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Development of guidelines on best practices for the slaughter of animals in Cyprus
Waste Management 23 (2003) 157–165 www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman
Development of guidelines on best practices for the slaughter of animals in Cyprus D. Fatta*, M. Marneri, A. Papadopoulos, K. Moustakas, K.J. Haralambous, M. Loizidou Chemical Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens, Zographou Campus, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Athens, Greece Accepted 29 May 2002
Abstract Cyprus is one of the candidate countries to become a full member of the European Union. In order to access formally to the EU, Cyprus has to follow an implementation process and take into account all the obligations that the fifteen Member States have to respect. A large number of obligations derive from the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/ 61/EC, which intends to result in the protection of the environment as a whole and the public health as well. This will be the outcome of determining ways of pollution prevention and control for several industrial sectors, which are covered by the IPPC Directive and then taking action so that all operators act according to the Directive’s demands. In this framework, the National Technical University of Athens, after thorough examination of a large number of documents relevant to the Best Available Techniques (BATs), developed guidelines for the application of BATs for 14 categories of the industry of Cyprus. This paper concerns the developed guidelines for slaughterhouses. # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction During the last several years there has been considerable progress in the reduction of pollutant emissions to the environment. A high technical standard in pollution abatement has been achieved in many sectors, in various Member States of the European Union. Nonetheless, a large contribution to total pollutant emissions is still being made, in particular, by the industrial activities covered by the IPPC Directive. The need for a further reduction of these emissions is evident, firstly, by the extent to which actual pollution levels in large parts of Europe fall short of the environmental quality standards laid down in the European Environmental Quality Directives and, secondly, by the deviations from the ‘‘critical loads’’ and ‘‘critical levels’’ established by the UN ECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). The goal of sustainable industrial production in Europe has not yet been achieved. Ambitious objectives have been set by the IPPC Directive. The fundamental objective is to * Corresponding author. Tel.: +30-1-7723108; fax: +30-17723088. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Fatta).
achieve a high level of protection of the environment as a whole by preventing or reducing the pollution emanating from industrial installations directly at source. This is to be done on the basis of an integrated approach which encompasses all environmental media. The central element of this approach is the use of the best available techniques, BAT for short (Haigh, 2000). Preparations for the IPPC Directive (96/61/EC) started early in the 1990s and the European Community’s Fifth Environmental Action Programme, adopted in 1993, stated that one of its objectives was ‘‘improved management and control of production processes including a system of licensing linked to integrated pollution prevention and control’’. The Directive was adopted in 1996 and came into effect in October 1999. The IPPC Directive is an important milestone, because it sets a flexible and integrated framework for the environmental regulation of a wide range of the most polluting industrial activities. The IPPC Directive takes an integrated approach, which means that authorities need to weigh non-local and transboundary effects, such as global warming and acidification, against effects on the local environment. They also need to take into account the costs, as well as
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Nomenclature BAT BREF EC EIPPCB ELVs EU IEF IPPC MS NTUA TSE TWG UN ECE
Best Available Techniques BAT Reference Document European Commission IPPC Bureau Emission Limit Values European Union Information Exchange Forum Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Member States National Technical University of Athens Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Technical Working Group United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
the advantages, of pollution prevention and control, and make sure that they are up to date with the latest developments in best available techniques. This important obligation has lead to the establishment of the EUwide exchange of information on BAT. It is worth noting that although the IPPC Directive from a legal point of view is a purely environmental directive, it certainly contributes to several other goals of the European Union (Aichinger, 2000): Promotion of innovation. By introducing a benchmarking system, the directive stimulates systematic modernisation of European industry, through the implementation of both high-tech production equipment and cleaner operational practices. Economic and social cohesion. The Union should not tolerate some of its member countries having mainly old and polluting production, while the others have modern and ‘‘clean’’ production. The Directive will counteract such tendencies and promote structural transformation of the business world in all EU countries. Fair competition on the Internal Market. By laying down harmonised framework rules for the most polluting installations in the EU, the Directive will reduce the risk of market distortions through environmental dumping and create a more level playing field for business in the EU. The directive applies to six industrial categories: energy, production and processing of metals, minerals, chemicals, waste management, and ‘others’, including pulp and paper production, textile treatment, tanning, food processing, slaughterhouse and animal carcases
disposal or reuse, intensive livestock operations, etc. IPPC will set the standard for all activities for which environmental permits are required. Permits will be far broader than they were previously. Rather than an industry needing several permits, one for each environmental medium (air, water or soil), IPPC permits will be integrated. They will cover both direct and indirect discharges to any medium, as well as issues of waste minimisation, energy efficiency, resource utilisation, prevention of accidents, and the restoration of sites after the industrial activity has ceased. Permits are to be reconsidered and updated at periodic intervals, especially when excessive pollution occurs, or when technical or other developments allow a significant reduction in emissions at reasonable cost. In this paper, information is given on the IPPC Directive, the BAT information exchange procedure, the status of IPPC implementation in Cyprus, elaborated information on guidelines on slaughterhouses, the existing situation in the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus and finally suggestions on improvements needed to take place in the installation in Cyprus so as to approach EU standards. The main objective of this paper is to enlighten the scope of the IPPC Directive and describe the whole concept on which is based. Slaughterhouses are used as an example to illustrate the applicability of the Directive.
2. BAT and the BAT information exchange Best available techniques (BATs) are the most effective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing, in principle, the basis for Emission Limit Values (ELVs) designed to prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce emissions and the impact on the environment as a whole. Techniques include both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned. This is a broad term to include all factors relevant to the environmental performance of an installation. Available techniques are those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages. As long as the techniques are reasonably accessible to the operator, whether or not the techniques are used or produced inside the MS in question, is of no importance. This definition is designed to avoid the two extremes of totally ignoring the cost or practical feasibility of applying a technique or leaving competent authorities the possibility to consider techniques used or developed only locally.
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Best available techniques are the most effective in achieving a high general level of protection to the environment as a whole. This means that all the different types of environmental impacts an installation could have, must be considered when determining which techniques are ‘best’ (Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996). The concept of BAT plays a central role in the Directive because its objective is made clear in Article 2, which ‘is to provide a basis for ELVs’. These are primarily the ELVs set by the competent authorities as permit conditions. In addition to forming the basis for ELVs, the BAT concept more generally provides the principal benchmark for determining the obligations of industrial operators in respect of pollution prevention and control. Although ELVs will be based on BATs, there is a provision in Article 9, which should also take account of the geographical location of the activity and local environmental conditions. Therefore, BATs can vary from place to place so that sensitive environmental problems can be addressed locally (O’Malley, 1999). In determining the best available techniques, special consideration should be given to the following items (Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996): The use of low-waste technology. The use of less hazardous substances. The furthering of recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the process and of waste, where appropriate. Comparable processes, facilities or methods of operation, which have been tried with success on an industrial scale. Technological advances and changes in scientific knowledge and understanding. The nature, effects and emissions concerned. The commissioning dates for new or existing installations. The length of time needed to introduce the best available technique. The consumption and nature of raw materials (including water) used in the process and their energy efficiency. The need to prevent or reduce to a minimum the overall impact on the environment and the risks to it. The need to prevent accidents and to minimize the consequences for the environment. The information published by the Commission or by international organizations. The European Commission organises an exchange of information between experts from the EU MS, industry and environmental organisations. This work is coordinated by the European IPPC Bureau (EIPPCB) and it has been divided into some 30 sectors along the lines of Annex I of the Directive (Sorup, 2000). Each sector is
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examined by a technical working group (TWG) and it takes around 2 years to complete the work and to produce a so-called BREF (BAT reference document). The draft BREFs are then examined and discussed in the Information Exchange Forum (IEF), which draws up to the final BREFs. The IEF consists of representatives from all MS, as well as from industry, the EIPPCB, the commission, and the European Environmental Bureau (the federation of all European Environmental Agencies). While the BREFs are intended to assist the licensing authorities, the final decision still lies with these authorities, because Article 9 of the Directive establishes that they must take into account, (a) the technical characteristics of the installation, (b) its geographical location and (c) the local environmental conditions (Gislev, 2000). There is one TWG elaborating BREFS for Intensive Livestock Farming and another one elaborating the BREFS for Slaughterhouses and animal carcasses disposal or reuse. No reference report is available until now. The 15 EU MS were expected to adjust their national legislation in line with the Directive before the end of October 1999. From October 1999 on the Directive applies to all new installations, as well as existing installations that intend to carry out changes that may have significant negative effects on human beings or the environment. The Directive does not immediately apply to existing installations. These have been granted an additional 8 years of grace.
3. Implementation of the IPPC Directive in Cyprus Cyprus applied for membership of the European Union on 4 July 1990. Accession negotiations between the EU and Cyprus were launched on 31 March 1998. The first stage, known as ‘acquis screening’, involves the analytical examination of the acquis communautaire, during which the European Commission presents and explains the acquis in a certain area, the applicant country presents its own policy in the area, and the two are compared, so that the necessary legislative or other changes needed to achieve harmonisation are identified. Compliance with the EU environmental acquis will inevitably improve the quality of the natural environment in Cyprus and will mainly benefit Cyprus through: Reduced levels of air pollution. Reduced levels of water and ground contamination. The provision of suitable sanitation capacity to support tourist growth. The BATs are the techniques associated with the highest environmental performance that can be combined with (1) as many positive associated environmental trade-offs
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as possible (cross media effects); (2) no negative effects on animal production, animal health and animal welfare; (3) no major difficulties to apply it and (4) lowest possible costs (European IPPC Bureau, 2001). Compliance with the IPPC Directive and BATs will also require a coordinated approach to all the aspects listed above in contrast to the present piecemeal legislation and control. This overall view will have benefits in terms of increased efficiency, as well as with respect to the integration of environmental protection (Boyd and Markandya, 1999). At present, the drafting of the IPPC Directive is taking place and it is expected to be fully transposed by the end of the 2002 in the Cypriot national law. In the framework of the Life Project, the National Technical University of Athens has developed guidelines for the implementation of the BATs for 14 categories of industry in Cyprus that fall into the IPPC directive. Moreover, a comparison has been made between the present situation for five industrial categories and the intended BATs and finally recommendations have been forwarded to the relevant Cypriot Ministries. The guidelines are constituted in four parts: An introduction, which provides general information about IPPC, BATs and the literature used. Control techniques: for load minimization, for prevention of pollution, for recovery and recycling, for treating emissions. Emission limit values (ELVs). Compliance monitoring.
4.2. Techniques for prevention of emissions Overground pipelines and transfer lines Overfilling protection on bulk storage tanks Enclosure of materials (excluding bulk liquids), storage, handling, processing and transfer within a suitable building Bunding of tanks Prevention of rain ingress, wind entrainment etc. for stored materials 4.3. Techniques for treating water emissions 4.3.1. Primary treatment Sedimentation/filtration/floatation Coagulation/flocculation/precipitation 4.3.2. Secondary treatment
Biofilters Anaerobic treatment Activated sludge/aeration lagoons Extended aeration
4.3.3. Tertiary treatment Nitrification/denitrification Filtration/coagulation/precipitation
4.4. Techniques for the treatment and disposal of wastes 4. Guidelines for the slaughterhouses 4.4.1. Sludge treatment The objective of this paper is to provide a list of techniques, which can be considered as current best practice (Environmant Protection Agency, 1996). These techniques are representative of a wide range of currently employed techniques appropriate to particular circumstances. However, the following list does not preclude the use of any other similar technology, technique or standard, which may achieve the same conditions. In addition the following list needs to be updated in order to incorporate technological advances as they occur. These are the following:
Gravity thickening Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
4.4.2. Disposal Reuse in downstream processing Engineered landfill of wastes Landspreading of wastes (as fertilizer)
4.1. Techniques for load minimization 4.5. Techniques for recovery and recycle Optimization of water usage, for instance use of pressure cleaning throughout Optimization of blood collection Selection of equipment for secondary processing to minimize effluent and waste arising Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Reuse in a rendering or pet food facility Blood and bone collection for use in edible products for human consumption Fresh fat rendering Optimization of offal recovery and reuse for downstream processing
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4.6. Techniques for treating emissions to air Apart from adequate stack discharge in the case of nonwet rendering usually there is not any further requirement for the treatment of fresh fat rendering or dehairing. 4.7. Emission limit values The limit values, which refer to the water discharges, derive from quite composite samples on the basis of 24 h flow. Effort should be made so as to lessen the effluent and the recovery of materials is in position to contribute to this direction. Water of lower quality can be used for several parts of the process rather than fresh water. The reduction of substances’ emissions due to the application of the Best Available Techniques mainly regards the minimization of the emissions at source either by specific treatment of contaminated waste streams to remove particular substances or by treatment of combined effluent or both. Table 1 presents some emission limits for slaughterhouses, which are considered to be quite strict and useful.
Odor losses during animal delivery and storage Stripping of odorous compounds from waste water treatment plants leading to releases to air and/or odor problems Odor losses from filling of bulk tanks Odor losses from storage of wastes and materials for of wastes and materials for off-site processing Building losses (from processing and storage areas) The second category of these sources refers to emissions related to processes and they are: On-site fat rendering Dehairing of pig carcasses 4.8.2. Sources of emissions to water
4.8. Sources and emissions This section deals with the identification of the major sources of all types of emissions and wastes from the operation of slaughterhouses. It should also be noted that some variation in the quantitative composition of the generated waste might exist. The exact proportion of the waste composition depends on several factors, such as the kind of the slaughtered animal, the capacity of the slaughterhouse, etc. 4.8.1. Sources of emissions to air The first category of sources of emissions to air refers to the fugitive and unscheduled emissions. More specifically, this category includes: Table 1 European Union Emission Limit Values for industrial wastewater Constituent group or parameter
Limit value
pH BOD
6–9 > 90% removal or 40 mg/l 5 > 80% removal or 15 mg/l > 80% removal or 2 mg/l 10 15 No tainting 20
Toxic units Total nitrogen (as N) Total phosphorus (as P) Total ammonia (mg/l as N) Oils, fats and grease (mg/l) Fish tainting Mineral oil (mg/l)
All values refer to daily averages, except where otherwise stated to the contrary and except pH, which refers to continuous values.
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Spills and diffuse sources Contaminated stormwaters Storage tank leaks Pipework leaks Spillages Bund drains Leakages from flanges, pumps, seals, valve glands etc.
4.8.3. Process emissions Washing of vehicles Boiler blowdown Cleaning of production area Clearing secondary process areas (e.g. stomach washing, tripe, casings, etc.) Area of animal housing Cleaning of waste and off-site storage areas Laboratory effluent
4.8.4. Sources of solid waste Sludges from waste water treatment plants Solids from the areas of vehicle wash and animal housing Contaminated drums, equipment, packaging and protective clothing Animal by-products
4.9. Compliance monitoring The proposed methods, which concern the emissions’ monitoring, are categorized according to the nature of the emissions from slaughterhouses. 4.9.1. Air emissions’ monitoring Visual and olfactory assessments should be made at least once a week.
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sumption together with material balance and final ending of all waste materials.
4.9.2. Waste water discharges’ monitoring Monitoring of the influent and effluent from the waste water treatment plant to achieve % BOD reduction and on time warning of possible difficulties in waste water treatment plant, or unusual loads. Monitoring of flow, volume and pH should occur every day. Monitoring of other relevant parameters should be scheduled after taking the nature, the magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies into account.
4.10. The slaughterhouses in Cyprus The Central Slaughterhouse Board is the main slaughterhouse in Cyprus for pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. The factory was constructed in 1988 and has treatment facilities (lagoons) for handling liquid effluents. The treatment system consists of mechanical pretreatment (roto sieve), two anaerobic lagoons and one anaerobic lagoon (Haskoning Ltd., 1997). All the animals are transported by trucks to the slaughterhouse. Before slaughtering the activities consist of (1) registration and (2) a short stay in stables (only pigs). The activities that generate solid wastes and liquid effluents are summarized in Table 2. Data concerning the quantities of animals processed are presented in Table 3.
Establish existing conditions prior to start-up, of key emission constituents and salient fauna and flora. Frequent biodegradability checks where appropriate on effluents to municipal waste treatment plants, both prior to start-up and afterwards from time to time. The contingency that the treated effluent has toxic and tainting should be examined. Established laboratory techniques should be used where necessary.
4.10.1. Water consumption and quantities of liquid effluents Process water is taken from boreholes and the public network. About 90% of the water consumption is used for washing and 10% for the production of steam. The liquid effluents are 120,000 m3/year. The main characteristics of the effluents after biological treatment are: pH: 8.14, BOD5: 108 mg/l, COD: 635 mg/l and SS: 365 mg/l.
4.9.3. Solid waste monitoring Sludges and other materials should be sent for landfilling only after successful leachate testing. Qualitative and quantitative data, date and manner of disposal of all wastes should be recorded in a register. Annual waste minimization report presenting every action taken so as to lessen specific con-
4.10.2. Solid wastes The total yearly solid waste quantity is about 15,000 tns. Until the end of 2000, all the solid wastes were used
Table 2 Activities generating solid waste and liquid effluent Process description
Registration Stables Killing Prewashing Dehairing Removal (entrails) Removal (organs) Washing Registration/cooling
Pigs
Cattle
Sheep
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
+
+ + (blood) +
* + *
* + *
* + *
* +
+ (col) + (col) +
+
+
, no; +, yes; *, not applied; col, collected. Table 3 Quantities of animals to be slaughtered in Cyprus Description
1993
1994
1995
1999
Pigs Cattle Sheep Total
360,000 12,000 170,000 552,000
420,000 13,300 175,000 608,300
430,000 16,000 160,000 606,000
395,000 14,000 137,000 546,000
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D. Fatta et al. / Waste Management 23 (2003) 157–165 Table 4 Gap analysis between proposed BATs and existing process Procedure
Proposed BAT
Existing process
Recommendations
Residence at stables
Sufficient cleaning of the stables between batch processing Water from prewashing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant Manure must be treated appropriately
Short staying of the animals at the stables (low odor emissions, low quantities of manure are generated)
Sufficient cleaning of the stables between batch processing Water from washing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Wastewater and solid waste generation
Manure must be treated appropriately Production line Killing
Improvement of blood collection
Blood is not collected properly. The blood collected is treated together with wastewater stream
Improvement of blood collection at the slaughter points
Prewashing
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles Water from prewashing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Wastewater that is treated in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Removal of entrails and organs
Incineration
Incineration
No change is suggested
Washing
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Wastewater that is treated at the centralized wastewater treatment plant
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Cylindrical rotary sieves (common roto sieves)
Fat removal (fat traps)
No method is applied
Coagulation/flocculation/Precipitation Sedimentation/filtration/floatation
Two anaerobic lagoons for the treatment of the animal feed processing factory. The effluent is discharged to the anaerobic lagoons of the slaughterhouse Two anaerobic lagoons for the treatment of slaughterhouse effluent and effluent from the anaerobic lagoons of the feed processing plant 1 aerobic lagoon for treating effluent discharged by the anaerobic lagoons 1 effluent pit
Activated sludge—installation of surface aerators
There is no need for tertiary treatment at the moment
Treatment of waste water Pretreatment Sceening/sieving Fat removal (fat traps) Primary Treatment
Coagulation/flocculation/precipitation Sedimentation/filtration/floatation
Secondary Treatment
Biofilters Anaerobic treatment Activated sludge/aeration lagoons Bunding of tanks for leaking protection Extended aeration Overfilling protection on bulk storage tanks
Tertiary
Nitrification/denitrification
No method is applied. The treated
Treatment
Filtration/Coagulation/precipitation
wastewater is used for irrigation.
Treatment of solid waste Treatment of Gravity thickening. sludge Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
Bunding of tanks
There is no treatment of sludge
Gravity thickening Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
Disposal of solid waste
Incineration Engineered landfill of wastes
Incineration in a cement plant
All animal waste quantities must be incinerated since they cannot be used in rendering anymore
Control/ monitoring
Visual and olfactory assessment of emissions should be made at least once a week
Monitoring on a monthly basis of the quality of the liquid effluents at:
In general, monitoring and control methods are considered to be sufficient. Nevertheless, the following are also suggested: (continued on next page)
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Table 4 (continued) Procedure
Proposed BAT
Existing process
Recommendations
Daily monitoring of flow, volume and pH. Monitoring of other relevant parameters taking into account of the nature, magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies Monitoring of influent and effluent from the wastewater treatment plant to establish% BOD reduction and early warning of any difficulties in wastewater plant, or unusual loads The potential for the treated effluent to have tainting and toxic effects should be assessed and if necessary measured by established laboratory techniques. Periodic biodegradability checks where appropriate on effluents to municipal waste treatment plants, both to start-up, both prior to start-up and thereafter The recording in a register of the types, quantities, data and manner of disposal of all wastes Leachate testing of sludges and other material as appropriate before sent to landfilling Annual waste minimization report showing efforts made to reduce specific consumption together with material balance and fate of all waste materials
– Raw slaughterhouse effluent
Visual and olfactory assessment of emissions should be made at least once a week
– Anaerobic lagoons effluent
Daily monitoring of flow, volume and pH. Monitoring of other relevant parameters taking into account of the nature, magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies
– Aerobic lagoon (final effluent used for irrigation)
by an accredited laboratory
The potential of the effluent to have tainting and toxic effects is also examined The testing results are kept in a registry
for animal food processing. In 2001 due to the TSE (Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy) issue the slaughterhouse obtained a permit for incinerating the solid waste quantities in a cement plant. 4.10.3. Energy The process that takes part in the slaughterhouse uses the following sources of energy: fuel (petrol), electricity and liquid propane gas (heating for dehairing). 4.10.4. Chemicals Chemicals are used for washing, cleaning and disinfection. In Table 4 a comparison is made between BAT and the already applied techniques at the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus. It should be noted that the data regarding the existing situation concerns information reported by the slaughterhouse in 2000. In general, the conditions prevail at the central slaughterhouse are acceptable and they do not cause any environmental adverse impacts. The gap analysis concerning slaughterhouses in Cyprus clearly shows that wastewater and solid waste are generated from the operation of slaughterhouses. In order to face this problem, several prevention techniques are suggested at first, which are followed by treatment techniques. Moreover, improvement of the blood collection and of the water usage is required. In addition,
in the near future, the existing anaerobic ponds will have to be desludged. As every treatment system generates surplus biological sludge, sludge handling by thickening and dewatering has to be applied in order to reduce the volumes for final disposal of the sludge. Different types of treatment systems can be applied for handling wastewater generated. As good housekeeping influences the capacity of the required treatment systems and efficiencies, attention is paid to this issue.
5. Concluding remarks An important piece of the IPPC Directive is the introduction of EU-wide environmental quality standards established through the air and water directives. The quality standards provide the framework for both minimum emission limit values and additional BATbased conditions. If the use of BAT is not enough to meet a quality standard, then more drastic measures must be taken. The IPPC Directive is an important milestone in this evolution, because it sets a flexible and integrated framework for the environmental regulation of a wide range of the most polluting industrial activities. A problem with previous legislation was the lack of flexibility, in which specific measures were prescribed by the regulators irrespective of whether they represented the best solution in particular circumstances.
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Inflexibility often results from, and contributes to, a climate of distrust and confrontation between industry and the environmental regulators. The 21st century should not be characterized by fights between regulators and companies. With sustainable development as its long-term goal and with a firm focus on the principle of shared responsibility, the fifth environmental action programme sent a strong signal that the days of confrontation were over and that the time had come to start a real dialogue with industry and to raise its sense of responsibility for protecting our common environment and contributing to sustainable development. The IPPC Directive takes an integrated approach, which means that authorities need to weigh up nonlocal and transboundary effects, such as global warming and acidification, against effects on the local environment. They also need to take into account the costs, as well as the advantages, of pollution prevention and control, and make sure that they are up to date with the latest developments in best available techniques. Based on the work carried out for the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus, the following aspects can be mentioned as a general conclusion: The impression exists that housekeeping could be improved, in particular with respect to reduction of the flow of blood at the slaughter points, cleaning of the stables and manure treatment. The water usage must be improved. There is a need of installation of a sludge treatment system. The slaughterhouse has a satisfactory monitoring program and registration of analysis. Useful information is still to be obtained after the completion of the work started by the technical working group of IPTS in the EIPPCB on slaughterhouses and animal carcases. The first plenary meeting of this working group took place in October 2000 and the BREF is under preparation. The report will include information concerning consumption (e.g. fuel, water, cleaning agents, etc), emissions, other issues such as hides, blood, skins,
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packaging, waste treatment, incineration, landspreading and other emerging techniques.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Mr. Alexandros Karavanas, Department of Industry, Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works of Greece, as well as Mr. Leandros Nikolaides, Industrial Inspector, Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance of Cyprus, for their collaboration during the development of the project and the valuable information and experience provided. References Aichinger, H., 2000. Introduction—the IPPC Directive. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 19–22. Boyd, R., Markandya, A., 1999. Approximation of Environmental Legislation—The Role of Compliance Costing for Approximation of EU Environmental Legislation in Cyprus, Final report, DGXI. Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Official Journal L 257, 24 September, 26–40. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. BATNEEC Guidance Notes for the Slaughter of Animals, Integrated Pollution Control Licensing, EPA No. LC17 Wexford Ireland. European IPPC Bureau, 2001. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Reference Document on BATs for Intensive Rearing of Poultry and Pigs, Draft Report, July 2001. Gislev, M., 2000. European innovation and exchange of information about BAT. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April, 2000, 77–82. Haigh, N., 2000. The IPPC Directive and BAT in a wider context. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 57–60. Haskoning Ltd., 1997. Control of Industrial Pollution, Technical Report for Vasiliko Cement Plant in Cyprus, Technical Assistance to the Government of Cyprus. O’ Malley, V., 1999. The integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) Directive and its implications for the environment and industrial activities in Europe. Sensors and Actuators B (59), 78–82. Sorup, P., 2000. The European IPPC Bureau; what it is, where is it and what does it do. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 83–87.
Development of guidelines on best practices for the slaughter of animals in Cyprus D. Fatta*, M. Marneri, A. Papadopoulos, K. Moustakas, K.J. Haralambous, M. Loizidou Chemical Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens, Zographou Campus, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Athens, Greece Accepted 29 May 2002
Abstract Cyprus is one of the candidate countries to become a full member of the European Union. In order to access formally to the EU, Cyprus has to follow an implementation process and take into account all the obligations that the fifteen Member States have to respect. A large number of obligations derive from the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/ 61/EC, which intends to result in the protection of the environment as a whole and the public health as well. This will be the outcome of determining ways of pollution prevention and control for several industrial sectors, which are covered by the IPPC Directive and then taking action so that all operators act according to the Directive’s demands. In this framework, the National Technical University of Athens, after thorough examination of a large number of documents relevant to the Best Available Techniques (BATs), developed guidelines for the application of BATs for 14 categories of the industry of Cyprus. This paper concerns the developed guidelines for slaughterhouses. # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction During the last several years there has been considerable progress in the reduction of pollutant emissions to the environment. A high technical standard in pollution abatement has been achieved in many sectors, in various Member States of the European Union. Nonetheless, a large contribution to total pollutant emissions is still being made, in particular, by the industrial activities covered by the IPPC Directive. The need for a further reduction of these emissions is evident, firstly, by the extent to which actual pollution levels in large parts of Europe fall short of the environmental quality standards laid down in the European Environmental Quality Directives and, secondly, by the deviations from the ‘‘critical loads’’ and ‘‘critical levels’’ established by the UN ECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). The goal of sustainable industrial production in Europe has not yet been achieved. Ambitious objectives have been set by the IPPC Directive. The fundamental objective is to * Corresponding author. Tel.: +30-1-7723108; fax: +30-17723088. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Fatta).
achieve a high level of protection of the environment as a whole by preventing or reducing the pollution emanating from industrial installations directly at source. This is to be done on the basis of an integrated approach which encompasses all environmental media. The central element of this approach is the use of the best available techniques, BAT for short (Haigh, 2000). Preparations for the IPPC Directive (96/61/EC) started early in the 1990s and the European Community’s Fifth Environmental Action Programme, adopted in 1993, stated that one of its objectives was ‘‘improved management and control of production processes including a system of licensing linked to integrated pollution prevention and control’’. The Directive was adopted in 1996 and came into effect in October 1999. The IPPC Directive is an important milestone, because it sets a flexible and integrated framework for the environmental regulation of a wide range of the most polluting industrial activities. The IPPC Directive takes an integrated approach, which means that authorities need to weigh non-local and transboundary effects, such as global warming and acidification, against effects on the local environment. They also need to take into account the costs, as well as
0956-053X/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0956-053X(02)00066-1
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Nomenclature BAT BREF EC EIPPCB ELVs EU IEF IPPC MS NTUA TSE TWG UN ECE
Best Available Techniques BAT Reference Document European Commission IPPC Bureau Emission Limit Values European Union Information Exchange Forum Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Member States National Technical University of Athens Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Technical Working Group United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
the advantages, of pollution prevention and control, and make sure that they are up to date with the latest developments in best available techniques. This important obligation has lead to the establishment of the EUwide exchange of information on BAT. It is worth noting that although the IPPC Directive from a legal point of view is a purely environmental directive, it certainly contributes to several other goals of the European Union (Aichinger, 2000): Promotion of innovation. By introducing a benchmarking system, the directive stimulates systematic modernisation of European industry, through the implementation of both high-tech production equipment and cleaner operational practices. Economic and social cohesion. The Union should not tolerate some of its member countries having mainly old and polluting production, while the others have modern and ‘‘clean’’ production. The Directive will counteract such tendencies and promote structural transformation of the business world in all EU countries. Fair competition on the Internal Market. By laying down harmonised framework rules for the most polluting installations in the EU, the Directive will reduce the risk of market distortions through environmental dumping and create a more level playing field for business in the EU. The directive applies to six industrial categories: energy, production and processing of metals, minerals, chemicals, waste management, and ‘others’, including pulp and paper production, textile treatment, tanning, food processing, slaughterhouse and animal carcases
disposal or reuse, intensive livestock operations, etc. IPPC will set the standard for all activities for which environmental permits are required. Permits will be far broader than they were previously. Rather than an industry needing several permits, one for each environmental medium (air, water or soil), IPPC permits will be integrated. They will cover both direct and indirect discharges to any medium, as well as issues of waste minimisation, energy efficiency, resource utilisation, prevention of accidents, and the restoration of sites after the industrial activity has ceased. Permits are to be reconsidered and updated at periodic intervals, especially when excessive pollution occurs, or when technical or other developments allow a significant reduction in emissions at reasonable cost. In this paper, information is given on the IPPC Directive, the BAT information exchange procedure, the status of IPPC implementation in Cyprus, elaborated information on guidelines on slaughterhouses, the existing situation in the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus and finally suggestions on improvements needed to take place in the installation in Cyprus so as to approach EU standards. The main objective of this paper is to enlighten the scope of the IPPC Directive and describe the whole concept on which is based. Slaughterhouses are used as an example to illustrate the applicability of the Directive.
2. BAT and the BAT information exchange Best available techniques (BATs) are the most effective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing, in principle, the basis for Emission Limit Values (ELVs) designed to prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce emissions and the impact on the environment as a whole. Techniques include both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned. This is a broad term to include all factors relevant to the environmental performance of an installation. Available techniques are those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages. As long as the techniques are reasonably accessible to the operator, whether or not the techniques are used or produced inside the MS in question, is of no importance. This definition is designed to avoid the two extremes of totally ignoring the cost or practical feasibility of applying a technique or leaving competent authorities the possibility to consider techniques used or developed only locally.
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Best available techniques are the most effective in achieving a high general level of protection to the environment as a whole. This means that all the different types of environmental impacts an installation could have, must be considered when determining which techniques are ‘best’ (Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996). The concept of BAT plays a central role in the Directive because its objective is made clear in Article 2, which ‘is to provide a basis for ELVs’. These are primarily the ELVs set by the competent authorities as permit conditions. In addition to forming the basis for ELVs, the BAT concept more generally provides the principal benchmark for determining the obligations of industrial operators in respect of pollution prevention and control. Although ELVs will be based on BATs, there is a provision in Article 9, which should also take account of the geographical location of the activity and local environmental conditions. Therefore, BATs can vary from place to place so that sensitive environmental problems can be addressed locally (O’Malley, 1999). In determining the best available techniques, special consideration should be given to the following items (Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996): The use of low-waste technology. The use of less hazardous substances. The furthering of recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the process and of waste, where appropriate. Comparable processes, facilities or methods of operation, which have been tried with success on an industrial scale. Technological advances and changes in scientific knowledge and understanding. The nature, effects and emissions concerned. The commissioning dates for new or existing installations. The length of time needed to introduce the best available technique. The consumption and nature of raw materials (including water) used in the process and their energy efficiency. The need to prevent or reduce to a minimum the overall impact on the environment and the risks to it. The need to prevent accidents and to minimize the consequences for the environment. The information published by the Commission or by international organizations. The European Commission organises an exchange of information between experts from the EU MS, industry and environmental organisations. This work is coordinated by the European IPPC Bureau (EIPPCB) and it has been divided into some 30 sectors along the lines of Annex I of the Directive (Sorup, 2000). Each sector is
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examined by a technical working group (TWG) and it takes around 2 years to complete the work and to produce a so-called BREF (BAT reference document). The draft BREFs are then examined and discussed in the Information Exchange Forum (IEF), which draws up to the final BREFs. The IEF consists of representatives from all MS, as well as from industry, the EIPPCB, the commission, and the European Environmental Bureau (the federation of all European Environmental Agencies). While the BREFs are intended to assist the licensing authorities, the final decision still lies with these authorities, because Article 9 of the Directive establishes that they must take into account, (a) the technical characteristics of the installation, (b) its geographical location and (c) the local environmental conditions (Gislev, 2000). There is one TWG elaborating BREFS for Intensive Livestock Farming and another one elaborating the BREFS for Slaughterhouses and animal carcasses disposal or reuse. No reference report is available until now. The 15 EU MS were expected to adjust their national legislation in line with the Directive before the end of October 1999. From October 1999 on the Directive applies to all new installations, as well as existing installations that intend to carry out changes that may have significant negative effects on human beings or the environment. The Directive does not immediately apply to existing installations. These have been granted an additional 8 years of grace.
3. Implementation of the IPPC Directive in Cyprus Cyprus applied for membership of the European Union on 4 July 1990. Accession negotiations between the EU and Cyprus were launched on 31 March 1998. The first stage, known as ‘acquis screening’, involves the analytical examination of the acquis communautaire, during which the European Commission presents and explains the acquis in a certain area, the applicant country presents its own policy in the area, and the two are compared, so that the necessary legislative or other changes needed to achieve harmonisation are identified. Compliance with the EU environmental acquis will inevitably improve the quality of the natural environment in Cyprus and will mainly benefit Cyprus through: Reduced levels of air pollution. Reduced levels of water and ground contamination. The provision of suitable sanitation capacity to support tourist growth. The BATs are the techniques associated with the highest environmental performance that can be combined with (1) as many positive associated environmental trade-offs
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as possible (cross media effects); (2) no negative effects on animal production, animal health and animal welfare; (3) no major difficulties to apply it and (4) lowest possible costs (European IPPC Bureau, 2001). Compliance with the IPPC Directive and BATs will also require a coordinated approach to all the aspects listed above in contrast to the present piecemeal legislation and control. This overall view will have benefits in terms of increased efficiency, as well as with respect to the integration of environmental protection (Boyd and Markandya, 1999). At present, the drafting of the IPPC Directive is taking place and it is expected to be fully transposed by the end of the 2002 in the Cypriot national law. In the framework of the Life Project, the National Technical University of Athens has developed guidelines for the implementation of the BATs for 14 categories of industry in Cyprus that fall into the IPPC directive. Moreover, a comparison has been made between the present situation for five industrial categories and the intended BATs and finally recommendations have been forwarded to the relevant Cypriot Ministries. The guidelines are constituted in four parts: An introduction, which provides general information about IPPC, BATs and the literature used. Control techniques: for load minimization, for prevention of pollution, for recovery and recycling, for treating emissions. Emission limit values (ELVs). Compliance monitoring.
4.2. Techniques for prevention of emissions Overground pipelines and transfer lines Overfilling protection on bulk storage tanks Enclosure of materials (excluding bulk liquids), storage, handling, processing and transfer within a suitable building Bunding of tanks Prevention of rain ingress, wind entrainment etc. for stored materials 4.3. Techniques for treating water emissions 4.3.1. Primary treatment Sedimentation/filtration/floatation Coagulation/flocculation/precipitation 4.3.2. Secondary treatment
Biofilters Anaerobic treatment Activated sludge/aeration lagoons Extended aeration
4.3.3. Tertiary treatment Nitrification/denitrification Filtration/coagulation/precipitation
4.4. Techniques for the treatment and disposal of wastes 4. Guidelines for the slaughterhouses 4.4.1. Sludge treatment The objective of this paper is to provide a list of techniques, which can be considered as current best practice (Environmant Protection Agency, 1996). These techniques are representative of a wide range of currently employed techniques appropriate to particular circumstances. However, the following list does not preclude the use of any other similar technology, technique or standard, which may achieve the same conditions. In addition the following list needs to be updated in order to incorporate technological advances as they occur. These are the following:
Gravity thickening Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
4.4.2. Disposal Reuse in downstream processing Engineered landfill of wastes Landspreading of wastes (as fertilizer)
4.1. Techniques for load minimization 4.5. Techniques for recovery and recycle Optimization of water usage, for instance use of pressure cleaning throughout Optimization of blood collection Selection of equipment for secondary processing to minimize effluent and waste arising Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Reuse in a rendering or pet food facility Blood and bone collection for use in edible products for human consumption Fresh fat rendering Optimization of offal recovery and reuse for downstream processing
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4.6. Techniques for treating emissions to air Apart from adequate stack discharge in the case of nonwet rendering usually there is not any further requirement for the treatment of fresh fat rendering or dehairing. 4.7. Emission limit values The limit values, which refer to the water discharges, derive from quite composite samples on the basis of 24 h flow. Effort should be made so as to lessen the effluent and the recovery of materials is in position to contribute to this direction. Water of lower quality can be used for several parts of the process rather than fresh water. The reduction of substances’ emissions due to the application of the Best Available Techniques mainly regards the minimization of the emissions at source either by specific treatment of contaminated waste streams to remove particular substances or by treatment of combined effluent or both. Table 1 presents some emission limits for slaughterhouses, which are considered to be quite strict and useful.
Odor losses during animal delivery and storage Stripping of odorous compounds from waste water treatment plants leading to releases to air and/or odor problems Odor losses from filling of bulk tanks Odor losses from storage of wastes and materials for of wastes and materials for off-site processing Building losses (from processing and storage areas) The second category of these sources refers to emissions related to processes and they are: On-site fat rendering Dehairing of pig carcasses 4.8.2. Sources of emissions to water
4.8. Sources and emissions This section deals with the identification of the major sources of all types of emissions and wastes from the operation of slaughterhouses. It should also be noted that some variation in the quantitative composition of the generated waste might exist. The exact proportion of the waste composition depends on several factors, such as the kind of the slaughtered animal, the capacity of the slaughterhouse, etc. 4.8.1. Sources of emissions to air The first category of sources of emissions to air refers to the fugitive and unscheduled emissions. More specifically, this category includes: Table 1 European Union Emission Limit Values for industrial wastewater Constituent group or parameter
Limit value
pH BOD
6–9 > 90% removal or 40 mg/l 5 > 80% removal or 15 mg/l > 80% removal or 2 mg/l 10 15 No tainting 20
Toxic units Total nitrogen (as N) Total phosphorus (as P) Total ammonia (mg/l as N) Oils, fats and grease (mg/l) Fish tainting Mineral oil (mg/l)
All values refer to daily averages, except where otherwise stated to the contrary and except pH, which refers to continuous values.
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Spills and diffuse sources Contaminated stormwaters Storage tank leaks Pipework leaks Spillages Bund drains Leakages from flanges, pumps, seals, valve glands etc.
4.8.3. Process emissions Washing of vehicles Boiler blowdown Cleaning of production area Clearing secondary process areas (e.g. stomach washing, tripe, casings, etc.) Area of animal housing Cleaning of waste and off-site storage areas Laboratory effluent
4.8.4. Sources of solid waste Sludges from waste water treatment plants Solids from the areas of vehicle wash and animal housing Contaminated drums, equipment, packaging and protective clothing Animal by-products
4.9. Compliance monitoring The proposed methods, which concern the emissions’ monitoring, are categorized according to the nature of the emissions from slaughterhouses. 4.9.1. Air emissions’ monitoring Visual and olfactory assessments should be made at least once a week.
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sumption together with material balance and final ending of all waste materials.
4.9.2. Waste water discharges’ monitoring Monitoring of the influent and effluent from the waste water treatment plant to achieve % BOD reduction and on time warning of possible difficulties in waste water treatment plant, or unusual loads. Monitoring of flow, volume and pH should occur every day. Monitoring of other relevant parameters should be scheduled after taking the nature, the magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies into account.
4.10. The slaughterhouses in Cyprus The Central Slaughterhouse Board is the main slaughterhouse in Cyprus for pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. The factory was constructed in 1988 and has treatment facilities (lagoons) for handling liquid effluents. The treatment system consists of mechanical pretreatment (roto sieve), two anaerobic lagoons and one anaerobic lagoon (Haskoning Ltd., 1997). All the animals are transported by trucks to the slaughterhouse. Before slaughtering the activities consist of (1) registration and (2) a short stay in stables (only pigs). The activities that generate solid wastes and liquid effluents are summarized in Table 2. Data concerning the quantities of animals processed are presented in Table 3.
Establish existing conditions prior to start-up, of key emission constituents and salient fauna and flora. Frequent biodegradability checks where appropriate on effluents to municipal waste treatment plants, both prior to start-up and afterwards from time to time. The contingency that the treated effluent has toxic and tainting should be examined. Established laboratory techniques should be used where necessary.
4.10.1. Water consumption and quantities of liquid effluents Process water is taken from boreholes and the public network. About 90% of the water consumption is used for washing and 10% for the production of steam. The liquid effluents are 120,000 m3/year. The main characteristics of the effluents after biological treatment are: pH: 8.14, BOD5: 108 mg/l, COD: 635 mg/l and SS: 365 mg/l.
4.9.3. Solid waste monitoring Sludges and other materials should be sent for landfilling only after successful leachate testing. Qualitative and quantitative data, date and manner of disposal of all wastes should be recorded in a register. Annual waste minimization report presenting every action taken so as to lessen specific con-
4.10.2. Solid wastes The total yearly solid waste quantity is about 15,000 tns. Until the end of 2000, all the solid wastes were used
Table 2 Activities generating solid waste and liquid effluent Process description
Registration Stables Killing Prewashing Dehairing Removal (entrails) Removal (organs) Washing Registration/cooling
Pigs
Cattle
Sheep
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
Solid waste
Liquid effluent
+
+ + (blood) +
* + *
* + *
* + *
* +
+ (col) + (col) +
+
+
, no; +, yes; *, not applied; col, collected. Table 3 Quantities of animals to be slaughtered in Cyprus Description
1993
1994
1995
1999
Pigs Cattle Sheep Total
360,000 12,000 170,000 552,000
420,000 13,300 175,000 608,300
430,000 16,000 160,000 606,000
395,000 14,000 137,000 546,000
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D. Fatta et al. / Waste Management 23 (2003) 157–165 Table 4 Gap analysis between proposed BATs and existing process Procedure
Proposed BAT
Existing process
Recommendations
Residence at stables
Sufficient cleaning of the stables between batch processing Water from prewashing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant Manure must be treated appropriately
Short staying of the animals at the stables (low odor emissions, low quantities of manure are generated)
Sufficient cleaning of the stables between batch processing Water from washing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Wastewater and solid waste generation
Manure must be treated appropriately Production line Killing
Improvement of blood collection
Blood is not collected properly. The blood collected is treated together with wastewater stream
Improvement of blood collection at the slaughter points
Prewashing
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles Water from prewashing must be treated with wastewater in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Wastewater that is treated in a centralized wastewater treatment plant
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Removal of entrails and organs
Incineration
Incineration
No change is suggested
Washing
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Wastewater that is treated at the centralized wastewater treatment plant
Optimization of water usage Fit all cleaning hose ends with trigger hand operated spray nozzles
Cylindrical rotary sieves (common roto sieves)
Fat removal (fat traps)
No method is applied
Coagulation/flocculation/Precipitation Sedimentation/filtration/floatation
Two anaerobic lagoons for the treatment of the animal feed processing factory. The effluent is discharged to the anaerobic lagoons of the slaughterhouse Two anaerobic lagoons for the treatment of slaughterhouse effluent and effluent from the anaerobic lagoons of the feed processing plant 1 aerobic lagoon for treating effluent discharged by the anaerobic lagoons 1 effluent pit
Activated sludge—installation of surface aerators
There is no need for tertiary treatment at the moment
Treatment of waste water Pretreatment Sceening/sieving Fat removal (fat traps) Primary Treatment
Coagulation/flocculation/precipitation Sedimentation/filtration/floatation
Secondary Treatment
Biofilters Anaerobic treatment Activated sludge/aeration lagoons Bunding of tanks for leaking protection Extended aeration Overfilling protection on bulk storage tanks
Tertiary
Nitrification/denitrification
No method is applied. The treated
Treatment
Filtration/Coagulation/precipitation
wastewater is used for irrigation.
Treatment of solid waste Treatment of Gravity thickening. sludge Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
Bunding of tanks
There is no treatment of sludge
Gravity thickening Dissolved air floatation Filtration Centrifugation Sludge digestion Drying
Disposal of solid waste
Incineration Engineered landfill of wastes
Incineration in a cement plant
All animal waste quantities must be incinerated since they cannot be used in rendering anymore
Control/ monitoring
Visual and olfactory assessment of emissions should be made at least once a week
Monitoring on a monthly basis of the quality of the liquid effluents at:
In general, monitoring and control methods are considered to be sufficient. Nevertheless, the following are also suggested: (continued on next page)
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Table 4 (continued) Procedure
Proposed BAT
Existing process
Recommendations
Daily monitoring of flow, volume and pH. Monitoring of other relevant parameters taking into account of the nature, magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies Monitoring of influent and effluent from the wastewater treatment plant to establish% BOD reduction and early warning of any difficulties in wastewater plant, or unusual loads The potential for the treated effluent to have tainting and toxic effects should be assessed and if necessary measured by established laboratory techniques. Periodic biodegradability checks where appropriate on effluents to municipal waste treatment plants, both to start-up, both prior to start-up and thereafter The recording in a register of the types, quantities, data and manner of disposal of all wastes Leachate testing of sludges and other material as appropriate before sent to landfilling Annual waste minimization report showing efforts made to reduce specific consumption together with material balance and fate of all waste materials
– Raw slaughterhouse effluent
Visual and olfactory assessment of emissions should be made at least once a week
– Anaerobic lagoons effluent
Daily monitoring of flow, volume and pH. Monitoring of other relevant parameters taking into account of the nature, magnitude and variability of the emission, and the reliability of the control technologies
– Aerobic lagoon (final effluent used for irrigation)
by an accredited laboratory
The potential of the effluent to have tainting and toxic effects is also examined The testing results are kept in a registry
for animal food processing. In 2001 due to the TSE (Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy) issue the slaughterhouse obtained a permit for incinerating the solid waste quantities in a cement plant. 4.10.3. Energy The process that takes part in the slaughterhouse uses the following sources of energy: fuel (petrol), electricity and liquid propane gas (heating for dehairing). 4.10.4. Chemicals Chemicals are used for washing, cleaning and disinfection. In Table 4 a comparison is made between BAT and the already applied techniques at the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus. It should be noted that the data regarding the existing situation concerns information reported by the slaughterhouse in 2000. In general, the conditions prevail at the central slaughterhouse are acceptable and they do not cause any environmental adverse impacts. The gap analysis concerning slaughterhouses in Cyprus clearly shows that wastewater and solid waste are generated from the operation of slaughterhouses. In order to face this problem, several prevention techniques are suggested at first, which are followed by treatment techniques. Moreover, improvement of the blood collection and of the water usage is required. In addition,
in the near future, the existing anaerobic ponds will have to be desludged. As every treatment system generates surplus biological sludge, sludge handling by thickening and dewatering has to be applied in order to reduce the volumes for final disposal of the sludge. Different types of treatment systems can be applied for handling wastewater generated. As good housekeeping influences the capacity of the required treatment systems and efficiencies, attention is paid to this issue.
5. Concluding remarks An important piece of the IPPC Directive is the introduction of EU-wide environmental quality standards established through the air and water directives. The quality standards provide the framework for both minimum emission limit values and additional BATbased conditions. If the use of BAT is not enough to meet a quality standard, then more drastic measures must be taken. The IPPC Directive is an important milestone in this evolution, because it sets a flexible and integrated framework for the environmental regulation of a wide range of the most polluting industrial activities. A problem with previous legislation was the lack of flexibility, in which specific measures were prescribed by the regulators irrespective of whether they represented the best solution in particular circumstances.
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Inflexibility often results from, and contributes to, a climate of distrust and confrontation between industry and the environmental regulators. The 21st century should not be characterized by fights between regulators and companies. With sustainable development as its long-term goal and with a firm focus on the principle of shared responsibility, the fifth environmental action programme sent a strong signal that the days of confrontation were over and that the time had come to start a real dialogue with industry and to raise its sense of responsibility for protecting our common environment and contributing to sustainable development. The IPPC Directive takes an integrated approach, which means that authorities need to weigh up nonlocal and transboundary effects, such as global warming and acidification, against effects on the local environment. They also need to take into account the costs, as well as the advantages, of pollution prevention and control, and make sure that they are up to date with the latest developments in best available techniques. Based on the work carried out for the central slaughterhouse in Cyprus, the following aspects can be mentioned as a general conclusion: The impression exists that housekeeping could be improved, in particular with respect to reduction of the flow of blood at the slaughter points, cleaning of the stables and manure treatment. The water usage must be improved. There is a need of installation of a sludge treatment system. The slaughterhouse has a satisfactory monitoring program and registration of analysis. Useful information is still to be obtained after the completion of the work started by the technical working group of IPTS in the EIPPCB on slaughterhouses and animal carcases. The first plenary meeting of this working group took place in October 2000 and the BREF is under preparation. The report will include information concerning consumption (e.g. fuel, water, cleaning agents, etc), emissions, other issues such as hides, blood, skins,
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packaging, waste treatment, incineration, landspreading and other emerging techniques.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Mr. Alexandros Karavanas, Department of Industry, Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works of Greece, as well as Mr. Leandros Nikolaides, Industrial Inspector, Ministry of Labor and Social Insurance of Cyprus, for their collaboration during the development of the project and the valuable information and experience provided. References Aichinger, H., 2000. Introduction—the IPPC Directive. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 19–22. Boyd, R., Markandya, A., 1999. Approximation of Environmental Legislation—The Role of Compliance Costing for Approximation of EU Environmental Legislation in Cyprus, Final report, DGXI. Council Directive 96/61/EC, 1996. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Official Journal L 257, 24 September, 26–40. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. BATNEEC Guidance Notes for the Slaughter of Animals, Integrated Pollution Control Licensing, EPA No. LC17 Wexford Ireland. European IPPC Bureau, 2001. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Reference Document on BATs for Intensive Rearing of Poultry and Pigs, Draft Report, July 2001. Gislev, M., 2000. European innovation and exchange of information about BAT. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April, 2000, 77–82. Haigh, N., 2000. The IPPC Directive and BAT in a wider context. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 57–60. Haskoning Ltd., 1997. Control of Industrial Pollution, Technical Report for Vasiliko Cement Plant in Cyprus, Technical Assistance to the Government of Cyprus. O’ Malley, V., 1999. The integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) Directive and its implications for the environment and industrial activities in Europe. Sensors and Actuators B (59), 78–82. Sorup, P., 2000. The European IPPC Bureau; what it is, where is it and what does it do. Proceedings of the European Conference: The Sevilla Process: A Driver for Environmental Performance in Industry, Stuttgart, 6–7 April 2000, pp. 83–87.