- Email: [email protected]
Development of food preferences: Lessons learned from longitudinal and experimental studies
Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006) 635–639 www.elsevier.com/locate/foodqual
Workshop summary: Understanding the development of food preferences early in life: Focus on follow-up studies Sophie Nicklaus UMR Flavic—Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique 17 rue Sully, BP 86510, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France Tel.: +33 3 80 69 35 18 E-mail address: [email protected] Introduction
– What are the key periods of the formation of stable food preferences and behaviour? – To what extent do breast- and bottle-feeding influence the child’s feeding behaviour? – What is the contribution of social and parental environment to the variability in preferences? – Do early food preferences track later into childhood, adolescence and adulthood?
Understanding the shaping of food preferences and behaviour in childhood seems essential in the current perspective of increase in prevalence of children obesity in western countries. This might be achieved by studying the origin of food preference very early in infancy. Longitudinal studies have started to show that preferences formed in early childhood could track later on in childhood (Skinner, Carruth, Bounds, Ziegler, & Reidy, 2002a, 2002b) and even until the beginning of adult life (Nicklaus, Boggio, Chabanet, & Issanchou, 2004, 2005). However, these data also showed that preferences for different food groups not necessarily track to the same extent, and that tracking is different for subgroups of subjects (e.g. male versus female, or previously breast fed versus bottle fed children). Clearly, more research is needed to make it possible to sketch learning patterns for different food groups, and for children from different backgrounds. A simple statement can be made concerning the evolution of food choices early in life. Every human being begins life consuming a single food: milk. However, by half way through the first year solid foods of varied types are introduced. By early childhood a wide variability exists in young children’s diets and food preferences, between different cultures as well as within one single culture. The aim of the workshop was to discuss several potential determinants of the early variability of food preferences, by focusing mostly on results brought by longitudinal approaches. Questions such as the following were to be addressed:
Each presentation brought different answers to those questions. They were followed by a broader discussion of the relationship between early feeding and weight status, the potential confounds associated to breast-feeding, and long term influence of sensory learning (for tastes or flavours) on lasting food preference and food habits.
– Does chemosensory reactivity play a role in the development of early food preferences?
Flavor preferences begin to be shaped long before one’s first taste of solid food. Here we summarize the insights
0950-3293/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2006.01.008
References Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2004). A prospective study of food preferences in children. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 805–817. Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2005). A prospective study of food variety seeking in childhood, adolescence and early adult life. Appetite, 44, 289–297. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Bounds, W., Ziegler, P., & Reidy, K. (2002a). Do food-related experiences in the first 2 years of life predict dietary variety in school-aged children? Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34, 310–315. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Wendy, B., & Ziegler, P. J. (2002b). Children’s food preferences: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102, 1638–1646.
Available online 15 May 2006 Development of food preferences: Lessons learned from longitudinal and experimental studies Julie A. Mennella Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA 191043308, USA Tel.: +1 215 898 9230; fax: +1 215 898 2084 E-mail address: [email protected]
636
Abstracts / Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006) 635–639
gleaned from scientific research from both experimental and longitudinal studies. As will be discussed, this research suggests that infants learn about the types of foods eaten by their mothers during pregnancy and lactation. Such experiences bias acceptance of particular flavors and may ‘program’ later food preferences. In this way, this is the first way (but not the only way) in which culture-specific food preferences are likely initiated early in life. During the past decade, experimental studies revealed that the environment in which the human fetus lives, the amniotic sac, changes as a function of the food choices of the mother since dietary flavors are transmitted and flavor amniotic fluid (Mennella, Johnson, & Beauchamp, 1995). Experiences with such flavors lead to increased enjoyment and preference for these flavors at birth and during weaning. For example, exposure to dietary transmitted flavors such as garlic or anise in amniotic fluid has been shown to influence the newborn’s facial, mouthing, and orienting responses to those odors immediately postpartum (Hepper, 1988; Schaal, Marlier, & Soussignan, 2000). Some of these same flavors will later be experienced by infants in their mother’s milk since human milk is composed of flavors which directly reflect the foods, spices and beverages ingested by the mother (Mennella & Beauchamp, 1991; Mennella et al., 1995). Like that observed in other mammals, infants who were exposed to a flavor (i.e. carrots) in either amniotic fluid or mother’s milk behaved differently in response to that flavor in a food base than did non-exposed control infants (Mennella, Jagnow, & Beauchamp, 2001). Specifically, previously exposed infants displayed fewer negative facial expressions while feeding the carrot-flavored cereal when compared to the plain cereal. Moreover, those infants who were exposed to carrots prenatally were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the carrot-flavored cereal more when compared to the plain cereal. Postnatal exposure has similar consequences thus highlighting the importance of a varied diet for both pregnant and lactating women. That amniotic fluid and breast milk share a commonality in flavor profiles with the foods eaten by the mother suggests that breast milk may ‘bridge’ the experiences with flavors in utero to those in solid foods. Moreover, the sweetness and textural properties of human milk, such as viscosity and mouth coating, vary from mother to mother, thus suggesting that breastfeeding, unlike formula feeding, provides the infant with the potential for a rich source of varying chemosensory experiences. The types and intensity of flavors experienced in breast milk may be unique for each infant and serve to identify the culture to which the child is born. Of interest are recent findings from an intra-cultural study of women living in several regions of Mexico (Mennella, Turnbull, Ziegler, & Martinez, 2005). Despite the differences in cuisine, there were striking similarities in the types of foods fed to infants during weaning and eaten more of by mothers during pregnancy. In a sense, the foods eaten by the mother (e.g., fruits) formed the basis of the child’s weaning patterns.
Experimental research has also revealed that the type of exposure needed to enhance later acceptance may not require experience with the actual flavor, however. Experience with flavor variety enhances the acceptance of novel foods during weaning in human infants (Gerrish & Mennella, 2001) and animal models (Capretta, Petersik, & Steward, 1975). Of interest is the finding that breastfed infants were more willing to accept a novel vegetable upon first presentation than are formula-fed infants (Sullivan & Birch, 1994). One explanation for this finding is that, unlike the formula-fed infant who experiences a monotony of flavors in infant formula, the breastfed infant is exposed to a variety of flavors in breast milk, setting the pattern for a diversified diet. The long-term consequences of early milk feeding on the development of aspects of food and flavor preferences have been the subject of a few longitudinal studies in recent years. In an 8-year longitudinal study conducted in the United States, fruit and vegetable consumption by school-aged children was predicted by either breastfeeding duration, food-related experiences during early life, or mothers’ preferences (Skinner, Carruth, Wendy, & Ziegler, 2002). Similar findings have been recently reported in the United Kingdom (Cooke et al., 2004) and France (Nicklaus, Boggio, Chabanet, & Issanchou, 2004). Clearly, more research is needed, but the finding that infants are learning via flavor cues in breast milk suggest one (but not the only) mechanism underlying these associations. Acknowledgement Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by NIH Grant HD37119. References Capretta, P. J., Petersik, J. T., & Steward, D. J. (1975). Acceptance of novel flavours is increased after early experience of diverse taste. Nature, 254, 689–691. Cooke, L. J., Wardle, J., Gibson, E. L., Sapochnik, M., Sheilham, A., & Lawson, M. (2004). Demographic, familial and trait predictors of fruit and vegetable consumption by pre-school children. Public Health Nutrition, 7, 295–302. Gerrish, C. J., & Mennella, J. A. (2001). Flavor variety enhances food acceptance in formula-fed infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 1080–1085. Hepper, P. G. (1988). Adaptive fetal learning: prenatal exposure to garlic affects postnatal preferences. Animal Behavior, 36, 935–936. Mennella, J. A., & Beauchamp, G. K. (1991). Maternal diet alters the sensory qualities of human milk and the nursling’s behavior. Pediatrics, 88, 737–744. Mennella, J. A., Jagnow, C. P., & Beauchamp, G. K. (2001). Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants. Pediatrics, 107, 1–6. Mennella, J. A., Johnson, A., & Beauchamp, G. K. (1995). Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Chemical Senses, 20, 207–209. Mennella, J. A., Turnbull, B., Ziegler, P. J., & Martinez, H. (2005). Infant feeding practices and early flavor experiences in Mexican infants: an intra-cultural study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105, 908–915.
Abstracts / Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006) 635–639 Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2004). A prospective study of food preferences in children. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 805–817. Schaal, B., Marlier, L., & Soussignan, R. (2000). Human foetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother’s diet. Chemical Senses, 25, 729–733. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Wendy, B., & Ziegler, P. J. (2002). Children’s food preferences: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102, 1638–1646. Sullivan, S., & Birch, L. L. (1994). Infant dietary experience and acceptance of solid foods. Pediatrics, 93, 271–277.
Available online 15 May 2006 Effect of sensory factors and family context on the early development of food preferences: A longitudinal study Christine Lange Centre Europe´en des Sciences du Gouˆt INRA, Universite´ de Bourgogne Dijon, France Email address: [email protected] One generally assumes that food preferences are acquired at a very early age, are maintained at the time of childhood, and determine food choices of adults. However, food preferences at the age of 2–3 years already feature a great variability which cannot be explained by socio-demographic variables (Nicklaus et al., 2005). It is therefore essential to observe chemosensory and food exposure of infants before the age of two years. Moreover, how much later learning with food in the family and social environment can override this early development is unknown. Our objective was to set up a longitudinal study which will allow us to answer several questions: Is there a link between prenatal and neonatal chemosensory exposure and preference at the age of 2? Would a larger variety of food at the diversification stage increase the child’s later search for food variety? Is there a link between a higher sensitivity to specific compounds and an early and stable aversion for foods rich in these compounds? Finally, could the family context influence the food preferences and aversions of the child? This longitudinal study proposes to follow a cohort of mothers and children from the 7th month of woman’s pregnancy to the child’s second birthday. Food behaviours are influenced by many interactive factors; therefore we will prioritize a multidisciplinary approach with the collaboration of researchers from sensory analysis, cognitive psychology, sociology, paediatrics, ethology, statistics and communication. We plan to recruit 2 or 3 cohorts of about 100 mothers in each. So far, 74 families have already been recruited and 48 infants were born. Different information will be collected. Prenatal and neonatal chemosensory exposures will be registered by following the mother’s diet during the last two months of pregnancy until the diversification stage and the child’s diet and frequency of food consumption until the age of two years. The mother will be asked to complete 7-day quali-
637
tative food diaries concerning her own diet and her infant’s diet after birth. Sensory reactivity in infants towards different stimuli (gustatory, olfactory and tactile stimuli) will be assessed with behavioural measurements. Measurement of sensory reactivity requires the development of new methodologies adapted to this age bracket. The procedure developed for the reactivity to odorants consists of observing the facial and bodily reactions of the infant as he/she successively explores several differently scented rattles which are visually identical (pleasant versus unpleasant odours). To investigate whether individual differences in food behaviour are related to family context, we will record parental socio-economic characteristics, food preferences and aversions, food neophobia, food attitudes and food practices, in particular for the mother (attitude towards body weight, source of information about feeding ...), mother’s personality (e.g., anxiety, self-esteem) and parentinfant relation towards food. This information will be collected using questionnaires and interviews. This set of data will help us to understand liking or disliking reactions of the children to each new food presented at the food diversification stage and their preferences and aversions at the age of two years. The results should produce a better knowledge of the mechanisms which determine the development of food preferences and aversions in young children. It should also allow us to better explain the variability of food choices in children. Finally, this longitudinal study will contribute to the accession of new tools and new methodologies the results of which are already encouraging. Reference Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., & Issanchou, S. (2005). Food choices at lunch during the third year of life: high selection of animal and starchy foods but avoidance of vegetables. Acta Pædiatrica 94, 943–951.
Available online 15 May 2006 Development of eating and meal pattern in infants up to 12 months of age I. Blossfeld, S. Boland, A. Collins, M. Kiely University College Cork, Republic of Ireland E-mail address: [email protected] C. Delahunty Sensory Science Research Centre University of Otago New Zealand Every human being begins life consuming a single food: milk. However, by half way through the first year of life solid foods of varied types are introduced. By early childhood a wide variability exists in young children’s diets and food preferences, between different cultures as well as within one single culture. The objective of this study was to characterise the infants’ diet, from exclusive milk feeding
Workshop summary: Understanding the development of food preferences early in life: Focus on follow-up studies Sophie Nicklaus UMR Flavic—Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique 17 rue Sully, BP 86510, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France Tel.: +33 3 80 69 35 18 E-mail address: [email protected] Introduction
– What are the key periods of the formation of stable food preferences and behaviour? – To what extent do breast- and bottle-feeding influence the child’s feeding behaviour? – What is the contribution of social and parental environment to the variability in preferences? – Do early food preferences track later into childhood, adolescence and adulthood?
Understanding the shaping of food preferences and behaviour in childhood seems essential in the current perspective of increase in prevalence of children obesity in western countries. This might be achieved by studying the origin of food preference very early in infancy. Longitudinal studies have started to show that preferences formed in early childhood could track later on in childhood (Skinner, Carruth, Bounds, Ziegler, & Reidy, 2002a, 2002b) and even until the beginning of adult life (Nicklaus, Boggio, Chabanet, & Issanchou, 2004, 2005). However, these data also showed that preferences for different food groups not necessarily track to the same extent, and that tracking is different for subgroups of subjects (e.g. male versus female, or previously breast fed versus bottle fed children). Clearly, more research is needed to make it possible to sketch learning patterns for different food groups, and for children from different backgrounds. A simple statement can be made concerning the evolution of food choices early in life. Every human being begins life consuming a single food: milk. However, by half way through the first year solid foods of varied types are introduced. By early childhood a wide variability exists in young children’s diets and food preferences, between different cultures as well as within one single culture. The aim of the workshop was to discuss several potential determinants of the early variability of food preferences, by focusing mostly on results brought by longitudinal approaches. Questions such as the following were to be addressed:
Each presentation brought different answers to those questions. They were followed by a broader discussion of the relationship between early feeding and weight status, the potential confounds associated to breast-feeding, and long term influence of sensory learning (for tastes or flavours) on lasting food preference and food habits.
– Does chemosensory reactivity play a role in the development of early food preferences?
Flavor preferences begin to be shaped long before one’s first taste of solid food. Here we summarize the insights
0950-3293/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2006.01.008
References Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2004). A prospective study of food preferences in children. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 805–817. Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2005). A prospective study of food variety seeking in childhood, adolescence and early adult life. Appetite, 44, 289–297. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Bounds, W., Ziegler, P., & Reidy, K. (2002a). Do food-related experiences in the first 2 years of life predict dietary variety in school-aged children? Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34, 310–315. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Wendy, B., & Ziegler, P. J. (2002b). Children’s food preferences: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102, 1638–1646.
Available online 15 May 2006 Development of food preferences: Lessons learned from longitudinal and experimental studies Julie A. Mennella Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA 191043308, USA Tel.: +1 215 898 9230; fax: +1 215 898 2084 E-mail address: [email protected]
636
Abstracts / Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006) 635–639
gleaned from scientific research from both experimental and longitudinal studies. As will be discussed, this research suggests that infants learn about the types of foods eaten by their mothers during pregnancy and lactation. Such experiences bias acceptance of particular flavors and may ‘program’ later food preferences. In this way, this is the first way (but not the only way) in which culture-specific food preferences are likely initiated early in life. During the past decade, experimental studies revealed that the environment in which the human fetus lives, the amniotic sac, changes as a function of the food choices of the mother since dietary flavors are transmitted and flavor amniotic fluid (Mennella, Johnson, & Beauchamp, 1995). Experiences with such flavors lead to increased enjoyment and preference for these flavors at birth and during weaning. For example, exposure to dietary transmitted flavors such as garlic or anise in amniotic fluid has been shown to influence the newborn’s facial, mouthing, and orienting responses to those odors immediately postpartum (Hepper, 1988; Schaal, Marlier, & Soussignan, 2000). Some of these same flavors will later be experienced by infants in their mother’s milk since human milk is composed of flavors which directly reflect the foods, spices and beverages ingested by the mother (Mennella & Beauchamp, 1991; Mennella et al., 1995). Like that observed in other mammals, infants who were exposed to a flavor (i.e. carrots) in either amniotic fluid or mother’s milk behaved differently in response to that flavor in a food base than did non-exposed control infants (Mennella, Jagnow, & Beauchamp, 2001). Specifically, previously exposed infants displayed fewer negative facial expressions while feeding the carrot-flavored cereal when compared to the plain cereal. Moreover, those infants who were exposed to carrots prenatally were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the carrot-flavored cereal more when compared to the plain cereal. Postnatal exposure has similar consequences thus highlighting the importance of a varied diet for both pregnant and lactating women. That amniotic fluid and breast milk share a commonality in flavor profiles with the foods eaten by the mother suggests that breast milk may ‘bridge’ the experiences with flavors in utero to those in solid foods. Moreover, the sweetness and textural properties of human milk, such as viscosity and mouth coating, vary from mother to mother, thus suggesting that breastfeeding, unlike formula feeding, provides the infant with the potential for a rich source of varying chemosensory experiences. The types and intensity of flavors experienced in breast milk may be unique for each infant and serve to identify the culture to which the child is born. Of interest are recent findings from an intra-cultural study of women living in several regions of Mexico (Mennella, Turnbull, Ziegler, & Martinez, 2005). Despite the differences in cuisine, there were striking similarities in the types of foods fed to infants during weaning and eaten more of by mothers during pregnancy. In a sense, the foods eaten by the mother (e.g., fruits) formed the basis of the child’s weaning patterns.
Experimental research has also revealed that the type of exposure needed to enhance later acceptance may not require experience with the actual flavor, however. Experience with flavor variety enhances the acceptance of novel foods during weaning in human infants (Gerrish & Mennella, 2001) and animal models (Capretta, Petersik, & Steward, 1975). Of interest is the finding that breastfed infants were more willing to accept a novel vegetable upon first presentation than are formula-fed infants (Sullivan & Birch, 1994). One explanation for this finding is that, unlike the formula-fed infant who experiences a monotony of flavors in infant formula, the breastfed infant is exposed to a variety of flavors in breast milk, setting the pattern for a diversified diet. The long-term consequences of early milk feeding on the development of aspects of food and flavor preferences have been the subject of a few longitudinal studies in recent years. In an 8-year longitudinal study conducted in the United States, fruit and vegetable consumption by school-aged children was predicted by either breastfeeding duration, food-related experiences during early life, or mothers’ preferences (Skinner, Carruth, Wendy, & Ziegler, 2002). Similar findings have been recently reported in the United Kingdom (Cooke et al., 2004) and France (Nicklaus, Boggio, Chabanet, & Issanchou, 2004). Clearly, more research is needed, but the finding that infants are learning via flavor cues in breast milk suggest one (but not the only) mechanism underlying these associations. Acknowledgement Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by NIH Grant HD37119. References Capretta, P. J., Petersik, J. T., & Steward, D. J. (1975). Acceptance of novel flavours is increased after early experience of diverse taste. Nature, 254, 689–691. Cooke, L. J., Wardle, J., Gibson, E. L., Sapochnik, M., Sheilham, A., & Lawson, M. (2004). Demographic, familial and trait predictors of fruit and vegetable consumption by pre-school children. Public Health Nutrition, 7, 295–302. Gerrish, C. J., & Mennella, J. A. (2001). Flavor variety enhances food acceptance in formula-fed infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 1080–1085. Hepper, P. G. (1988). Adaptive fetal learning: prenatal exposure to garlic affects postnatal preferences. Animal Behavior, 36, 935–936. Mennella, J. A., & Beauchamp, G. K. (1991). Maternal diet alters the sensory qualities of human milk and the nursling’s behavior. Pediatrics, 88, 737–744. Mennella, J. A., Jagnow, C. P., & Beauchamp, G. K. (2001). Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants. Pediatrics, 107, 1–6. Mennella, J. A., Johnson, A., & Beauchamp, G. K. (1995). Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Chemical Senses, 20, 207–209. Mennella, J. A., Turnbull, B., Ziegler, P. J., & Martinez, H. (2005). Infant feeding practices and early flavor experiences in Mexican infants: an intra-cultural study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105, 908–915.
Abstracts / Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006) 635–639 Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., Chabanet, C., & Issanchou, S. (2004). A prospective study of food preferences in children. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 805–817. Schaal, B., Marlier, L., & Soussignan, R. (2000). Human foetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother’s diet. Chemical Senses, 25, 729–733. Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Wendy, B., & Ziegler, P. J. (2002). Children’s food preferences: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102, 1638–1646. Sullivan, S., & Birch, L. L. (1994). Infant dietary experience and acceptance of solid foods. Pediatrics, 93, 271–277.
Available online 15 May 2006 Effect of sensory factors and family context on the early development of food preferences: A longitudinal study Christine Lange Centre Europe´en des Sciences du Gouˆt INRA, Universite´ de Bourgogne Dijon, France Email address: [email protected] One generally assumes that food preferences are acquired at a very early age, are maintained at the time of childhood, and determine food choices of adults. However, food preferences at the age of 2–3 years already feature a great variability which cannot be explained by socio-demographic variables (Nicklaus et al., 2005). It is therefore essential to observe chemosensory and food exposure of infants before the age of two years. Moreover, how much later learning with food in the family and social environment can override this early development is unknown. Our objective was to set up a longitudinal study which will allow us to answer several questions: Is there a link between prenatal and neonatal chemosensory exposure and preference at the age of 2? Would a larger variety of food at the diversification stage increase the child’s later search for food variety? Is there a link between a higher sensitivity to specific compounds and an early and stable aversion for foods rich in these compounds? Finally, could the family context influence the food preferences and aversions of the child? This longitudinal study proposes to follow a cohort of mothers and children from the 7th month of woman’s pregnancy to the child’s second birthday. Food behaviours are influenced by many interactive factors; therefore we will prioritize a multidisciplinary approach with the collaboration of researchers from sensory analysis, cognitive psychology, sociology, paediatrics, ethology, statistics and communication. We plan to recruit 2 or 3 cohorts of about 100 mothers in each. So far, 74 families have already been recruited and 48 infants were born. Different information will be collected. Prenatal and neonatal chemosensory exposures will be registered by following the mother’s diet during the last two months of pregnancy until the diversification stage and the child’s diet and frequency of food consumption until the age of two years. The mother will be asked to complete 7-day quali-
637
tative food diaries concerning her own diet and her infant’s diet after birth. Sensory reactivity in infants towards different stimuli (gustatory, olfactory and tactile stimuli) will be assessed with behavioural measurements. Measurement of sensory reactivity requires the development of new methodologies adapted to this age bracket. The procedure developed for the reactivity to odorants consists of observing the facial and bodily reactions of the infant as he/she successively explores several differently scented rattles which are visually identical (pleasant versus unpleasant odours). To investigate whether individual differences in food behaviour are related to family context, we will record parental socio-economic characteristics, food preferences and aversions, food neophobia, food attitudes and food practices, in particular for the mother (attitude towards body weight, source of information about feeding ...), mother’s personality (e.g., anxiety, self-esteem) and parentinfant relation towards food. This information will be collected using questionnaires and interviews. This set of data will help us to understand liking or disliking reactions of the children to each new food presented at the food diversification stage and their preferences and aversions at the age of two years. The results should produce a better knowledge of the mechanisms which determine the development of food preferences and aversions in young children. It should also allow us to better explain the variability of food choices in children. Finally, this longitudinal study will contribute to the accession of new tools and new methodologies the results of which are already encouraging. Reference Nicklaus, S., Boggio, V., & Issanchou, S. (2005). Food choices at lunch during the third year of life: high selection of animal and starchy foods but avoidance of vegetables. Acta Pædiatrica 94, 943–951.
Available online 15 May 2006 Development of eating and meal pattern in infants up to 12 months of age I. Blossfeld, S. Boland, A. Collins, M. Kiely University College Cork, Republic of Ireland E-mail address: [email protected] C. Delahunty Sensory Science Research Centre University of Otago New Zealand Every human being begins life consuming a single food: milk. However, by half way through the first year of life solid foods of varied types are introduced. By early childhood a wide variability exists in young children’s diets and food preferences, between different cultures as well as within one single culture. The objective of this study was to characterise the infants’ diet, from exclusive milk feeding