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Development through teacher training: Northern Manitoba, Canada
hr. I. EducationalDevelopmenr, Printedin Great Britain
0738-4x93/90 $3.00+ .oo Pergamon Press plc
Vol. 10, No. 213, pp. 217-X8,1990
DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TEACHER TRAINING: NORTHERN MANITOBA, CANADA DE0
H. POONWASSIE
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
Canada belongs to the developed ‘North’, but has within its boundaries large areas that are underdeveloped. For example some 75,000 people live in the rural environment of northern Manitoba, many of them on Indian reservations with less than 1000 people. They have special education needs which are often neglected by the richer sectors of the population. Education is necessary but not sufficient to move a people out of Third World living conditions. It is necessary to combine economic , social, cultural and political with educational institutions to improve the standard of living of a people. But the case of northern Manitoba illustrates the importance of teacher training as an enabling factor in development. The aboriginal peoples of Canada face massive unemployment, dependency on government welfare and poor health care facilities (Lithwick 1986). Most reserves have a poor et al., economic base for industry, and most urban Indians suffer blatant racism, anomie and a personal sense of defeat; suicide rates are much higher than for the rest of the population (Hull, 1987b). Proper education might help to resolve some of these problems. Education on the reserves follows the pattern of southern anglo society, which is irrelevant to the Indian culture and way of living. The traditional values, intellectual heritage and world view of the Indian people are not part of the philosophy or practice of education on the reserves. In addition, many teachers are trained in tertiary institutions of southern Manitoba; very few have been Indians. The importance of Indian values and languages has not been seen as significant; in many instances children were punished for using their first language in school, thus negating their own culture and identity. Indian people on reserves in northern Manitoba do not have sufficient resources for
either educational or economic development. Their small population and inaccessibility compound problems of inadequate economic resources. They are almost totally dependent on Federal funds; schools would not exist if funds for buildings, teachers’ salaries, textbooks, etc. did not come from the Federal government. In addition, one of the major reasons for the high dropout rate among Indian students is that they find the school an alien environment. If this is accompanied by lack of support from the home and teachers who do not understand their students’ culture, then schools on reserves merely serve to fulfil Federal obligations without providing needed education. Local control of education, with local teachers, can be seen as essential for selfreliance and economic viability. The cycle that maintains and promotes undereducation among the Indian peoples consists of poorly educated pupils who drop out of elementary school or struggle through the grades with poor results. Those who survive the system become teachers, social workers or counsellors; others leave for more profitable employment in the south. Since the ‘best and brightest’ do not enter teaching, poorly educated students become mediocre teachers and the cycle continues. Non-Indian teachers regard work on the reserves as temporary, and leave when they can find employment in an urban area. In the movement of a people out of poverty and exploitation, leaders must come from within the population. Teachers from the local community play an integral part in shaping the minds and attitudes of future leaders and followers in these communities. Teacher training becomes critical in the move toward the achievement of a better life. Teachers must feel that they are knowledgeable, competent, and confident in order to inculcate modern 217
218
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H. POONWASSIE
approaches in their students (Grossman and Richert, 1988). Most sectors of Indian society recognize that education is important for their survival as a people, but that the form needs changing. As long as education is controlled from Ottawa or Winnipeg, they have no chance of maintaining and developing their people. Hence, there have been intensive efforts to control their own schools and decide on curriculum (Indian Tribes of Manitoba, 1971; National Indian Brotherhood, 1972). One of the ways of getting effective control is to train their own people as teachers, and eventually as administrators. In 1971, Manitoba had approximately 20 qualified, certified Indian teachers. In 1975, a program was launched through co-operation of both Federal and Provincial governments and Brandon University to train teachers from northern Manitoba in their home communities, mainly the reserves, which until then had little access to post-secondary education. This programme has graduated approximately 180 Indian and northern teachers, the majority of whom are teaching on the reserves. The assumptions behind this program are (1) trained teachers increase learning in students; there is a positive link between teacher behaviour and student achievement. (2) Trained teachers can inspire students to understand their own culture, environment and traditions. (3) Once trained, they are more likely to act in a professional way, to feel responsible for the intellectual growth and wellbeing of their students. (4) Trained teachers who have the same values as the community in which they teach are more effective, accepted and creative. (5) Teachers coming from an educationally disadvantaged ethnic group can serve as role models for their children; a common cultural and linguistic background helps to motivate children. Research has validated many of these assumptions (Joyce and Weil, 1972; Gagne, 1977; Grant, 1977; Brophy and Good, 1986; Rosenshine and Stevens, 1986). Control of education is not just through fiscal accountability; it means remaking the curriculum , developing and selecting suitable classroom materials, understanding and promoting the cultural/social values of the people and exercising good judgement in the selection
of teachers and administrators. With local control, retention rates have increased (Hull, 1987a). Many more youngsters attend classes regularly, especially at elementary school level, because Indian teachers speak the local language. Indians must also be trained for responsible local administration. Where this has happened (though too slowly), it appears to be successful. However, the Federal government has recently reduced opportunities for post-secondary training for Indians by capping the funding (Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1989). Selfreliance of native indians is not necessarily the goal of the Federal bureaucracy, where jobs may depend on continued dependency. Over the last 15 years, there have been several signs of improvements in local education; Indians in medicine, dentistry, law, social work and counselling provide role models and demonstrate the opportunities available for those who succeed in school. Unfortunately, there are still many obstacles, such as racism and unemployment, where changes beyond the scope of education are required. REFERENCES Brophy, J. E. and Good, T. L. (1986) Teacher behavior and student achievement. In Handbook of Research on Teaching (edited by M. C. Wittrock). Macmillan, New York. .Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Toronto. Grant, C. A. (ed.) (1977) Multicultural Education: Commitments, Issues and Applications. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Washington, DC. Hull, J. (1987a) An Overview of Educational Characteristics of Registered Indians in Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Hull, J. (1987b) An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Indian Tribes of Manitoba (1971) Wahbungc Our Tomorrows. Manitoba Indian Brotherhood, Winnipeg. Joyce, B. and Weil, M. (1972) Models of Teaching. Prentice-Hall, Toronto. Lithwick, N. H., Schiff, M. and Vernon, E. (1986) An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (1989) Communique: a new policy on post-secondary student assistance program. l-8909. Minister’s Office, Ottawa. National Indian Brotherhood (1972) Indian Control of Zndian Education: A Policy Paper. Ottawa. Rosenshine, B. and Stevens,k. (1986) Teaching functions. In Handbook of Research on Teaching (edited by M. C. Wittrock). Macmillan, New York.
0738-4x93/90 $3.00+ .oo Pergamon Press plc
Vol. 10, No. 213, pp. 217-X8,1990
DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TEACHER TRAINING: NORTHERN MANITOBA, CANADA DE0
H. POONWASSIE
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg
Canada belongs to the developed ‘North’, but has within its boundaries large areas that are underdeveloped. For example some 75,000 people live in the rural environment of northern Manitoba, many of them on Indian reservations with less than 1000 people. They have special education needs which are often neglected by the richer sectors of the population. Education is necessary but not sufficient to move a people out of Third World living conditions. It is necessary to combine economic , social, cultural and political with educational institutions to improve the standard of living of a people. But the case of northern Manitoba illustrates the importance of teacher training as an enabling factor in development. The aboriginal peoples of Canada face massive unemployment, dependency on government welfare and poor health care facilities (Lithwick 1986). Most reserves have a poor et al., economic base for industry, and most urban Indians suffer blatant racism, anomie and a personal sense of defeat; suicide rates are much higher than for the rest of the population (Hull, 1987b). Proper education might help to resolve some of these problems. Education on the reserves follows the pattern of southern anglo society, which is irrelevant to the Indian culture and way of living. The traditional values, intellectual heritage and world view of the Indian people are not part of the philosophy or practice of education on the reserves. In addition, many teachers are trained in tertiary institutions of southern Manitoba; very few have been Indians. The importance of Indian values and languages has not been seen as significant; in many instances children were punished for using their first language in school, thus negating their own culture and identity. Indian people on reserves in northern Manitoba do not have sufficient resources for
either educational or economic development. Their small population and inaccessibility compound problems of inadequate economic resources. They are almost totally dependent on Federal funds; schools would not exist if funds for buildings, teachers’ salaries, textbooks, etc. did not come from the Federal government. In addition, one of the major reasons for the high dropout rate among Indian students is that they find the school an alien environment. If this is accompanied by lack of support from the home and teachers who do not understand their students’ culture, then schools on reserves merely serve to fulfil Federal obligations without providing needed education. Local control of education, with local teachers, can be seen as essential for selfreliance and economic viability. The cycle that maintains and promotes undereducation among the Indian peoples consists of poorly educated pupils who drop out of elementary school or struggle through the grades with poor results. Those who survive the system become teachers, social workers or counsellors; others leave for more profitable employment in the south. Since the ‘best and brightest’ do not enter teaching, poorly educated students become mediocre teachers and the cycle continues. Non-Indian teachers regard work on the reserves as temporary, and leave when they can find employment in an urban area. In the movement of a people out of poverty and exploitation, leaders must come from within the population. Teachers from the local community play an integral part in shaping the minds and attitudes of future leaders and followers in these communities. Teacher training becomes critical in the move toward the achievement of a better life. Teachers must feel that they are knowledgeable, competent, and confident in order to inculcate modern 217
218
DE0
H. POONWASSIE
approaches in their students (Grossman and Richert, 1988). Most sectors of Indian society recognize that education is important for their survival as a people, but that the form needs changing. As long as education is controlled from Ottawa or Winnipeg, they have no chance of maintaining and developing their people. Hence, there have been intensive efforts to control their own schools and decide on curriculum (Indian Tribes of Manitoba, 1971; National Indian Brotherhood, 1972). One of the ways of getting effective control is to train their own people as teachers, and eventually as administrators. In 1971, Manitoba had approximately 20 qualified, certified Indian teachers. In 1975, a program was launched through co-operation of both Federal and Provincial governments and Brandon University to train teachers from northern Manitoba in their home communities, mainly the reserves, which until then had little access to post-secondary education. This programme has graduated approximately 180 Indian and northern teachers, the majority of whom are teaching on the reserves. The assumptions behind this program are (1) trained teachers increase learning in students; there is a positive link between teacher behaviour and student achievement. (2) Trained teachers can inspire students to understand their own culture, environment and traditions. (3) Once trained, they are more likely to act in a professional way, to feel responsible for the intellectual growth and wellbeing of their students. (4) Trained teachers who have the same values as the community in which they teach are more effective, accepted and creative. (5) Teachers coming from an educationally disadvantaged ethnic group can serve as role models for their children; a common cultural and linguistic background helps to motivate children. Research has validated many of these assumptions (Joyce and Weil, 1972; Gagne, 1977; Grant, 1977; Brophy and Good, 1986; Rosenshine and Stevens, 1986). Control of education is not just through fiscal accountability; it means remaking the curriculum , developing and selecting suitable classroom materials, understanding and promoting the cultural/social values of the people and exercising good judgement in the selection
of teachers and administrators. With local control, retention rates have increased (Hull, 1987a). Many more youngsters attend classes regularly, especially at elementary school level, because Indian teachers speak the local language. Indians must also be trained for responsible local administration. Where this has happened (though too slowly), it appears to be successful. However, the Federal government has recently reduced opportunities for post-secondary training for Indians by capping the funding (Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs, 1989). Selfreliance of native indians is not necessarily the goal of the Federal bureaucracy, where jobs may depend on continued dependency. Over the last 15 years, there have been several signs of improvements in local education; Indians in medicine, dentistry, law, social work and counselling provide role models and demonstrate the opportunities available for those who succeed in school. Unfortunately, there are still many obstacles, such as racism and unemployment, where changes beyond the scope of education are required. REFERENCES Brophy, J. E. and Good, T. L. (1986) Teacher behavior and student achievement. In Handbook of Research on Teaching (edited by M. C. Wittrock). Macmillan, New York. .Gagne, R. M. (1977) The Conditions of Learning. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Toronto. Grant, C. A. (ed.) (1977) Multicultural Education: Commitments, Issues and Applications. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Washington, DC. Hull, J. (1987a) An Overview of Educational Characteristics of Registered Indians in Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Hull, J. (1987b) An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Manitoba. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Indian Tribes of Manitoba (1971) Wahbungc Our Tomorrows. Manitoba Indian Brotherhood, Winnipeg. Joyce, B. and Weil, M. (1972) Models of Teaching. Prentice-Hall, Toronto. Lithwick, N. H., Schiff, M. and Vernon, E. (1986) An Overview of Registered Indian Conditions in Canada. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa. Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (1989) Communique: a new policy on post-secondary student assistance program. l-8909. Minister’s Office, Ottawa. National Indian Brotherhood (1972) Indian Control of Zndian Education: A Policy Paper. Ottawa. Rosenshine, B. and Stevens,k. (1986) Teaching functions. In Handbook of Research on Teaching (edited by M. C. Wittrock). Macmillan, New York.