1979) and t h e National I n s t i t u t e of Education has established a separate granting program focused on cognitive s t r a t e g i e s . To provide f u r t h e r information on the present u t i l i t y and f u t u r e potential of learning stragegy research, t h i s paper describes the development and evaluation o f a s p e c i f i c t e x t processing s t r a t e g y (networking) t h a t has emerged from a programmatic e f f o r t t o c r e a t e a learning s t r a t e g i e s c u r r i c ul urn. Over the past four years t h e authors a n d t h e i r colleagues have developed, evaluated, and modified components of an i n t e r a c t i v e learning s t r a t e g y system. This system i s composed of both rimary s t r a t e g i e s , which a r e used t o operate on t h e t e x t material d i r e c t l y ' K c o m p r e h e n s i o n and memory s t r a t e g i e s ) and support s t r a t e g i e s , which a r e used by t h e l e a r n e r t o maint a i n a s u i t a b l e cognitive climate ( e . g . , concentration s t r a t e g i e s ) . Assessments of the overall s t r a t e g y system and system components i n d i c a t e t h a t s t r a t e g y t r a i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y improves performance on selected t e x t processing tasks ( C o l l i n s , Dansereau, Holley, Garland, & McDonald, 1981; Dansereau, 1978; Dansereau, C o l l i n s , McDonald, Holley, Garland, Diekhoff, & Evans, 1979a; Dansereau, McDonald, C o l l i n s , Garland, Holley, Diekhoff, & Evans, 1979b ; Hol l e y , Dansereau, McDonald, Gar1 a n d , & Coll i n s , 1979). The major component of t h e support s t r a t e g i e s i s concentration management. This component, which i s designed t o help t h e student s e t and maintain constructive moods f o r studying and task performance, c o n s i s t s of a combination of elements from systematic d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n (Jacobsen, 1938; Wolpe, 1969), r a t i o n a l behavior therapy ( E l l i s , 1963; Maultsby, 1971), and therapies based on p o s i t i v e s e l f - t a l k (Meichenbaum & Goodman, 1971; Meichenbaum & T u r k , Note 1 ) . The students a r e f i r s t given experiences and s t r a t e g i e s designed t o a s s i s t them in becoming aware of the negative a n d positive emotions, s e l f - t a l k , and images they generate in facing a learning t a s k . They a r e then i n s t r u c t e d t o evaluate t h e constructiveness of t h e i r internal dialogue and a r e given h e u r i s t i c s f o r making appropriate modifications. I n preparing f o r studying o r t e s t i n g sessions students reDort t h a t they

5 38

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

u s u a l l y spend l i t t l e o r no conscious e f f o r t e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e moods To remedy t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e s t u d e n t i s t r a i n e d on a t e c h n i q u e t h a t forms the basis o f systematic d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n : imagination o f t h e t a r g e t s i t u a t i o n d u r i n g r e l a x a t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e s t u d e n t s a r e i n s t r u c t e d t o spend 2 t o 3 minutes r e l a x i n g and t h e n i m a g i n i n g t h e i r a c t i o n s as t h e y proceed t h r o u g h a p r o d u c t i v e s t u d y o r t e s t session. To h e l p them m a i n t a i n t h e r e s u l t i n g mood t h e y a r e g i v e n experiences and t e c h n i q u e s t o a s s i s t them i n d e t e r m i n i n g when, how, and why t h e y g e t d i s t r a c t e d , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e i r d i s t r a c t i o n p e r i o d s , and t h e i r t y p i c a l r e a c t i o n s t o d i s t r a c t i o n . They a r e t h e n t r a i n e d t o cope w i t h d i s t r a c t i o n s by u s i n g r e l a x a t i o n and p o s i t i v e s e l f - t a l k and imagery t o r e e s t a b l i s h an a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g s t a t e . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n management s t r a t e g i e s has been shown t o l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r performance on t e x t p r o c e s s i n g t a s k s i n comparison t o s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h e i r own methods ( C o l l i n s e t a l . , 1981). These s t r a t e g i e s have been suDplemented by t r a i n i n g on g o a l - s e t t i n g , schedu l i n g , and o t h e r m o n i t o r i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o f o r m t h e supDort s t r a t e g y component of t h e program (see Dansereau, 197s). NETWORKING AND RELATED SPATIAL STRATEGIES Networking forms t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y system. D u r i n g a c q u i s i t i o n t h e s t u d e n t i d e n t i f i e s i m p o r t a n t conc e p t s o r i d e a s i n t h e m a t e r i a l and r e p r e s e n t s t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s t r u c t u r e i n t h e f o r m o f a network map. To a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t i n t h i s endeavor s/he i s t a u g h t a se o f named l i n k s t h a t can be used t o code t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between ideas.! The n e t w o r k i n q processes emphasize t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f ( a ) h i e r a r c h i e s ( t y p e / p a r t ) , ( b ) c h a i n s ( 1 i n e s o f r e a s o n i n g / t e m p o r a l o r d e r i n g s / c a u s a l sequences), and ( c ) c l u s t e r s (characteristics/definitions/analogies). F i g u r e 1 i s a schem a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r assoc i a t e d l i n k s and F i g u r e 2 i s an example o f a summary map of a n u r s i n g t e x t b o o k c h a p t e r . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e r e s u l t s i n t h e product i o n o f s t r u c t u r e d two-dimensional maps. These c o g n i t i v e networks p r o vide the student w i t h a s p a t i a l organization o f t h e information contained i n t h e o r i g i n a l t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s . While c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e map, t h e s t u d e n t i s encouraged t o paraphrase and/or draw p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e i m p o r t a n t i d e a s and concepts f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e network. When faced w i t h a t e s t o r a t a s k i n which t h e l e a r n e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s t o be used, t h e s t u d e n t i s t r a i n e d t o use t h e named l i n k s as r e t r i e v a l cues and t h e n e t w o r k i n g process as a method f o r o r g a n i z i n g t h e m a t e r i a l p r i o r t o responding. Assessments o f n e t w o r k i n g (Dansereau e t a l . , 1979b; H o l l e y e t a l . , 1979) have shown t h a t s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h i s s t r a t e g y p e r f o r m s i p n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on t e x t p r o c e s s i n g t a s k s t h a n do s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h e i r own methods. -.

1

.

. . . .-

E a r l i e r versions o f networkinp contained t h i r t e e n experimenter-provided link:. Houever, s t u d e n t s f o u n d i t u n w i e l d y t o remember and a p p l y t h i s number of r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A subsequent v e r s i o n o f n e t w o r k i n g used f o u r e x p e r i m e n t e r - p r o v i d e d l i n k s , b u t t h i s system d i d n o t appear t o p r o v i d e t h e s t u a t n t s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l i n t h e i r networks. The s i x - l i n k system appears t o be a s a t i s f a c t o r y compromise between g e n e r a l i t y and specificity.

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

Structure

Hi era r c hy

539

Link

Description

Part ( o f )

The content in a lower node i s p a r t of t h e o b j e c t , idea, process or concept contained in a higher node.

p a r t of segment of portion of

Type ( o f ) / Example ( o f )

The content in a lower node i s a member o r example of t h e c l a s s or category o r processes, ideas, concepts, or objects contained- in a higher node.

type of category example of kind of Three "x" a r e

The o b j e c t , process, concept, o r idea i n one node leads t o o r r e s u l t s in t h e o b j e c t , process, idea, or concept in another node.

leads t o r e s u l t s in causes i s a tool of produces

T h e o b j e c t , idea, process, or concept in one node i s analogous t o , s i m i l a r t o , corresponds t o , o r i s l i k e the o b j e c t , idea, process, o r concept i n another node.

similar t o analogous t o like corresponds t o

Characteristic

The o b j e c t , i d e a , process, o r concept in one node i s a t r a i t , aspect, quality, feature, attribute, detail o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the o b j e c t , process, concept, o r idea in another node.

has characterized feature property trait aspect attribute

Evidence

The o b j e c t , idea, process, or concept in one node provides evidence, f a c t s , d a t a , support, proof, documentation, o r confi rmation f o r t h e o b j e c t , idea, process, o r concept in another node.

indicates illustrates demonstrates supports documents proof of confirms evidence of

& Leads t o

z Analogy T.C.U

factory

Cluster

Figure 1 Link Types and S t r u c t u r e Types Employed with t h e Networking Technique

Key Words

cn

P 0

Y

z

Ln

--1

W

c 0

rl 0 z

D r

cI

granulation tissues ( f i b r o b l a s t s and small blood vessels) grow a l o n g f i b r i n network and g r a d u a l l j absorb i t

- - i n c i s i o n (sharp c u t t i n g instrument) --abrasion (scraping o r rubbing) --puncture/stab

(nail, bullet)

- - l a c e r a t i o n ( b l u n t instrument) C

may o c c u r i n any c o m b i n a t i o n

c \

L

epithelial c e l l s grow i n f r o m ed es

Figure 2 Example o f a Network o f a Chapter f r o m a N u r s i n g Textbook

/l

tissue continuity

H

0

small blood vessels disappear and s c a r

soft, pink,

P

4 H

0

z

Ln

54 1

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY Concomitant w i t h t h e development o f n e t w o r k i n g , two o t h e r l a b o r a t o r i e s were a l s o embarked on l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s t o develop s i m i l a r s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s . These l a b o r a t o r i e s a r e t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s (Urbana-Champaign) which developed a t e c h n i q u e c a l l e d mapDing and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Amsterdam which developed a t e c h n i q u e c a l l e d s c h e m a t i z i n g .

L i k e n e t w o r k i n g , each o f these t e c h n i q u e s r e q u i r e s t h e s t u d e n t s t o c o n v e r t p r o s e m a t e r i a l i n t o two-dimensional n o d e - l i n k diagrams. The nodes r e p r e s e n t i m p o r t a n t i d e a s o r concepts and t h e l i n k s r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between i d e a s . These t e c h n i q u e s , a l o n g w i t h n e t w o r k i n g , a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y i n t h a t t h e y p r o v i d e a f o r m a l , e a s i l y l e a r n e d , f l e x i b l e system f o r r e - r e p r e s e n t i n g t e x t m a t e r i a l . U n l i k e more c o n t e n t dependent t e c h niques (e.g., m a t r i x i n g , f l o w c h a r t i n g , c o n s t r u c t j n g p i c t u r e s ) , t h e s e systems can be used w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f t e x t . F u r t h e r , t h e y can p o t e n t i a l l y be used t o enhance n o t o n l y l e a r n e r a c t i v i t i e s , b u t t e a c h i n g and t e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s as w e l l . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g n e t w o r k i n g i n g r e a t e r det a i l a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e mapping and s c h e m a t i z i n g s t r a t e g i e s and t h e i r s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e w i l l be p r e s e n t e d . MAPPING AND SCHEMATIZING AS SPATIAL STRATEGIES Mapping was developed a t t h e Center f o r t h e Study o f Reading, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s (Urbana-Champaign) by T. H. Anderson and h i s c o l l e a g u e s ( e . g . , T. H. Anderson, 1979; T. H. Anderson & Armbruster, 1981; Armbruster, Note 2; Armbruster & T. H. Anderson, Note 3; Armbruster & S c h a l l e r t , Note 4 ) . T. H. Anderson (1979) c r e d i t s Hauf (1971) and M e r r i t t ( M e r r i t t , P r i o r , Grugeon, & Grugeon, 1977) as p r e c u r s o r s t o mapping. I n p a r t i c u l a r , Hauf (1971) used an elementary approach t o mapping which i n v o l v e d p l a c i n g t h e c e n t r a l i d e a o f a passage n e a r t h e m i d d l e o f a n o t e page and a t t a c h i n g t h e subsidiary ideas i n a concentric fashion, thus producing a product r e sembling a r o a d map. T . H. Anderson (1979) argued t h a t any mapping scheme " s h o u l d have t h e f l e x i b i l i t y and s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e one d i s c u s s e d by Hauf (1971), b u t a l s o s h o u l d be capable o f s u c c i n c t l y r e p r e s e n t i n g a v a r i e t y o f r e 1a t ion s h ips " ( pp 93- 94) .

.

I n mapping, t h e s t u d e n t l e a r n s a s e t o f r e l a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s o r symbols. These e x p e r i m e n t e r - p r o v i d e d symbols p r o v i d e f o r d e p i c t i n g seven fundamental r e l a t i o n s h i p s between two i d e a s , e.g., and B. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e : ( a ) B i s an i n s t a n c e o f (b) B i s a property o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A; ( c ) A s i m i l a r t o 5; ( d ) i s g r e a t e r t h a n o r l e s s t h a n B; ( e ) occurs F e f o r e B; ( f ) causes B and ( 9 ) i s t h e n e g a t i o n o f 5. Addit i o n a l l y , two s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i d e n t i f y as an i m p o r t a n t . i d e a o r a d e f i n i t i o n ; t h e c o n n e c t i v e s and and tr a r e a l s o used. A p p l i c a t i o n . o f mapping r e s u l t s i n t h e produ-on o f s t r u c t u r e d two-dimensional diagrams such as t h e example shown i n F i g u r e 3.

ix

A

A; A

A

A

A

A

The e x p e r i m e n t a l s u p p o r t f o r mapping is sparse, b u t t h e few s t u d i e s t h a t have been conducted i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e f a c i l i t a t e s delayed r e c a l l o f s h o r t n a r r a t i v e p r o s e (e.g., Armbruster, Note 2; Armbruster & T. H. Anderson, Note 3 ) . One i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i s t h a t t h e y emp l o y e d m i d d l e school s t u d e n t s as s u b j e c t s v i s - s - v i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o l l e g e sophomore. The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e s between mapping and n e t w o r k i n g appear t o be t h a t the former strategy: ( a ) emphasizes l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n abs t r a c t i o n o f an o v e r a l l framework o r schema, and ( b ) employs s p a t i a l repre:

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

542

MATERIAL POSSESSIONS

COME IN CONTACT WITH OTHER GROUPS

FEW IN NUMBER EASILY TRANSPORTABLE

SLAVERY Legend B is a characteristic or property o f A C is an example or instance o f A

2.

A-B

A causes B

Figure 3 Example o f a Map of a Soc io1ogy Passage

DEVELOPMENT A N D EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

543

sentation of r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r than 7abeled r e l a t i o n s h i p s . With respect t o tne f i r s t d i f f e r e n c e , T . H . Anderson (1979) argued t h a t applicat i o n of mapping t o e n t i r e t e x t chapters was too time consuming a n d reccommended t h a t the s t r a t e q y be employed f o r each imoortant task outcome (e.g., potential t e s t item on a chapter t e s t ) . However, Holley e t a l . (1979) argued t h a t the a b s t r a c t i o n of an overall framework (macrostructure) f o r ecologically oriented passages ( e . g . , textbook chapters) was an important f e a t u r e of a mapDinp s t r a t e a y ( i . e . , networkinq). With respect t o the second d i f f e r e n c e , whether the r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e depicted graphica7ly o r labeled may be i r r e l e v a n t - - a s lono as they are depicted. Whichever method i s eventually demonstrated t o be simpler f o r students t o comprehend a n d apply would probably determine which ( i f e i t h e r ) method i s superior. Schematizing was developed a t the Center f o r Research i n t o Higher Educat i o n ( C O W O ) , University of Amsterdam ( e . g . , Breuker, Note 5 ; Camstra, Note 6 ; Mirande, Note 7; van Brugqer, Note 8 ) . According t o Brtle',er (Note 5 ) , the t h e o r e t i c a l underpinnings f o r schematizinp a r e an e c l e c t i c blend of node-arc representations ( e . g . , F r i j d a , 1972), schema notions ( e . g . , R. Anderson, Spiro, & Montague, 1977; Winograd, 1975), macrostructure (e.g., van Dijk, 1977), episodic-semantic memory d i s t i n c t i o n s ( e . g . , Tulving, 1972); and a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e (e.cj., Winston, 1977). Schematizing involves the labeling (and, where appropriate, t h e c l u s t e r i n g ) of concepts and t h e depiction of r e l a t i o n s h i p s between concepts via l i n e s which a r e annotated t o r e f l e c t seven types o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s (Mirande, Note 7 ) . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s and annotations a r e presented i n Table 1 . App l i c a t i o n o f t h e technique r e s u l t s i n the production of serially-organlzed ( l e f t t o r i g h t ) , two-dimensional diagrams of a passage. Schematizing i s s i m i l a r t o networking, and d i f f e r e n t from mapping, in t h a t i t uses annotated l i n e s t o depict r e l a t i o n s h i p s between concepts and emphas i z e s the e x t r a c t i o n o f an overall framework or macrostructure. I t i s d i f f e r e n t from networkinq in the types of r e l a t i o n s depicted, the method of annotation t h a t i s used (as previously argued, such differences may be i r r e l e v a n t ) , and t h e organizational s t r u c t u r e of the r e s u l t i n q diagrams ( s e r i a l vis-2-vis h i e r a r c h i c a l ) . The importance ( i f any) of t h i s l a t t e r difference has not been demonstrated.

As with mapping, l i t t l e experimental evidence i s available t o support ( o r r e f u t e ) the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of schematizing. The majority of s t u d i e s t h a t have been conducted a r e of a " f i e l d study" nature and a r e Tore along t h e l i n e s of formative r a t h e r than summative evaluations. Nonetheless, the technique has been shown t o be an e f f e c t i v e processing a i d i n t h e context of a general study s k i l l s course (Camstra, Metten, & Mirande, Note 9 ) . During the remainder of t h i s paper we w i l l present the foundations of networking, more d e t a i l on the empirical evaluations and a discussion o f future directions. FOUNDATIONS OF NETWORKING

Dansereau, Long, McDonald, Actkinson, E l l i s , C o l l i n s , Williams, and Evans (1976) explored the u t i l i t y of imagery (drawina), paraphrasing, and questioning as techniques f o r students t o use i n re-representing textbook material. On a delayed (1 week a f t e r study) essay t e s t over four 1,000-

544

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Table 1 R e l a t i o n s h i p Symbols Employed w i t h t h e Schemati z a t i on Techniquea Re1a t i o n s h i p

Symbol

S im i 1a r it y

Interaction

*

L

Denial o f S i m i l a r i t y Denial o f a S t a t i c Relation D e n i a l o f a Dynamic R e l a t i o n Negative Influence P o s i t i v e I n f 1 uence a

---7L-,

w o

-@

L i n e s r e p r e s e n t s t a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s (e.g., c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , p r o p e r t i e s , time/space, comparisons) ; arrows r e p r e s e n t dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p s (e.g. , c o n d i t i o n a l ,. c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t ) .

word passages, t h e o r d e r o f mean performance from t e s t t o w o r s t was: paraphrase, imagery, question-answer, and c o n t r o l s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h e i r own s t u d y methods. The performances o f t h e Daraphrase and imapery qroups were s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e c o n t r o l proup. S t u d i e s conducted by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s have a l s o i n d i c a t e d p o s i t i v e f i n d i n g s f o r parap h r a s i n g (Andre & Sola, 1976), imagery/drawing (Kulhavy & Swenson, 1975; L e v i n & Divine-Hawkins, 1974; Rasco, Tennyson, & B o u t w e l l , 1974), and s e l f generated q u e s t i o n s (Frase & Schwartz, 1975). I n g e n e r a l , r e s e a r c h a l o n a t h e s e l i n e s has used r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t bodies o f p r o s e m a t e r i a l ( u s u a l l y 1500 words o r l e s s ) . With t h i s amount o f m a t e r i a l , a b s t r a c t i o n of an u n d e r l y i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n may n o t be as d i f f i c u l t o r as c r i t i c a l as i t i s f o r 1onger.passages. A number o f r e s e a r c h e r s have suggested t h a t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f an o r g a n i z i n g framework o r schema i s necessary f o r comp l e t e understanding, and may a i d i n t h e r e t e n t i o n o f d e t a i l s ( e . g . , B r a n s f o r d & Johnson, 1974; Rumelhart, 1975). Consequently, w i t h l o n g e r bodies o f m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s t h a t emphasize t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f an o r g a n i z i n g framework o r schema may be more e f f e c t i v e than l o c a l i z e d s t r a t e g i e s such as p a r a p h r a s i n g , imaging, and q u e s t i o n i n g . I n response t o t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s t h e n e t w o r k i n g t e c h n i q u e was developed. T h i s t e c h n i q u e was designed t o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t i n r e o r g a n i z i n g passage i n f o r m a t i o n based on p r i n c i p l e s a b s t r a c t e d f r o m r e l a t i o n s h i p based models o f l o n g t e r m memory. Q u i l l i a n (1968) suggested t h a t human memory may be o r g a n i z e d as a network composed o f i d e a s o r concepts (nodes) and named r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e concepts ( l i n k s ) . F o r example, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( l i n k s ) between t h e concepts ( n o d e s ) , , b i r d , p a r r o t , o f b i r d and " A and c o l o r f u l can be expressed as, " A p a r r o t i s a

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

545

p a r r o t can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as c o l o r f u l . " These n o d e - l i n k r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be r e p r e s e n t e d s p a t i a l l y as f o l l o w s :

1

type

characteristic

Since Q u i l l i a n ' s e a r l y work, a number of network models o f memory have been proposed and t e s t e d (e.g., J . R. Anderson, 1972; J . R. Anderson & Bower, 1973; Bobrow & Winograd, 1977; Rumelhart, L i n d s a y , & Norman, 1972). The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e e f f o r t s i n d i c a t e t h a t a t l e a s t some aspects of human memory can be f u n c t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d as networks. I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l system t h a t may be c l o s e r t o t h e way i n f o r m a t i o n i s s t o r e d i n human memory, t h e n e t w o r k i n g procedure r e q u i r e s t h e l e a r n e r t o engage i n a number o f a c t i v i t i e s which have been h y p o t h e s i z e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t e x t p r o c e s s i n g . These a c t i v i t i e s in c l ude :

1. V i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i d e a s p r e s e n t e d (e.g., R. Anderson & Kulhavy, 1972; Dansereau, Long, McDonald, Actkinson, C o l l i n s , Evans, E l l i s , & W i l l i a m s , 1975b; Kulhavy & Swenson, 1975; Lesqold, McCormick, & G o l i n k o f f , 1972; L e v i n & Divine-Hawkins, 1974; Nelson, 1979; P a i v i o , 1976). 2. I n c r e a s e d p r o c e s s i n q t o d e t e r m i n e key i d e a s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s (e.g., J. Anderson & Reder, 1979; C r a i k & L o c k h a r t , 1972; C r a i k & T u l v i n g , 1975; Jacoby & C r a i k , 1979; Reder, 1980). 3. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f schemata o r o r g a n i z e r s f o r subsequent encounters w i t h t h e t e x t (e.g., R. C. Anderson, 1977; R. C. Anderson, S p i r o , & M. C. Anderson, 1978; Ausubel, 1963; B r a n s f o r d , 1979; Rianey & Munro, Note 10; Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977). 4. R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e t e x t i n f o r m a t i o n (e.g., BiVesta, S c h u l t z , & Dangel, 1973; Frase, 1969; H o l l e y e t a l . , 1979; Myers, 1974; P e r l m u t t e r & Royer, 1973; Shimmerlik, 1978).

5. Development o f a c u i n g system t o f a c i l i t a t e subsequent r e t r i e v a l (e.g., C r a i k & Jacoby, 1975; Jacoby, 1974; T u l v i n g , 1974; T u l v i n g & Thompson, 1973). Improved performance due t o t h e use o f n e t w o r k i n g is p r o b a b l y t h e r e s u l t o f some c o m b i n a t i o n o f these and o t h e r f a c t o r s . To p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r i m p r o v i n g t h i s s t r a t e g y , one would l i k e t o know which f a c t o r s a r e p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l o f success. Consequently, s t u d i e s s h o u l d be designed t o e v a l u a t e v e r s i o n s o f n e t w o r k i n g which have been m o d i f i e d t o e l i m i n a t e o r a m p l i f y s e t s o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y l i s t e d activities. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t such an approach can c a p i t a l i z e on t h e p o t e n t i a l r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s t r a t e q y a p p l i c a t i o n and b a s i c c o g n i t i v e / e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s . On t h e one hand, n o t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s e t h e o r i e s can p r o v i d e h e u r i s t i c s f o r s e l e c t i n g e f f e c t i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n s of

546

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

t h e s t r a t e q y . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t r a i n i n q and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t r a t e g y can serve as an arena f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t t o t h e development o f b a s i c t h e o r i e s o f t e x t p r o c e s s i n g . I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s r o l e as a t e x t l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y , n e t w o r k i n p a l s o appears t o have p o t e n t i a l f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g communication (e.p., t e a c h i n g and w r i t i n g ) and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ( p e r s o n a l as w e l l as o b j e c t i v e ) processes. Networks a r e p o t e n t i a l l y more amenable t o a v a r i e t y o f m a n i p u l a t i o n s (e.g., If p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g processes) t h a n a r e n a t u r a l language r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . t h e s e s p e c u l a t i o n s a r e a c c u r a t e t h e s t u d e n t s can be t a u g h t t h e b a s i c conc e p t s of n e t w o r k i n g and t h e n g i v e n t r a i n i n g on a p p l y i n g t h i s general p u r pose t o o l t o t e x t , communication, and v a r i o u s t y p e s o f problems. These p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n a subsequent s e c t i o n . P r i o r t o t h a t , however, we w i l l p r e s e n t a b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h e n e t w o r k i n g r e s e a r c h t h a t has been conducted t o d a t e . EVALUATIONS OF NETWORKING One aspect o f t h e i n i t i a l s t u d y i n t h i s domain compared a combined parap h r a s e l i m a g e r y s t r a t e g y w i t h normal s t u d y methods on a 3,000-word t e x t book passage ( l o n g e r m a t e r i a l t h a n t y p i c a l l y used i n p r i o r l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y e x p e r i m e n t s ) and showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s (Dansereau, McDonald, C o l l i n s , Garland, H o l l e y , D i e k h o f f , & Evans, 1979b). I n t h a t same s t u d y a planned comparison between performance o f a groucl u s i n g n e t w o r k i n g and performance o f a group u s i n g t h e i r own methods was s i g n i f i c a n t ( H o l l e y , Dansereau, McDonald, Garland, & C o l l i n s , 1979); on t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e t e s t designed t o t a p r e t e n t i o n o f t h e main i d e a s t h e n e t w o r k i n g group performed aclproximately 42% h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o n t r o l qroup. H o l l e y e t a l . (1979) conducted a more c o n t r o l l e d assessment o f a networki n g s t r a t e g y u s i n g a 3,000-word passage e x t r a c t e d f r o m a geology t e x t b o o k . Treatment s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e d 5.5 hours o f n e t w o r k i n g t r a i n i n g p r i o r t o s t u d y i n g t h e passage and were compared t o a "no-treatment'' c o n t r o l group which used t h e i r normal s t u d y methods on t h e passage (see H o l l e y & Dansereau, 1981, f o r e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e ) . F i v e days a f t e r s t u d y i n g , t h e s t u d e n t s were g i v e n t h e f o l l o w i n g sequence o f t e s t s o v e r t h e m a t e r i a l : essay ( f r e e r e c a l l ) , short-answer, m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e , and a summary-oriented concept c l o z e (see B a t t i g , 1979, f o r an e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s t e s t i n g sequence).

A H o t e l l i n g T2 t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e n e t w o r k i n g group s i g n i f i c a n t l y outperformed t h e c o n t r o l group on t h e dependent measures. F u r t h e r analyses showed t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s between groups were a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e concept c l o z e and essay exams, b o t h o f which were designed t o assess performance on "main i d e a s . " T h i s p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s suggests t h a t the strategy i s valuable i n a s s i s t i n g t h e student i n the e x t r a c t i o n and r e t e n t i o n o f main i d e a s b u t does n o t appear t o a f f e c t t h e e x t r a c t i o n and r e t e n t i o n o f d e t a i l s ; t h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r l e s s w e l l - c o n t r o l l e d e v a l u a t i o n s o f n e t w o r k i n g ( e . a . , Dansereau e t a l . , 1979a and b ) . A d d i t i o n a l l y , p o s t hoc 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l analyses o f h i g h and l o w grade p o i n t average (GPA) subgroups i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t r a t e g y may be more b e n e f i c i a l f o r low GPA s t u d e n t s . Vaughn (Note 1 1 ) and Vaughn, S t i l l m a n , and Sabers (Note 1 2 ) have develoDed a s t r a t e g y (Concept S t r u c t u r i n p ) which i s c o n c e p t u a l l y s i m i l a r t o n e t w o r k i n g and argued t h a t , i n two s t u d i e s , s t u d e n t s who used t h i s

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

547

procedure had b e t t e r immediate and delayed r e c a l l o f general i d e a s , rnidl e v e l ideas, d e t a i l s , f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f e r e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n . However, due t o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f l a w s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l designs, Vaughn (Note 1 1 ) c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t o v e r - g e n e r a l i z i n g t h e s e f i n d i n g s . Vaughn's procedure appears t o l a c k t h e s t r u c t u r a l emphasis o f t h e o r i a i n a l n e t w o r k i n g s t r a t e g y and a l s o leaves t h e l i n k s u n l a b e l e d . With r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t d i f f e r e n c e , H o l l e y e t a l . (1979) arqued t h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r a l emphasis was i m p o r t a n t w i t h l o n g e r passages o f t e x t . While Vauqhn (Note 11 ) employed l o n g e r passages and o b t a i n e d o o s i t i v e r e s u l t s , t h e methodo l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d i e s do n o t a l l o w d e f i n i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s t o be drawn. W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e second d i f f e r e n c e , T. H. Anderson (1979) argued t h a t an i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s was t h a t s t u d e n t s c o u l d " r e c o r d ... t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among i d e a s " ( p . 9 3 ) . Whether o r n o t t h e s t u d e n t uses e x p e r i m e n t e r - p r o v i d e d o r s t u d e n t - g e n e r a t e d " l a b e l s " i s probably i r r e l e v a n t (except f o r i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g purooses), b u t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s would seem t o be e s s e n t i a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r delayed r e v i e w o f t h e s p a t i a l a i d s . Long (Note 13; Long, Hein, & Coggiola, Note 1 4 ) has s u c c e s s f u l l y employed n e t w o r k i n g as a s p a t i a l s t r a t e g y w i t h h e a r i n g - i m p a i r e d s t u d e n t s . 2 However, h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n o f n e t w o r k i n g a l s o l a c k s t h e s t r u c t u r a l emphasis o f t h e o r i g i n a l approach. Since L o n g ' s e v a l u a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y employed s h o r t , n a r r a t i v e passages t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n p r o b a b l y d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s . To date, t h e e m p i r i c a l work s u p p o r t i n g t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e n e t w o r k i n g s t r a t e g y and s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s i n g e n e r a l has been r e l a t i v e l y sparse. To p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r subsequent e v a l u a t i o n and improvement o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s , s t u d i e s s h o u l d be conducted t o determine t h e c r i t i c a l aspects o f t h e s t r a t e g i e s . E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s , and t o a l a r g e e x t e n t l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s i n g e n e r a l , poses a unique s e t of problems and concerns t h a t r e q u i r e r e s o l u t i o n . The m a j o r concerns can be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1. S t r a t e g y t r a i n i n g - - T h i s i n v o l v e s s e l e c t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e and economi c a l t r a i n i n g methods, d u r a t i o n s , and i n c e n t i v e s .

2. Measurement o f e f f e c t s -- M u l t i p l e measures a r e needed t o converge m t h e l o c u s o f s t r a t e g y t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s ( c f . J e n k i n s , 1979).

3. Experimental d e s i g n and analyses - - A p p r o p r i a t e e m p i r i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l c o n t r o l s a r e necessary t o disambiquate a l t e r n a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t s ( c f . H o l l e y & Dansereau, 1981). These problems, and p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n s , have been examined i n d e t a i l elsewhere (e.g., Dansereau, 1981; H o l l e y & Dansereau, 1981). F u t u r e r e search i n t h i s domain s h o u l d be based on c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s e issues. 2

D r . Long was a member o f t h e r e s e a r c h team a t Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y which developed t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s o f n e t w o r k i n g . A f t e r h i s t r a n s f e r t o Rochester I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Deaf, he developed h i s own m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o n e t w o r k i n g and a p p l i e d t h e t e c h n i q u e w i t h h e a r i n g - i m p a i r e d s t u d e n t s .

548

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

THE FUTURE OF NETWORKING To a l a r g e e x t e n t t h e comments made i n t h i s s e c t i o n a p p l y t o o t h e r s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s as w e l l as n e t w o r k i n a . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c e m p i r i c a l work t h a t i s needed t o e s t a b l i s h parameters and boundary c o n d i t i o n s r e l e v a n t t o n e t w o r k i n g as a t e x t p r o c e s s i n g s t r a t e g y , t h e f o l l o w i n g p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f n e t w o r k i n g appear t o w a r r a n t s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

1. E v a l u a t i o n of s t u d e n t s . Surber and h i s c o l l e a g u e s (Surber, Harper, & Smith, Note 1 5 ; Surber, Smith, & Harper, Note 1 6 ) have begun work on a p r o j e c t f o r u s i n g mapping ( t h e t e c h n i q u e developed a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s ) as a v e h i c l e f o r t e s t i n g and d i a g n o s t i c s . E a r l y r e s u l t s f r o m t h i s p r o j e c t have shown moderate v a l i d i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t r a d i t i o n a l obj e c t i v e t e s t s , and h i g h i n t e r r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t i e s . C o n c e p t u a l l y , i t seems reasonable t o expect t h a t a b i l i t y t o network ( i . e . , t o d i s c o v e r and o r g a n i z e m e a n i n g f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among i d e a s , o b j e c t s , and a c t i o n s ) s h o u l d be r e l a t e d t o g e n e r a l r e a d i n g comprehension a b i l i t y . I f t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n i s borne o u t , n e t w o r k i n g may s e r v e as an a l t e r n a t i v e assessment and d i a g n o s t i c device. I n f a c t , t h e noun phrases i n a body o f t e x t can be r e p l a c e d by nonmeaningful symbols. A s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y t o network t h i s m a t e r i a l would seem t o r e f l e c t a t y p e o f comDrehension s k i l l t h a t i s separable f r o m v o c a b u l a r y l e v e l and p r i o r knowledae.

2. Text a n a l y s i s . Since i t i d e n t i f i e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g concepts, n e t w o r k i n g may be a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r e v a l u a t i n g c o n t e n t and c o n t e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n . F o r example, a r e t h e i d e a s i n t h e t e x t l o g i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d ? Are t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between i d e a s unambiguous? Since t h e n e t w o r k i n g t y p e o f a n a l y s i s would be gene r a l l y a t a more macro l e v e l when compared t o a n a l y t i c a l schemes such as t h o s e o f Meyer (1975) o r K i n t s c h and van D i j k (1978), i t may p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e supplement t o t h e s e e x i s t i n g approaches. F u r t h e r t h e ease and/ o r accuracy w i t h which a t e x t can be networked may p r o v i d e a more v a l i d index o f comprehensibility ( r e a d a b i l i t y ) than i s p r e s e n t l y available. 3. F a c i l i t a t i o n of t e a c h i n q / c o m u n i c a t i n n . From t h e t e a c h e r ' s perspect i v e n e t w o r k i n g can be used i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f l e c t u r e s as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o o u t l i n i n g . Also, t e a c h e r - p r e p a r e d networks can be p r e s e n t e d as advance and p o s t o r g a n i z e r s . A d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s may be d e r i v e d f r o m u s i n g networks i n t e a c h i n g s t u d e n t s who a r e employing n e t w o r k i n a as a learning strategy.

Networking can be used t o f a c i l i t a t e group communications by p r o v i d i n g a mechanism f o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o r g a n i z i n g and m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e t a s k space. T h i s approach has been used i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a g r a d u a t e psychology semin a r a t Texas C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r s i t y . S u b j e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e approach i n d i c a t e t h a t i t has s u b s t a n t i a l promise as a communication f a c i l i t a t o r .

4. Problem s o l v i n g . Research i s b e i n g conducted t o determine t h e v a l u e o f n e t w o r k i n g as a t o o l f o r c r e a t i n g m a n i p u l a b l e problem spaces. I n f o r mal e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h i s approach have i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t has s u b s t a n t i a l p o t e n t i a l i n a s s i s t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n comprehending problems and determining p o t e n t i a l c o r r e c t i v e actions. We have j u s t b a r e l y s c r a t c h e d t h e s u r f a c e i n examining t h e u t i l i t y of n e t w o r k i n g and o t h e r s i m i l a r s p a t i a l s t r a t e g i e s . M a j o r s y s t e m a t i c r e search and development e f f o r t s a r e needed b e f o r e t h e promise of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s can be f u l l y r e a l i z e d .

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY Reference

549

Notes

of

Meichenbaum, D. H. & Turk, D. The c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l management a n x i e t y , anger, and p a i n . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Seventh B a n i f f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on B e h a v i o r a l M o d i f i c a t i o n , Canada, 1975. Armbruster, B. B. An i n v e s t i a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of "mapping" as 5 s t u d y i n g s t r a t e g y f:r m i d d l e school s t u d e n t s . Unpublished d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , 1979.

-t e_x t

Armbruster, €3. B., & Anderson, T. H. The e f f e c t o f maopinq on t h e o f expository (Tech. K . 1 6 0 ) T h. a m p a i g n ,TlE Center f o r t h e Study o f Reading, U n i v e r s i t y o f I 1 1 i n o i s , February 1980.

text

-f r _ e e_ r e_ c a_ ll 4.

Armbruster, B. B., & S c h a l l e r t , D. L. Understanding t e x t t h r o u g h mapping. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e annual m e e t i n g o f t h e N a t i o n a l Reading Conference, San Diego, Ca., December 1980.

5.

Breuker, J . A. T h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s of s c h e m a t i z a t i o n s : From macrostructures conceptual frames. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e EARDHE I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference, K l a g e n f u r t , A u s t r i a , January 1979.

6.

" l e a r n i n g & schematizing." Camstra, 6. E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e EARDHE I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference, K l a g e n f u r t , A u s t r i a , January 1979.

7

Mirande, M. Schematizing: Techniques fi a p p l i c a t i o n s . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e EARDHE I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference, K l a g e n f u r t , A u s t r i a , January 1979.

8.

van Brugger, J. M.

9.

& Mirande, M. E f f e c t o n d e r z o e k van enn Manuscript a v a i l a b l e from the f i r s t a u t h o r , Center f o r Research i n t o H i g h e r Education (COWO), U n i v e r s i t y o f Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Camstra, B.,

Personal communication, June 11, 1979.

Metten, A.,

studievaardigheidscursus.

10.

Rigney, J. W., & Munro, A. On c o g n i t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r p r o c e s s i n g t e x t (Tech. Rep. 8 0 ) . Los A z e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a , B e h a v i o r a l Technology L a b o r a t o r i e s , March 1977.

11.

-eJ c o n s t r u c t procedure f o s t e r s a c t i v e r e a d i n g and Vaughn, J. L. T l e a r n i n g . M a n u s c r i p t a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e a u t h o r , C o l l e g e o f Education, East Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Commerce, Texas.

12.

Vaughn, J. L., S t i l l m a n , P. L., & Sabers, D. L. C o n s t r u c t i o n of i d e a t i o n a l s c a f f o l d s during reading. Manuscript a v a i l a b l e from the f i r s t a u t h o r , C o l l e g e o f Education, East Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Comerce, Texas.

13.

Long, G. L. D i s s e c t i n prose passages t h r o u g h semantic mapping: Procedures f o d . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e annual m e e t i n g of t h e a l Reading C k e r e n c e , San Diego, Ca., December 1980.

5 50 14.

15.

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS Long, G. L.,

Hein, R. D., & Coggiola, D. C. Networkin. : A Semantics t r a t e g y f o r i m p r o v i n g prose comprehensyon T T e c h . . National Technical R & D Paper S e r i e s No. 2 r Rochester, N. Y . : I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Deaf, Department o f Research and Development, September 1978.

based l e a r n i n g

Surber, J. R., Harper, F . , & Smith, P. L. T r a i n i n q s t u d e n t s t o t a k e _ t e s_ ts _ w r_ itt_ en _ i n text-map f o r m a t (Tech. R e p T 2 ) . i l w a u k e e : U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1980.

16.

Department o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology,

Surber, J . R . , Smith, P. L., & Harper, F. A r a c t i c a l method o f i n s t r u c t i o n a ! s e t t i n g s . Paper assessing memory o r g a n i z a t i o n oresented a t t h e annual m e e t i n q o f t h e American E d u c a t i o n a l Research A s s o c i a t i o n , Los Angeles, Ca., A p r i l 1981. References

Anderson, J. R. A s i m u l a t i o n model o f f r e e r e c a l l . I n G. H. Bower (Ed. The psychology f l e a r n i n g and m o t i v a t i o n ( V o l . 5 ) . New York: Academic Press. 1972. Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. 0. C.: Winston, 1973.

Human a s s o c i a t i v e

memory.

Washington,

Anderson, J. R., & Reder, L . M. An e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f depth o f p r o c e s s i n g . I n L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. C r a i k (Eds.), Le_ v e l_ s o_f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. New York: W i l e y , 1979. _ Anderson, R. C. The n o t i o n o f schemata and t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e . I n R. C. Anderson, R. J . S p i r o , & W. E. Montague (Eds.), S c h o o l i n a t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of knowledge. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1977.

and

Anderson, R. C., & Kulhavy, R. W. L e a r n i n g concepts f r o m d e f i n i t i o n s . American E d u c a t i o n a l Research J o u r n a l , 1972, 9,385-390. Anderson, R. C . , S p i r o , R. J . , & Anderson, M. C. Schemata as s c a f f o l d i n g f o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n connected d i s c o u r s e . American E d u c a t i o n a l Research J o u r n a l , 1978, 15,433-440. Anderson, R. C., S p i r o , R. J., & Montague, W. E. S c h o o l i n g and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of knowledge. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1 9 7 7 . Anderson, T . H. Study s k i l l s and l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . I n H. F. O ' N e i l , J r . , & C. D. S p i e l b e r g e r (Eds.), C o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New York: Academic Press, 1 9 7 9 . Anderson, T. H., & Armbruster, B. B. Studying. I n P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook on r e a d i n g r e s e a r c h . New York: Longman, 1981. Andre, T., & Sola, 3. Imagery, v e r b a t i m and paraphrased q u e s t i o n s , and r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n i n g f u l sentences. J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology, 1976, 68, 661-669.

,

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION Ausubel, D. P. The psychology Grune & S t r a t t o n , 1963.

OF A TEXT

of m e a n i n g f u l

MAPPING STRATEGY

verbal learning.

551

New York:

B a t t i g , W. F. The f l e x i b i l i t y o f human memory. I n L. S. Cermak & F.I.M. C r a i k (Eds.), L e v e l s o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. New York: Wiley,l979. Bobrow, 0. G., & Winograd, T. An o v e r v i e w o f KRL, a knowledge r e p r e s e n t a t i o n language. C o g n i t i v e Science, 1977, 13-46.

1,

B r a n s f o r d , J. D. Human c o g n i t i o n : L e a r n i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and rememb e r i n g . Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1979. B r a n s f o r d , J . D., & Johnson, M. K. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f some problems o f comprehension. I n W. G. Chase (Ed. ), V i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . New York: Academic Press, 1973. C o l l i n s , K. W., Dansereau, 0. F . , H o l l e y , C . D., Garland, J . C., & McDonald, 6. A. C o n t r o l of c o n c e n t r a t i o n d u r i n g academic t a s k s . J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology, 1981, 122-128.

2,

C r a i k , F.I.M. & Jacoby, L.L. A process view o f s h o r t - t e r m r e t e n t i o n . I n F. R e s t l e , R. M. S h i f f r i n , J . J. C a s t e l l a n , M. R. Lindman, & D. B . P i s o n i (Eds.), C o g n i t i v e t h e o r y ( v o l . 1 ) . H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1975. Craik, F.I.M., & L o c k h a r t , R. S. L e v e l s o f p r o c e s s i n g : A framework f o r memory r e s e a r c h . J o u r n a l o f Verbal L e a r n i n q and Verbal B e h a v i o r , 1972, 11, 671-684.-C r a i k , F.I.M., & T u l v i n g , E. Depth o f p r o c e s s i n a and t h e r e t e n t i o n o f words i n e p i s o d i c memory. J o u r n a l of Experimental Psychology: General , 1975, 104, 2 6 8 - 2 9 4 7 ~

Dansereau, D. F. The development o f a l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s c u r r i c u l u m . I n H. F. O ' N e i l , Jr. (Ed.), L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New York: Academic Press, 1978. Dansereau, D. F. L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y r e s e a r c h . Proceedings of t h e NIE-LRDC conference on t h i n k i n g and l e a r n i n g s k i l l s . Washington, D.C.: N a t i o n a l I n s t ~ u ~ d u ~ t i 1981. o n , Dansereau, 0. F . , C o l l i n s , K. W., McDonald, B. A., H o l l e y , C. D., Garland, J. C . , D i e k h o f f , G., & Evans, S. H. Development and e v a l u a t i o n o f a l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y t r a i n i n g program. J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology, 1979a, 64-73.

71,

Dansereau, D. F., Long, G. L., McDonald, B. A., & A c t k i n s o n , T. R. L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y i n v e n t o r y development and assessment (AFHRL-TR75-40). Lowry A i r Force Base, Colo.: T e c h n i c a l T r a i n i n g D i v i s i o n , June 1975a. (NTIS No. AD-AD14 721). Dansereau, D. F . , Long, G. L., McDonald, B. A., A c t k i n s o n , T. R., E l l i s , A. M., C o l l i n s , K. W., W i l l i a m s , S., & Evans, S. H. E f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y t r a i n i n g program: Development and

552

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

assessment. 19.

6,

Catalog o f Selected Documents j~ Psychology.

1976,

Dansereau, D. F . , Long, G . L . , McDonald, 5. A., Actkinson, T . R . , Collins, K. W., Evans, S . H . , E l l i s , A . M., & Williams, S . Learning s t r a t e y t r a i n i n program: Visual imagery f o r e f f e c t i v e R m ! Lowry Air Force Base, Colo. : Technical learning d Training Division, June 1975b. (NTIS No. AD-A014 724). Dansereau, D. F . , McDonald, B. A . , Holley, C. D . , Diekhoff, G . M., learning s t r a t e g y system. I n H . (Eds. ), Cognitive and a f f e c t i v e Academic Press, 1979b.

C o l l i n s , K. W . , Garland, J . C . , & Evans, S . H . Evaluation of a F. O ' N e i l , J r . , & C . D . Spielberger learning s t r a t e g i e s . New York:

DiVesta, F. J . , Schultz, C. B . , & Dangel, I . R . Passage organization a n d imposed learning s t r a t e g i e s in comprehension a n d recall of connected discourse. Memory & Cognition, 1973, 6, 471-476. E l l i s , A. Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. S t u a r t , 1963.

New York:

Lyle

Frase, L. T. Paragraph organization of w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s : The influence of conceptual c l u s t e r i n g upon level a n d organization o f r e c a l l . _ Journal ___ of Educational Psychology, 1969, @, 394-401. Frase, L. T . , & Schwartz, B. J . Effect of question production and answering on prose r e c a l l . Journal of Educational Psychology, 1975, 67,628-635. F r i j d a , N. H. The simulation of long term memory. i c a l B u l l e t i n , 1972, 77,1-31.

Psychololog-

Hauf, M. B. Mapping: A technique for t r a n s l a t i n g reading i n t o thinking Journal of Reading, 1971, 14,225-230. _ __Holley, C. D. An evaluation of i n t a c t and embedded headings as schema cuing devices with non-narrative t e x t (Doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n , Texas Christian University, 1979). Dissertation Abstracts Intern a t i o n a l , 1979, $, 4491A. (University Microfilms No. 80-02, 220) Holley, C. D . , & Dansereau, D . F. Controlling f o r t r a n s i e n t motivation in cognitive manipulation s t u d i e s . Journal of Experimental Education, 1981, 49,84-91. Holley, C. D . , Dansereau, D. F., & Fenker, R . M. Some data and comments regarding educational s e t theory. Journal o f Educational Psychology, 1981, 74(4), 494-504. Holley, C. D . , Dansereau, 0. F . , McDonald, B. A . , Garland, J . C . , & Collins, K. W . Evaluation of a nierarchical mapping technique as an aid t o prose processing. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1979, 4,227-237. Jacobsen, E . Progressive r e l a x a t i o n . Chicago Press, 1938.

Chicdgo:

University

Of

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION

OF A TEXT MAPPING STRATEGY

553

Jacoby, L. L. The r o l e o f mental c o n t i g u i t y i n memory: R e g i s t r a t i o n and r e t r i e v a l e f f e c t s . J o u r n a l o f Verbal Learnino and Verbal B e h a v i o r , 1974. 13,483-496. E f f e c t s o f elaboration o f processing Jacoby. L. L., & C r a i k , F. I . M . a t encoding and r e t r i e v a l : Trace d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s and r e c o v e r y o f i n i t i a l context. I n L. S. Cermak & F . I . M . C r a i k (Eds.), L e v e l s o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1979.-

--

J e n k i n s , J. J. Four p o i n t s t o remember: A t e t r a h e d r a l model o f memory experiments. I n L. S. Cermak & F . I . M . C r a i k (Eds.), L e v e l s o f p r o c e s s i n a i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1979. K i n t s c h , W., & van D i j k , T. A. Toward a model o f t e x t comprehension and p r o d u c t i o n . P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 1978, 85, 363-394. Kulhavy, R. W . , & Swenson, I . Imagery i n s t r u c t i o n s and t h e comprehension o f t e x t . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology, 1975, 45, 47-51. Imaoery t r a i n i n q Lesgold, A. M., McCormick, C . , & G o l i n k o f f , R. M. and c h i l d r e n ' s p r o s e r e a d i n q . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology, 1972, 67,663-667. L e v i n , J . R., & Divine-Hawkins, P. V i s u a l imagery as a p r o s e - l e a r n i n g process. J o u r n a l o f Reading B e h a v i o r , 1974, 6, 23-30. Maultsby, M. Handbook o f r a t i o n a l s e l f - c o u n s e l i n g . A s s o c i a t i o n f o r R a t i o n a l T h i n k i n g , 1971.

Madison, Wisconsin:

Meichenbaum, 0. t i . , & Goodman, J . T r a i n i n g i m p u l s i v e c h i l d r e n t o t a l k t o themselves: A means o f s e l f - c o n t r o l . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal P S y c h o l O ~ y , 1971, 77,115-126. M e r r i t , J., P r i o r , D., Grugeon, E . , & Grugeon, D. Developing independence i n r e a d i n g . M i l t o n Keynes: The Open U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1977. Meyer, B.J.F. The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Drose and i t s e f f e c t upon memory. Amsterdam, T h e N e t h e r l a n d s : N o r t h H o l l a n d , 1975. Myers, J . L. Memory f o r Massachusetts, 1974. 360)

r o s e m a t e r i a l . Amherst, Mass.: University o f Document Reproduction S e r v i c e No. ED 094

Nelson, D. L. Rememberinq p i c t u r e s and words: Appearance, s i a n i f i c a n c e , and name. I n L. S . Cermak & F . I . M . C r a i k (Eds.), L e v e l s of p r o c e s s i n p i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N. J.: Erlbaum, 1979. --O'Neil,

H. F.

Learning s t r a t e g i e s .

New York:

Academic Press, 1978.

O ' N e i l , H. F., & S p i e l b e r g e r , C. D. C o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g strategies. New York: Academic Press, 1 9 7 9 7 Imagery i n r e c a l l and r e c o g n i t i o n . I n J . Brown (Ed.), P a i v i o , A. and r e c o g n i t i o n . London: Academic Press, 1976.

Recall

5 54

INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS

P e r l m u t t e r , J., & Royer, J . M. O r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o s e m a t e r i a l s : s t o r a g e and r e t r i e v a l . Canadian J o u r n a l o f Psychology, 1973, 200-209. Q u i l l i a n , M. R. Semantic meaning. I n M. Minsky ( E d . ) , Semantic m a t i o n processing. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1968.

Stimulus,

27,

infor-

Rasco, R. W., Tennyson, R. P., & B o u t w e l l , R. C. Imagery i n s t r u c t i o n s and drawings i n l e a r n i n g prose. J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l Research, 1975, 67, 188-192. Reder, L. M. of prose: 50, 5-53.

The r o l e o f e l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e comprehension and r e t e n t i o n A c r i t i c a l r e v i e w . Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l Research, 1980,

Rumelhart, D. E . Notes on a schema f o r s t o r i e s . I n D. Bobrow & A. C o l l i n s (Eds. ) , R e p r e s e n t a t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g : S t u d i e s i n c o g n i t i v e science. New York: Academic Press, 1975. Rumelhart, D. E., L i n d s a y , P. H., & Norman, D. A. A process model f o r l o n g - t e r m memory. I n E. T u l v i n g & W. Donaldson ( E d s . ) , O r g a n i z a t i o n o f memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Rumelhart, D. E., & Ortony, A. The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f knowledge i n memory. I n R. C. Anderson, R. J . SDiro. & W. E. Montaque (Eds. )., . S c h o o i i n g and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of knowledge. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1977. Shimmerlik, S. M. O r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r y and memory f o r p r o s e : A r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l Research, 1978, 48, 103-120. T u l v i n g , E. E p i s o d i c and semantic memory. I n E. T u l v i n g & W. Donaldson (Eds.), O r g a n i z a t i o n o f memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972. T u l v i n g , E. 74-82.

Cue-dependent f o r g e t t i n g .

American S c i e n t i s t , 1974,

62,

T u l v i n g , E., & Thompson, D. M. Encoding s p e c i f i c i t y and r e t r i e v a l processes i n e p i s o d i c memory. P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, 1973, 80, 352- 373. van D i i k . T. A. M a c r o - s t r u c t u r e s and c o o n i t i o n . I n P. Caroenter & M. j u s t (Eds.), C o g n i t i v e processes comprehension. H i l l s d a l e , N. J . : Erlbaum, 1977.

6

Winograd, T. Frame r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s and t h e d e c l a r a t i v e - p r o c e d u r e controversy. I n D. A. Bobrow & A. M. C o l l i n s (Eds.), R e p r e s e n t a t i o n and understanding. New York: Academic Press, 1975. Wolpe, J. Winston , P. 1977.

The p r a c t i c e of b e h a v i o r

therapy.

A r t i f ic i a1 in t e l 1 igence.

New York:

Pergamon, 1969.

Phi 1 ip p i nes : Addi son-Wesl ey ,