Development of a practical evaluation approach of a typical biomass cookstove

Journal Pre-proof Development of a practical evaluation approach of a typical biomass cookstove Anil N.V. Mulukutla, Ankit Gupta, Sneha Gautam, Sangaratna S. Waghmare, Nitin K. Labhasetwar

PII: DOI: Reference:

S2352-1864(19)30522-X https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.100613 ETI 100613

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Environmental Technology & Innovation

Received date : 5 September 2019 Revised date : 12 December 2019 Accepted date : 4 January 2020 Please cite this article as: A.N.V. Mulukutla, A. Gupta, S. Gautam et al., Development of a practical evaluation approach of a typical biomass cookstove. Environmental Technology & Innovation (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.100613. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V.

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Development of a practical evaluation approach of a typical biomass cookstove Anil N.V. Mulukutla1, Ankit Gupta1*, Sneha Gautam2, Sangaratna S Waghmare1, Nitin K

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Labhasetwar1

CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur - 440020,

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Maharashtra, India.

Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Karunya Nagar, Coimbatore - 641114, India.

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Abstract

Exposure to air pollutant emissions from household combustion of solid fuels is leading risk factor for premature deaths in the developing countries. A natural draft Improved Cook Stove (ICS) was designed for household combustion of solid fuels. The objectives of the design included multi fuel usage, user friendliness, lower emissions and better efficiency. Comparisons of newly designed cookstove (ND) with Traditional cookstove (TCS) and three other ICS have been discussed. The performance of the ND when loaded with five different solid fuels has also been discussed. Modified Water Boiling Test (WBT) and

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Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 2013) methodology was used for performance evaluation of the designed ICS. The cookstove was designed for 2kW energy output and fuel consumption rate of 1.5 kg/hr. Turn down ratio of 3.23, fire power of 7kW and specific fuel consumption of 85 g/litre was

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estimated from the WBT. The ND performed better than TCS and other commercial ICS with 75% reduction in PM2.5 and 63% reduction in CO concentrations respectively. The thermal efficiency of ND indicated a significant increase of 106% from TCS. Outcomes from this study can be used for designing

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a multi fuel biomass stove with enhanced efficiency and lowered emissions. Keywords: Biomass; Cookstove; Biomass; Energy; Household air pollution; India

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Introduction Solid fuels (i.e., cow dung, wood, coal, charcoal, and forest wood) are being used for cooking and heating needs of around 2.8 billion people globally [1]. In 2012, there were 18 countries (most of from sub – Saharan Africa), where more than 95% of the population primarily relied on solid fuels for cooking and

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heating. On other hand, in Asian countries especially in India, 68% of population still leaving in rural area and out of 0.2 billion people in India using fuel for cooking: 49% use firewood; 28.6% liquefied 0.1% electricity; and 0.5% any other means [2].

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petroleum gas (LPG); 8.9% cow dung cake; 2.9% kerosene; 1.5% coal, lignite, or charcoal; 0.4% biogas;

In the Global Burden of Disease 2013 assessment, around 5.5 million people die annually from exposure to air pollution [3]. Around 2.6 million people are exposed to Indoor Air Pollutants most perish from stroke (25%), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (28%), ischemic heart disease (27%), lower

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respiratory infections (16%) and lung cancer (4%) respectively [3]. Around 35% (1 million) of global exposure of HAP occurs in India [3-4]. Wide varieties of interventions are available to minimize HAP levels, exposure and associated health effects [4]. In this regard, the best practices are development of the design of cookstove to reduce HAP levels during cooking and heating is highly needed in developing nations.

A large number of improved biomass fired stoves have been reported in developing countries to reduce indoor emissions [5]. Alexander et al [6] carried out the comprehensive study in rural area of

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Bolivia and observed that the incremental concentration of fine particle and its association with health, where Mean systolic blood pressure (SBP) decreased from 114.5±13.0 mm Hg to 109.0±0.4 mm Hg,

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(p=0.01) after the improved cookstove intervention. In Mexico, the significant relationship have been demonstrated between improved cookstove and human health (i.e., positive effect on the upper and lower respiratory infection) [8]. In addition, Schilmann et al. [7] from China reported 1.63 % (95 % CI 1.62– 1.64 %, p < 0.01) higher SBP and 1.31 % (95 % CI 1.30–1.32 %, p < 0.01) higher DBP association between household solid fuel exposure and adults’ blood pressure. Hankey et al [9] applied intervention

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study by using Ugastove and observed significant lower concentrations (i.e., 37% and 8% for PM2.5 and CO, respectively) during cooking and heating. In case of Indian scenario, number of intervention studies have been done to reducing the HAP, where results indicating the reduction rate ranging from 16 – 65% during cooking and heating [10 – 13]. Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS) adequately designed and evaluated can cut back HAP levels considerably [14]. Micuta [15] developed the design principles for the famous rocket stove to improve 2   

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the heat transfer efficiency and combustion of wood burning cookstove. Baldwin [16] suggested using a grate for better mixing of air along with optimum air flow rate and proper insulation for improved performance of the cookstove. Belonio [17] designed a cookstove using rice husk and evaluated its performance. Most of the biomass cookstoves designers follow belonio approach to design reactor size

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for a multi fuel cookstove [18-20]. Mukunda et al. [21] designed a new class of highly efficient, low emission stoves, that promise constant power. Two types of ICS (i.e., Forced draft and Natural draft) have been designed in recent past to lower HAP and increase efficiency of biomass cookstoves.

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Greenway and Envirofit natural draft ICS have found reasonable success in lowering HAP levels as well as increasing the cooking efficiency [22]. Panwar and Rathore [23] developed biomass cookstove suitable for community cooking that can save 7155 kg of CO2 per annum.

Recent articles on the design principles, development, performance characteristics, testing

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protocols and technological advancement in ICS stressed for need of international protocol for designing ICS [24-26]. Kumar et al [24] suggested the review on the design and development of biomass cookstoves in which authors recommended replacing the existing TCS and inefficient cooking devices with ICS. Kshirsagar and Kalamkar [25] in their comprehensive review reported design principles and emissions performance of two famous categories of ICS “Rocket” and “Gasifier” stoves. They proposed a novel “Systematic Approach for Modern Cookstove Design”. In their approach they recommended number of stove designs to meet the diversity of fuels, foods, cooking methods and price-points. Sutar et al [26] in

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their review brought together literatures panning over three decades on various design principles. They highlighted generic design features independent of any specific cookstove design. Current study has

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highlighted the need to keep research open on natural draft cookstoves as these are effective and low cost options for rural users. In addition, its also reported advantages of natural draft cookstoves over latest forced draft gasifier cookstoves. These articles have urged the researchers to take into account materials, ease of operation, maintenance, multi fuel usage and life of cookstove while designing ICS. All the ICS designed and discussed above were more or less designed for a particular biomass, which is

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abundant in the region of interest. In the current work, we designed natural draft cookstove which can be used for multiple fuel resources of biomass. Extensive field study was undertaken before arriving at the particulars of the design. According to user input we designed two reactors in one single assembly, helping them to top feed as well as bottom feed the fuel into the cookstove. Design in various literatures was studied to come up with a new design which is user friendly, lowers HAP and increases the cooking efficiency. The objective of this paper is to report new design of more efficient, affordable and safe 3   

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biomass burning cookstove. Four distinct objectives of this study were to: 1. Design an ICS for multi fuel usage; 2. Evaluate the new design using modified WBT; 3. Compare the newly designed cookstove performance with commercially available ICSs using UCB test protocol; 4. Compare the newly designed cookstove performance while using multi fuel feedstocks using BIS (2013) [27] protocol. UCB protocols

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were reported for wider audience as majority of commercial ICS based comparison studies were reporting same worldwide. Further, BIS is reported in the manuscript to Indian readers as the cookstove performance approval in India is determined by BIS protocol only. The difference between the above

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two protocols are well documented by Arora et al [28]. 2 Material and Methods 2.1 Design of cookstove

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Applications of biomass gasification in household stoves have not been understood well when compared to its application in industry and transportation [23]. The cookstove described here was designed to handle multiple biomasses with good gasification properties leading to cleaner energy. A robust field survey was carried out in villages near Nagpur, India to collect information on typical fuels used for cooking. No proximate and ultimate analysis was carried out at design stage as the cookstove was not targeted to a specific biomass. After carefully examining field data and literature we have chosen

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the following methods to design our cookstove. 2.1.1 Assumptions for the cookstove design

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Considering various literatures and the characteristics of the biomass based on the survey of the local community and their cooking and food traditions the following key design parameters were assumed. The core of the design relies on using multi fuel based biomass cookstove. Few design parameters are not well reported, in such cases cost effectiveness and user friendliness were adopted as criteria for

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selecting final design parameters. Table 1 shows the assumptions made for the design of the cookstove.

Table 1. The details of possible assumptions of cookstove design. 4   

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Value

Authors/Remark

Energy demand (kW)

2

Ojolo et al [28]

Efficiency of cookstove (η) (%)

25

As per BIS standards

Calorific Value (CV) (kJ/kg)

21000

Maximum of expected multi

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Key points

fuels [29]

90

Duty hours (T)

1

Bulk density of biomass (ρb ) (kg/m3)

450 - 850

Assumed

Density of air (ρa) (kg/ m3)

1.29

Belonio [17]

6

Mukunda et al [21]

0.05

Mukunda et al [21]

Superficial velocity (u) (m/s1)

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Stoichiometric air of biomass (SA)

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Specific gasification rate (SGR) (kg/m2 h1)

Chendake et al [18]

Assumed

The cookstove was designed for 2 kW power output based on local food habits of a typical family

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in the rural household of India. Efficiency of not less than 25 % has been evolved by BIS based performance testing results on various cookstoves developed in India [27]. In current study to start our

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design process we used thermal efficiency of 25 % as reason cited above along with cost effectiveness and local survey of other key design parameters. Keeping our design objective of multi fuel usage (Dung, Coal, Wood, etc) in mind, the CV of 21 MJ/kg [29] was arrived as the maximum possible value of biomass which may be used in reactor. Rate of fuel consumption per unit area of reactor area (Specific Gasification Rate) can be helpful

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in determining the size of the reactor from the energy demand of the gasification system. Tiangco, et al [30] optimized reactor area by varying specific gasification rate of hulls in an open core or static bed gasifier. They observed that gasifying agent, gasifier design type of biomass and operating conditions control the SGR. SGR usually varies for different biomass and may range from 70 - 200 kg/m2h [31]. SGR of 90 kg/m2h was assumed as this is the rate of most used fuel in the locality i.e babul wood [18]. 5   

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Duty hours (T) of 1h were arrived from the local survey and the preferred time by the potential users for their cooking process. The biomass characteristics such as bulk density are well reported for Indian conditions [32-36]. In this study, cookstove was designed to accept fuel feed from the top as well as the bottom part of the cookstove. This feature is the key to the design of multi fuel usage in the

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cookstove. In recent times processed biomass is being used which has larger bulk density in comparison to the dried fuel. The multi fuel density range based on pellets (high density) & chips (low density) usually used in a typical rural setup was considered. In this regard two bulk densities were assumed, 450

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kg/m3 for bottom fed biomass and 850 kg/m3 for top fed biomass [32-36]. This assumption relies on the fact that processed biomass is usually bulky and can be batch fed in the cookstove from the top. 2.1.2 Design of power output and energy input

The fabrication of the stove was made using materials which can sustain high temperature and corrosion parameters.

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as per theoretical design. Figures (1 & 2) show the designed biomass cookstove with all relevant

The design was made using key design principles as reported in literature [15-16, 23-26]. The parameters used in this design are reported from the cited literature above. Design calculations as per assumptions

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in Table 1 are reported below.

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Top loaded fuel 

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Grate 

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Bottom loaded fuel 

given below. 𝑄

2 𝑘𝑊

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Power output is estimated as the amount of energy needed to cook food for a family of six members as (1)

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where the power output (Qout ) is assumed as reported by Ojolo et al [37] from the Table 1.

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Figure 2. Various views of the biomass cookstove designed in the study.

Energy input is estimated as the amount of energy supplied by the fuel fed into the stove and can be computed using the formula as given below. 𝐹𝐶𝑅

𝑄 𝐶𝑉

2

𝜂

8   

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where fuel consumption rate (FCR) is determined using power output (Qout) from Eq. (1), calorific value (CVb) and efficiency of cookstove (ηb) from the Table 1 respectively. 2.1.3 Design of reactor dimensions

1.27 FCR SGR

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D

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The diameter of the reactor is calculated by using the following formula

where reactor diameter (D) is determined using the fuel consumption rate (FCR) from Eq. (2) and specific gasification rate (SGR) as reported by Chendake et al [18] from the Table 1 respectively. Height of the reactor is estimated as summation of the bottom fed biomass reactor height, height of the weight support stands and the height of the vessel support stands as seen in Fig .2. The top reactor and

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bottom reactor heights were estimated using the bulk density range respectively. The high bulk density fuels are often top fed to the cookstove in the form of briquettes and chips. Here the term ρmax is the bulk density for processed biomass when used as top fed fuel in the cookstove. Thus, the reactor height designed in this case gives us the stove height to volume ratio to be maintained in case the user prefers to feed the fuel from the top. SGR ρ

T

4

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𝐻

where top reactor height (Ht) is determined using the specific gasification rate (SGR), duty cycle (T) and bulk density (ρmax) of 850 kg/m3 from the Table 1 respectively.

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The dried biomass such as wood logs cannot be top fed into the cookstove. In such cases the bulk density of the biomass also changes significantly. Further as per local survey the users do not have the facility to process the biomass and also they prefer to bottom feed the cookstove unless someone disseminates pellets/briquettes to them. In such scenario reactor height needs to be designed separately for such

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biomass with lower bulk density. A similar approach is followed as mentioned above but only change is that we now use bulk density as 450 kg/m3. These approaches are purely based on local user preference but still justify the multi fuel usage and combustion dynamics as majority of the fuel usage patterns fit into one or the other mode of operation. 𝐻

SGR ρ

T

5

9   

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where bottom reactor height (Hb) is determined using the specific gasification rate (SGR), duty cycle (T) and bulk density (ρmin) from the Table 1 respectively. Total height (H) of the cookstove including the height of vessel support pins [38] and the height of support

2.1.4 Design of primary air requirement for gasification

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stands is 300 mm.

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Air flow required for proper mixing of fuel and cleaner combustion is based on the stoichiometric relationship between fuel and air. Stoichiometric air required changes for different biomass. As we do not know biomass characteristics before hand, the stoichiometric ratio of 6 is used in the study as it is most commonly used in design of biomass cookstoves [21]. There are usually two stages of combustion in any biomass cookstove, one in fuel rich region (lower combustion region) and other in lean fuel region

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(upper combustion region). Thus the total air flow rate inside the cookstove needs to be divided for these two stages. The air passing through the lower combustion region is known as primary air as it starts the combustion process. The air passing through the upper combustion chamber is known as secondary air which helps in cleaner combustion of fuel by providing necessary air for complete combustion. According to Mukunda et al [21] primary air, which is mainly responsible for gasification is usually 1.5 times FCR. Thus the total required air flow rate from the stoichiometric ratio of 6 inside the combustion

𝑃

1.5

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chamber is divided as 1.5 for primary air and 4.5 for secondary air. This is calculated as follows 𝐹𝐶𝑅

6

Eq. (2).

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where primary air (Pa) required for gasification is determined using fuel consumption rate (FCR) from

The air flow rate will also depend on the openings provided in the cookstove design. To feed the fuel from bottom the openings of the size of local wood logs is designed in this study. The window opening required for fuel feeding was designed as shown in Fig. 1. From the extensive field survey it was observed

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that the rural people tend to keep big wood logs for cooking as it is easy for them to concentrate on other work rather than worry about the limited fuel supply. Most of the commercial cookstoves in the markets fail to take this into consideration leading to a very low adoptability in the rural villages. We observed that the best way to design this opening is to use the traditional chulha (TCS) opening in their houses. Thus, from the intense field survey we assumed the diameter of the fuel inlet opening (Dwi) as 135 cm. Area of this semicircular window opening as in Fig. 1 is computed as given below. 10   

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𝜋

𝐴

𝐷 8

7

where area of fuel inlet opening (Awi) is determined using diameter (Dwi) as assumed above. The primary air flow rate calculated has to be adjusted for air flowing through this fuel inlet opening also.

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Thus the total openings in the cookstove for desired primary air flow rate of 1.5 times FCR can be calculated as follows 𝑃 𝜌

u

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𝐴

8

where total area for primary air flow rate required (Ap) is determined using amount of primary air (Pa) from Eq. (6), density of air (ρa) and superficial air velocity (up) from the Table 1 respectively. This area now includes the fuel opening inlet area (semi circular window) from Eq. (7) as well. Thus the

𝐴

𝐴

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remaining area of openings required for primary air flow rate is calculated as follows 𝐴

9

For the fuel-rich initial combustion stage, homogeneous penetration flow of primary air through the bed is desired, so smaller openings throughout the circumference of the cookstove were given to cover the remaining area (Ar). Assuming a circular opening of diameter (Dp) 2 cm each, area of each circular

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opening will come up to 3.14 cm2. These were to have the dual purpose of insulation and cooling within the stove body. Number of such primary air holes required throughout the outer body of the cookstove is computed as given below. 𝐴 3.14

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𝑁

10

where number of primary air circular openings (Np) is determined using remaining primary air (Ar) from Eq. (9).

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2.1.5 Design of secondary air requirement for complete combustion According to Mukunda et al [21] secondary air, which is mainly responsible for combustion is usually 4.5 times FCR. Superficial velocity in this case was assumed as 1 m/s (twenty times the rate at which primary air flows) for homogenous distribution of air into the reactor [39]. 𝑆

4.5

𝐹𝐶𝑅

11 11 

 

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where secondary air (Sa) required for combustion is determined using fuel consumption rate (FCR) from Eq. (2). This secondary air flow rate requires appropriate opening for air flow throughout the circumference of the cookstove inner body. Here it is to be understood that ambient air flowing inside the cookstove needs

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to distribute as primary and secondary air inside the cookstove only. This is the reason for providing openings in the inner chamber of the cookstove for secondary air. Thus, the opening required to be

𝐴

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provided at the top of the reactor is computed as given below. 𝑆 𝜌

u

12

Assuming a circular opening of diameter (Ds) 1 cm each, area of each circular hole will come up to 0.8

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cm2. This allows for a much hotter and cleaner combustion process. Number of such secondary air holes required throughout the inner body of the cookstove is computed as given below. 𝑁

𝐴 0.8

13

where number of secondary air circular openings (Ns) is determined using secondary air opening(As) from Eq. (12). The height from the top of the cookstove where these holes are to be provided was estimated from repeated lab testing and was found suitable at the height of 2cm from the top of the

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cookstove.

These parameters complete the design of the biomass cookstove. Air insulation of one inch was provided

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for the annular space between inner body and outer body of the cookstove. All the designed parameters are provided in the tabular form in the Table 2. The designed cookstove was evaluated for thermal efficiency and emissions in the field and laboratory settings as per methodology described in the sections below. Table 2. Design parameters of the cookstove.

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Description

Symbol

Value

Power output (kW)

Qout

2

Fuel consumption rate (kg h-1)

FCR

1.5

Reactor diameter (mm)

D

150

Top reactor height (mm)

Ht

110

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Hb

200

Total height (mm)

H

300

Primary air (kg h-1)

Pa

2.25

Primary air opening (cm2)

Ap

111

Primary window opening (cm2)

Awi

72

Number of primary air holes

Np

Secondary air (kg h-1)

Sa

Secondary air opening (cm2)

As

Number of secondary air holes

Ns

13 6.75 16

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2.2 Thermal efficiency and emission evaluation

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Bottom reactor height (mm)

20

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The thermal efficiency and emission tests as per BIS (2013) were carried out by keeping the biomass cookstove in a standard fume hood of dimensions: 1000 mm × 750mm × 2820 mm at our lab facility. The thermal efficiency of cookstove was determined by carrying the standard water boiling test (WBT). Water Boiling Tests (WBTs) are simple simulations of standard cooking procedures. They may be used to estimate burn rate and emissions from simulated cooking. WBTs investigate the performance of the stove under different operating conditions to an expected stove performance. It is widely used by

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stove designers for quick comparison of the performance of stoves [18-19]. 2.2.1 WBT procedure (BIS, 2013) for thermal efficiency

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The experiment was started by noting the volume of water, volume of kerosene, weight of biomass, and weight of empty aluminum vessel. Biomass was arranged in a honeycomb manner inside the cookstove. To ignite the fire 10–15 ml of kerosene oil was used on the biomass from the top of the cookstove. Aluminum vessels were placed on the cookstove after igniting the fuel. The readings of water temperature were taken periodically after an interval of 5 min until the first pot reaches to the local boiling

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temperature of about 95C (control chamber), after that second pot was placed on the cookstove. The experiment was continued until complete combustion of the biomass takes place in the cookstove properly. Thermal efficiency was calculated by the following formula Heat Utilized (kJ): 𝑄

𝑛

1 𝑚

𝑐

𝑚

𝑐

𝑡

𝑡

𝑚 13 

 

𝑐

𝑚

𝑐

𝑡

𝑡

14

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Heat Produced (kJ): 𝑄

𝑚

𝐶𝑉

𝑚

𝐶𝑉

15

Thermal Efficiency: Q Q

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𝜂

16

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where efficiency(η) is determined using total number of aluminum vessels used (n), mass of aluminum vessel (mv), mass of water (mw), heat capacity of aluminum vessel (cpv), heat capacity of water (cpw), initial temperature of water (t1), local boiling temperature (t2), temperature of water achieved in last vessel (t3), mass of biomass (mb), mass of kerosene (mk), calorific value of biomass (CVb) and calorific value

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of kerosene (CVk) respectively. 2.2.2 BIS emission monitoring procedure

Emissions from the cookstove were tested as per BIS protocol 2013 [27]. The cookstove for emission testing is placed on the platform on which fume hood is placed. The line diagram of the entire

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setup is shown in Fig .3.

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Figure 3. Emission monitoring setup for the improved cookstoves.

A stainless steel sample probe, inserted perpendicular to the gas flow, is used to sample gas emissions. The cookstove was tested for its particulate matter, thermal efficiency and gaseous emissions emanating from biomass combustion in cookstoves. The gravimetric measurement equipment consists of

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a cyclone for 2.5 micron cutoff and an s-type pitot. The filter paper/specifications Glass Microfiber Filters, GF/A 47 mm dia Circles Cat No 1820-047 Whatman was used for iso kinetic sampling. Emissions were estimated by the following formula CO emitted (g/MJd): 𝐶𝑂 𝑄

17 15 

 

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PM2.5 emitted (mg/MJd): 𝑃𝑀 𝑄

.

18

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where CO and PM2.5 emitted are determined using Heat utilized (Qout)_from Eq. (14) respectively. 2.3 Evaluation of ICS performance

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The performance of the designed cookstove was evaluated in the control chamber built for evaluating cookstoves as per BIS, 2013. This was done to nullify effects of local meteorology, moisture and dust from the surroundings on performance evaluation. The initial temperature of the chamber was 25C. During the performance evaluation each reading was taken three times and average value is reported here. Two study designs were envisaged for cookstove performance evaluations. In the first study the

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new design was compared with commercially available cookstoves in the field and in the second study the cookstove was evaluated for different feedstock. Performance was also evaluated using modified University of California at Berkeley (UCB) water boiling test (WBT) version 4.1.2 by Bailis et al [40]. 2.3.1 Study Design – ICS comparison

Performance of our new design (ND) was compared with TCS and other commercially available cookstoves in a village located in the Nagpur district of Maharashtra state. We compared the performance

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of the traditional chulha (TCS) and three commercially available natural draft ICSs with our design (ND). The three ICSs include Greenway Smart Stove (Greenway Appliances, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India), Envirofit G-3300 (Envirofit International Inc., Fort Collins, CO, USA) and Onil (Helps International.

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The BIS WBT [27] was carried out using these five cookstoves (one TCS, three ICSs and ND) sequentially each day. The order of the five cookstoves was staggered each day for a total of 10 days (N = 50 trials). Indoor PM2.5, carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations and overall thermal efficiency were measured as performance indicators. We used acacia wood with calorific value (17589.5 kJ/kg) as fuel

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feed for the cookstoves. Standard amounts of kerosene (20 mL) with calorific value (45087.95 kJ/kg) and cow dung (150 g) were used for igniting the wood. The fuel was oven dried at 110 °C to maintain moisture at desired level as per BIS protocol. Additionally, necessary care was taken to ensure that the type and amount of fuel used was same as well as the amount and type of food cooked was also same during this study period.

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Measuring room pollution levels are common as proxy for personal exposure. IAP instruments were placed approximately at a height of 145 cm above the floor and 100 cm from the edge of the combustion zone. IAP instruments were placed at least 150 cm away from open able doors and windows [41].

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UCB Particle Monitor (Prototype-3 version) was used to measure 24 hour average PM2.5 concentrations in the kitchen. The Honeywell CO monitor was used to measure CO concentrations. The

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monitor was collocated with a UCB particle monitor. Honeywell monitor gives CO in ppm at a resolution of 1ppm and the range of 0-250 ppm. PM2.5 concentrations at one minute intervals for 24-h were assessed continuously using the UCB Particle Monitor (Berkeley Air Monitoring Group; Berkeley, CA, USA). 2.3.2 Study Design – Feedstock comparison

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This new design (ND) of cookstove was envisaged to provide user with flexibility of using different feedstocks. To study performance of the ND using different feedstocks, five fuel types (dung, crop residue, wood, coal and charcoal) at desired moisture levels were selected. These feedstocks are routinely used and abundantly available in India. The performance of cookstove was examined as outlined in the BIS Water Boiling Test (WBT) protocol (BIS, 2013). The BIS WBT (BIS, 2013) was carried out using these five feedstocks sequentially for a total duration of 1h each day. Indoor (PM2.5) concentrations, carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations and overall thermal efficiency were measured as

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performance indicators. Standard amounts of kerosene (20 mL) and cow dung (150 g) were used for igniting the wood. The fuel was oven dried at 110 °C to maintain moisture at desired level as per BIS

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protocol. Additionally, necessary care was taken to ensure that the type and amount of fuel used was same as well as the amount and type of food cooked was also same during this study period. Emissions from the cookstove were monitored using the BIS protocol as reported in the section 2.2.2. 2.4 Statistical Analyses

Statistical analysis were performed using open source R Statistical software [42].

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3 Results and Discussions

The following sections discuss the performance of cookstove using modified WBT, comparing to commercially available cookstoves and comparing with different feedstock. 3.1 Performance evaluation of new design using modified WBT 17   

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To evaluate our design, we performed WBT by feeding the fuel from the bottom of the cookstove as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. It is to be noted here that TCS is basically a bottom fed model, so all our comparisons are based on bottom fed cookstove results. This test was performed to determine certain key parameters of performance such as thermal efficiency, burning rate, specific fuel consumption, firepower

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and turn down ratio [43]. The procedure followed here is quite different than that of BIS, 2013 version. Cold start test, Hot start test and Simmer test as per Bailis et al [40] were carried out. Table 3 shows performance parameters evaluated in these three tests.

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Table 3. Performance parameters as calculated from modified WBT on ND. Cold start

Hot start

Simmer

Burning rate (g min-1)

22

19

7

Specific fuel consumption (g liter-1)

85

86

202

6931

6205

2143

---

---

3.23

Firepower (watts) Turn down ratio

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Description

Thermal efficiency is not necessarily a good indicator of stove performance although it gives a fair idea about wood energy transferred to the cooking pot Bailis et al [40]. Burning rate, Specific fuel

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consumption of high and low power and Turn-Down ratio helps user to identify differences in performance between a cold started and hot started stove. Burning rate for our design was observed to be

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reduced by 15% from the cold start phase to the hot start phase indicating lower thermal inertia of the cookstove during the start of cooking activity. Rationale behind such reduction is due to the fact that initially all the heat supplied from the fuel is taken up by the cookstove metal body. As emissions tend to be higher in the cold start phase [44], material of the cookstove should be such that its thermal mass is lower than the TCS. As our design was already made keeping this in mind, percentage reduction in

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burning rate is justifiable.

Specific fuel consumption an indicator of a stove’s fuel controllability and efficiency [14, 45] was observed to be 85 g/liter in both the hot start and cold start phases. Similarity in the specific fuel consumption is from the fact that variation in the burning rate of the cookstove in the cold and hot start phases was minimal. The firepower of cookstove was observed to be 7 kW, 6kW and 2kW for cold start, hot start and simmering phases respectively. Thus, wood energy consumed per unit time decreased as 18   

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cooking progressed from high power to low power phases. High specific fuel consumption is observed in high power phase for underpowered stove and in low power phase for over powered stove [14]. As firepower is observed to be same in both the cases for new design, similar specific fuel consumption for both phases is justifiable.

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Turn down ratio (TDR) is a good indicator for understanding how well the stove can be “turned down” from high to low power. TDR of 3.23 was observed for the new design which is on par with The Mud/Sawdust (TDR 3.9) and VITA (TDR 3.8) stoves which have the highest TDR for wood burning

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stoves [45]. This indicates only one third of the fuel was consumed while shifting from hot power phase to simmering phase. Jetter et al [44] reported performance of various ICS using modified WBT for various fuel types. The new design shows increase in Firepower and TDR, decrease in specific fuel consumption in comparison to the most of the cookstoves mentioned in the report. Higher specific fuel consumption and lower thermal efficiency will be resulted due to higher power output, or an inability to

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‘turn down’ the stove power.

3.2 Performance of new design in comparison with other ICS 3.2.1 Concentrations of PM2.5 and CO

Concentrations of PM2.5 and CO monitored during the field evaluation of the ND, TCS and other

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commercial ICSs are summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Pollutant concentrations from TCS, ND and ICS in the kitchen of a household in study area

TCS

Min

25%

50%

75%

Max

Min

25% 50% 75%

Max

0.07

0.12

0.69

0.21

26.65

4

7

9.5

19.5

34

0.38

0.38

0.39

0.42

0.60

1

1

2

5

22 28

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Greenway

CO Concentration (ppm)

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Cookstove

PM2.5 Mass Concentration (mg/m3)

Envirofit

0.14

0.15

0.17

0.21

0.47

1

3.5

8

12.5

Onil

0.07

0.07

0.09

0.11

0.23

1

2.75

4.5

11.25 28

0.12

0.14

0.17

0.24

0.62

1

1

3.5

6

ND

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Cooking with the TCS generated PM2.5 and CO median concentrations of 0.69 mg/m3 and 9.5 ppm respectively. Cooking with the ND generated PM2.5 and CO median concentrations of 0.17 mg/m3 and 3.5 ppm respectively. Median PM2.5 concentrations were reduced by 43% (Greenway), 75%

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(Envirofit), 87% (Onil) and 75% (ND). Reductions in the median PM2.5 (Fig. 4) concentrations were observed for all ICSs. Onil, only chimney based stove among all the cookstoves performed better than all the other ICSs tested. But it is very difficult to install such stoves in all the villages as lots of logistics 75% reduction.

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and man power is required. The next best available design is Envirofit and the design reported here with

Median CO concentrations (Fig. 5) were reduced by 79% (Greenway), 16% (Envirofit), 53%

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(Onil) and 63% (ND) compared to the TCS.

Figure 4. Variation of PM2.5 concentrations for the new design (ND), traditional cookstove (TCS), and natural draft ICSs.

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Best performing stove in this category is Greenway with 79% reduction in CO concentrations. The next best available design is the design reported here with 63% reduction. CO concentrations are often used for cookstove emissions estimations as they are easier and cheaper to measure [22; 46-47]. In this study Envirofit reduced PM2.5 concentrations significantly but failed to reduce CO concentrations on concentrations may not truly predict PM2.5 concentrations.

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a similar scale. Thus, as reported by Muralidharan et al [22] and this study ICSs that measure only CO

Various studies showed that commercially available natural draft cookstoves when designed

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appropriately reduce indoor air pollution levels significantly [44; 48]. The performance of the newly designed cookstove reported here is consistent with the previous studies as mentioned above. The provision for secondary air in the design of cookstove plays a significant role in reduction of CO

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concentrations [21].

Figure 5. Variation of CO concentrations for the new design (ND), traditional cookstove (TCS), and natural draft ICSs.

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As observed in this study Greenway with better design for secondary air outperformed other ICSs in reducing CO concentrations. The cookstove designed in this study was also provided with secondary air provision and showed good results in CO reduction. Further changes may be made to design by providing more secondary air holes (Ns) in the combustion chamber to consistently meet the WHO limit for indoor

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air pollutants. PM2.5 concentrations also depend on secondary air provided but they are other significant factors like height of vessel supports which influence the concentrations. It was observed in experiment stage that by increasing the height of vessel supports the concentrations of PM2.5 reduced significantly

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but at the cost of thermal efficiency. Therefore, the design was made balancing these parameters and significant reduction in PM2.5 concentrations is observed as reported above. 3.2.2 Thermal efficiency

Thermal efficiency from equation Eq. (16) is another important performance parameter that has

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a major influence on adoption and acceptance [49]. The average thermal efficiency of the TCS was 14% (Fig. 6.), which was also observed in similar studies [22]. Thermal efficiency of the Greenway (24.54%), Envirofit (23.73%), Onil (18.23%) and ND (28.81%) were higher than the Traditional Cookstove. Average thermal efficiency increased by 75 % (Greenway), 69% (Envirofit), 30% (Onil) and 106% (ND) compared to TCS. According to Muralidharan et al [22] ideal ICS should have higher combustion efficiency to produce lower emissions. Overall thermal efficiency is the product of combustion efficiency

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and heat transfer efficiency [44]. Thus higher thermal efficiency need not always reduce emissions as it can be achieved by increasing heat transfer efficiency and decreasing combustion efficiency. Thermal efficiency of the cookstove designed in this study is the highest among other ICSs, but emission reduction

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in case of CO concentrations is highest in Greenway cookstove. According to Jetter and Kariher [14] cookstoves with smaller mass components tend to perform better than their peers. Thus, smaller mass components of the cookstove may also be a reason for better performance of ND cookstove. Therefore, combustion efficiency of the ND cookstove needs to be improved to further reduce CO concentrations. As already discussed, providing sufficient secondary air will improve the design but at the cost of overall

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thermal efficiency which has major influence on adoption. 3.3 Performance of new design while using different feedstock 3.3.1 Concentrations of PM2.5 and CO

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The CO and PM2.5 concentrations measured during the testing phase across the five fuel types are

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shown in Figures (7 & 8).

Figure 6. Bar charts depicting thermal efficiency of the traditional cookstove (TCS), new design (ND)

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and natural draft ICSs, data is presented as mean ± SE. The concentrations obtained with each of the fuel type are summarized in Table 5. The median PM2.5

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concentrations measured while using different fuel types ranged from 82.99 to 217.78 mg/MJd (Dung), from 134.97 to 187.05 mg/MJd (Crop residue), from 122.02 to 207.07 mg/MJd (Wood), from 171.68 to 258.78 mg/MJd (Coal) and from 207.83 to 290.84 mg/MJd (Charcoal) respectively. While the median concentrations of PM2.5 were 154.48 mg/MJd (Dung), 163.66 mg/MJd (Crop residue), 173.99 mg/MJd (Wood), 207.60 mg/MJd (Coal) and 233.38 mg/MJd (Charcoal) respectively. Cookstove when loaded

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with charcoal produced highest PM2.5 concentrations followed by coal and wood as fuels. Thus, PM2.5 concentrations were significantly lower for fuel types with lower calorific values.

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Figure 7. Variation of PM2.5 concentrations for the new design (ND) when loaded with different

feedstocks.

The median CO concentrations measured while using different fuel types ranged from 0.11 to 6.91 g/MJd (Dung), from 0.42 to 6.54 g/MJd (Crop residue), from 0.19 to 7.76 g/MJd (Wood), from 0.18

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to 10.64 g/MJd (Coal) and from 1.21 to 14.29 g/MJd (Charcoal) respectively. While the median concentrations of CO were 3.21 g/MJd (Dung), 3.60 g/MJd (Crop residue), 3.62 g/MJd (Wood), 5.96

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g/MJd (Coal) and 7.17 g/MJd (Charcoal) respectively. Table 5. Pollutant concentrations from ND when loaded with different feedstocks in a controlled lab test environment.

PM2.5 Mass Concentration (mg/MJd)

Dung

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Feedstock

Crop residue

Min

25%

82.99

50%

75%

Max

25% 50% 75%

Max

136.37 158.48 178.03 217.78 0.11

2.31

3.21

4.28

6.91

134.97 154.86 163.66 169.70 187.05 0.42

2.56

3.60

4.88

6.54

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CO Concentration (g/MJd) Min

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122.02 162.92 173.99 180.73 207.07 0.19

2.52

3.62

4.68

7.76

Coal

171.68 194.06 207.60 219.40 258.78 0.18

4.54

5.96

7.62

10.64

Charcoal

207.83 220.40 233.38 253.92 290.84 1.21

4.92

7.17

9.58

14.29

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Wood

Cookstove when loaded with charcoal produced highest CO concentrations followed by coal and

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wood as fuels. Thus, CO concentrations were significantly lower for fuel types with lower calorific values.

The results are consistent with previous studies [14,44] where charcoal stoves produced higher emissions in comparison to other fuels. Charcoal loaded stoves tend to emit large amount of smoke

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initially and settle down with increase in cooking time due to non-uniform lump charcoal fuel structure [44]. Large amounts of CO and relatively lower PM2.5 are emitted while using charcoal stoves [14]. Emissions when loaded with wood as fuel tended to be in the middle of the ranges for all the fuels tested. ND stove had the best overall performance and the lowest pollutant emissions when loaded with dung as fuel. All the fuels with higher energy per mass emitted more pollutants in comparison with others. 3.3.2 Thermal efficiency

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The average thermal efficiency (Fig. 9) of the cookstove when loaded with different fuels was observed to be 27.31% (Dung), 24.58% (Crop residue), 29.45% (Wood), 34.72% (Coal) and 32.59%

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(Charcoal) respectively. The highest thermal efficiency was achieved when stove was loaded with coal followed by charcoal, wood, dung and crop residue respectively. Although, stove when loaded with dung was observed to emit lower concentrations of PM2.5 and CO its efficiency was less in comparison to other fuels used. Thus, lower energy per mass of fuel will tend to emit less pollutant at the cost of thermal efficiency [44]. Modified combustion efficiency is the only factor which influences the thermal efficiency

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in the feedstock comparison study as heat transfer efficiency more or less remains constant for the cookstove. The cookstove when loaded with charcoal showed less efficiency than when loaded with coal due to lower modified combustion efficiency. The surface area of the fuel particle determines the progress of the flame front into the particle and enables better combustion of fuels [50]. Thus, fuels such as coal and charcoal tend to have higher efficiencies leading to higher emissions if the cookstove is not properly designed. 25   

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Figure 9. Bar charts depicting thermal efficiency of the new design (ND) when loaded with different feedstocks, data is presented as mean ± SE. The ND cookstove with enhanced secondary air provision helps in reducing the emissions of such 3.4 Sources of Error

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3.4.1 Skill of the cook

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high energy per mass fuels.

Skill levels for creating and maintaining fires can be a source of error. This was controlled as much as possible by employing same local person to test the cookstove whenever possible. The efficiency and emission estimation may vary significantly if skill of person changes during cooking. 3.4.2 Fuel quality

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The quality of the fuel is also a significant source of error. These errors were mitigated by taking all the feed stock for testing the cookstove from the same local area. Repeated testing and quality control checks were performed to mitigate the errors. 3.4.3 Moisture level

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Although feed stock came from the same source, variability in moisture level was observed during initial testing of fuel. The fuel was dried as per protocol to remove initial moisture and maintain at appropriate level before testing.

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3.4.4 Utensils cleaning Significant build-up of residue on the bottom of the utensils may have affected the thermal efficiency of the cookstove. To mitigate this, the bottom of each utensil was scraped before the test. Still variability in

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surface area exposed to residue may have contributed to error in thermal efficiency estimation. 3.4.5 Environment

Pollutant concentrations measurements are quite variable and get affected by human factors, ventilation, ambient air pollution, kitchen size and house construction, and weather parameters. To mitigate this to reduce variability. 3.4.6 Type of fuel feed

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wherever possible the control measures were adopted and all measurements were made in the same month

Fuel factors such as size, type, density, loading and tending of fire play a significant role in thermal efficiency and emission estimations. As already seen in section 3.3 different fuel types produce different

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levels of performance for the same cookstove. Errors due to size, loading and tending of fire were closely monitored by employing same user to perform all the tests by providing him with the fuel of equal sizes.

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3.5 Design Registration

An application for design registration with application number 278812 has been filed in the Office of Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trademarks in India [51]. 4 Conclusions

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A unique approach (i.e., designed, fabricated and evaluated) of top and bottom feeding design has enabled multi fuel usage. Newly designed cookstove improved specific fuel consumption, firepower and turn down ratio based on cooking tasks simulated by the WBT protocol. Modified WBT parameters showed an excellent result in comparison to reported previous literature. Similarly, performance of new ICS was compared with the TCS, in terms of better than other stoves except Onil in reducing PM2.5 concentrations and except Greenway in reducing CO concentrations. Commercial ICSs with smaller 27   

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mass components tended to have better fuel efficiency and lower pollutant concentrations, where dung was used as fuel. Emissions measured were higher when coal and charcoal were used as feedstock. Emissions from each of the feedstock except coal and charcoal were within the limits prescribed by BIS (2013). Feedstock with higher energy content and large surface area tended to have more emissions.

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Efficiency of new ICS was higher when coal and charcoal were used as feedstock. Thus, we can conclude that designing stoves with better secondary air provision and smaller thermal mass will reduce emissions from ICSs. Solid fuels with higher energy content when used in ICS may result in high efficiency but

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will contribute to significantly higher emissions. This study may be useful for developing new stove designs which can improve efficiency, reduce emissions and also be flexible in multi fuel usage. Therefore, the new ICS will be a good intervention in mitigating HAP levels in rural as well as urban households. Further heat and mass transfer analyses along with use of computational fluid dynamics may Conflict of interest and Funding

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be performed for complete understanding of cookstove performance.

The authors declare no competing financial interests. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Acknowledgements

The manuscript has been given the KRC No.: CSIR-NEERI/KRC/2019/MARCH/ERMD/1. Authors wishes to thanks Director, CSIR-NEERI for permission to publish the paper and Academy of Scientific

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and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Chennai for providing the platform to carry out the work.

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[51] Design registration. http://ipindiaonline.gov.in/designapplicationstatus/designstatus.aspx

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Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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☒The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

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On behalf of all authors, I, Dr. Ankit Gupta as corresponding author of submitted revised version agreed with mentioned declaration of interest.

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Dr. Ankit Gupta Scientist, NEERI, Nagpur, India

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Conflict of interest and Funding The authors declare no competing financial interests. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Corresponding Author Dr Ankit Gupta

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NEERI, Nagpur

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Research Highlights 1. Development of Improved Cook Stove (ICS) for multi fuel usage are introduced. 2. Evaluate the new design using modified water boiling test.

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3. Comparisons between developed and traditional cookstove & three other ICS are presented.