Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

C H A P T E R

50 Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple Victor Martins Maiaa,*, Rodinei Facco Pegorarob, Igna´cio Aspiazu´a, Fernanda Soares Oliveiraa, Danu´bia Aparecida Costa Nobrea a

State University of Montes Claros, Montes Claros, Brazil Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] b

O U T L I N E 1 Introduction

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2 Nutritive value

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3 Geographical distribution

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4 Major cultivars

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5 Commercial belts

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6 Major soil types with taxonomical distribution

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7 Soil property-fruit quality relationship

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8 Diagnosis of nutrient constraints 8.1 Nitrogen

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8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium

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9 Management of nutrient constraints

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10 Use of sewage sludge and treated waste water on pineapple nutrition

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11 Future line of research

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References

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1 Introduction Pineapple is among the five most important tropical fruits in the world. About 90 countries have areas of pineapple cultivation; however, the 10 largest producers account for 70% of total world production. Among the main pineapple producers are Costa Rica, Brazil, Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). The main importers are the North American countries, especially the United States, as the world’s largest importer of fresh and canned pineapple and juice, followed by countries in Europe and Japan. Countries as Brazil, India, and China, despite high production, have their own domestic market as main destination (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). To ensure the high demand of a competitive fruit market, it is worth noting that the nutritional status of the plant has a high influence on its growth and development. A balanced pineapple nutrition can be considered one of the main determinants for greater yield, quality, and weight of the fruits (Amorim et al., 2011). The economic importance of pineapple is related to not only its wide commercialization but also the employment activities that involve the production of this crop, which requires the intensive use of labor. In addition, pineapple represents a good model for plant evolution and genetic research because it presents crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), a carbon fixation mechanism that allows high water use efficiency and drought tolerance (Xu and Liu,

A.K. Srivastava, Chengxiao Hu (eds.) Fruit Crops: Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient Constraints https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818732-6.00050-2

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50. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

2015). Therefore, the success of pineapple as a cultivated plant is the result of its wide adaptability in tropical and subtropical areas, high rusticity, asexual propagation efficiency, and great consumer acceptance, which justifies its dispersion throughout the world (Crestani et al., 2010).

2 Nutritive value Pineapple is a very appreciated fruit, consumed in natural, canned, frozen, in syrup, crystallized, and in the form of raisins and pickles; used in the confection of sweets, ice creams, yoghurts, candies, and cakes; and also consumed in the form of juice, soda, syrup, liqueur, wine, vinegar, and brandy. It also serves as raw material for the extraction of alcohol and animal feed, with the use of residues from industrialization (Crestani et al., 2010; Debnath et al., 2012). The fruit of the pineapple presents variation in its chemical composition, depending on cultivated variety, stage of maturation, climate, time of production, and processing of fruits, among other factors (Sanches and Matos, 2013; Taussig and Batkin, 1988). However, the nutritional value is related to the content of soluble sugars (13–15 °Brix); of minerals, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus copper, and iron, and vitamins, especially A, B1, and C (Matsuura and Rolim, 2002; Sanches and Matos, 2013). The pineapple also contains several active ingredients of pharmacological value, with immense health benefits, such as bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme that is effective for vascular, inflammatory, and digestive problems, and has antioxidant and anticancer effects (Hossain et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2019; Taussig and Batkin, 1988). This enzyme is also used in the brewing of meat, clarification of beers, cheese making, textile industry (leather and wool treatment), and the preparation of children’s and dietetic foods (Sanches and Matos, 2013). The remains of pineapple processing (peel and pulp), still very nutritious, are used for various purposes, as in animal feed, with positive results in the production of milk (Guti
errez et al., 2003; López-Herrera et al., 2014, 2009). After the fruit and seedlings are harvested, pineapple remains are rich in fiber, minerals, and an appreciable amount of starch in the stem and can be used either by direct grazing or by cutting the plants for direct supply for the animals or for silage (Sanches and Matos, 2013). There are some caveats and necessary precautions regarding this use due to the large amount of nutrients extracted from the area (Pegoraro et al., 2014a).

3 Geographical distribution Early reports and studies of phylogeny indicate that pineapple (Ananas comosus var. comosus) had its origin, domestication, and initial distribution in South America (Collins, 1951; Loison-Cabot, 1992). The expansion of pineapple around the world was followed by the opening of sea lanes by the Spaniards and Portuguese during the 16th century, and the navigators were responsible for this diffusion, with the fruits being loaded on board during the voyages and the abandonment of the crowns in the different ports of landing in Africa and Asia, serving as natural multiplication material (Medina, 1978). At the end of the 19th century, it arrived in Hawaii, from where it was distributed to the Greater Antilles, Mexico, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Kenya (Collins, 1960). Because it is a plant of tropical origin, it has a good development in hot and humid places. These conditions are generally recorded in the range between the parallels of 30° north and south, where temperatures remain above 10°C (considered the lower basal temperature) and below 40°C. The development and production of pineapple must be done in low-latitude regions, and the most suitable areas for cultivation are located between the 25° north and 25° south parallels, between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (Sanches and Matos, 2013). Currently, pineapple is extensively produced in all tropical countries, but the expansion of a cultivar in certain areas depends on its acclimatization and local market interest.

4 Major cultivars When choosing a pineapple variety, consideration should be given to its adaptation to the planting site, market requirements, and availability and quality of the seedling. Thus, pineapple breeding programs aim to obtain more productive cultivars, adapted to different climatic conditions and resistant to pests and diseases. In addition, breeding programs usually look for fast-growing genotypes: with leaves with none or a few spines; early blight located at the base of the plant; cylindrical fruit; yellow and little fibrous peel; flat eyes; yellow flesh, firm but not fibrous; moderate

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acidity; medium to small crown; high total soluble solid content; and high ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content (Cabral, 2000; Cunha, 2007; Crestani et al., 2010). Finding a variety that has all the favorable characteristics has not been an easy task, so the ideal is that the variety is adapted to the place of cultivation and that it has the characteristics required by the market for which it is intended. Another important factor is that there is no predominance of a single cultivar in production, because, thus, pineapple becomes vulnerable to the occurrence of biotic factors such as the appearance of new pests and diseases and negative effects such as the loss of diversity (genetic erosion) and the disappearance of local varieties (Sanches and Matos, 2013). In view of this, variety diversification is important for the sustainability of the crop. The greatest diversity of pineapple cultivars, found in the Amazon region, remained unknown until the end of the 20th century. With efforts for varietal diversification, they focused on hybrid breeding to develop a cultivar that outperformed “Smooth Cayenne.” However, even the best hybrids failed in the final evaluations (Leal and D’eeckenbrugge, 2018). As a result, the predominantly cultivated variety in the world continues to be “Smooth Cayenne,” however, the commercial production of pineapple is also based on other varieties such as MD2 (Gold), Singapore Spanish, Queen, Red Spanish, Perolera, and P
erola, described later, according to Cabral and Junghans (2003); Medina and García (2005); and Moretti-Almeida (2018). Smooth Cayenne: the most planted variety in the world, both in terms of area and latitude range, has many favorable characteristics. It is a robust, semierect plant whose leaves have few spines at the apical edge of the border. The fruit is attractive and slightly cylindrical and weighs 1.5–2.5 kg, presenting a yellow-orange peel when ripe, yellow flesh, rich in sugars (13–19 °Brix) and of a higher acidity than the other varieties; the crown is relatively small, and the plant produces few slips. It is susceptible to the wilt associated with cochineal (Dysmicoccus brevipes) and fusariosis (Fusarium subglutinans). These characteristics make it suitable for industrialization and export as fresh fruit. MD2 (Gold): this variety is a result of the cross between “58–1184” and “59–443” by the Pineapple Research Institute of Hawaii (PRI) (Williams and Fleisch, 1993; Sanewski et al., 2018). Due to the quality and great acceptance in the international market of fresh fruits, this variety has become the standard of the market. The fruits are large, cylindrical, and of yellow flesh and, when ripe, reach values of brix ranging from 15% to 17%, with lower acidity than the fruits of the Smooth Cayenne variety. The leaves present only a spiny tip. The MD2 variety accounts for at least 80% of the pineapple commercialized in the international market (Sanewski et al., 2018). Singapore Spanish: the second variety of importance for industrialization. The plant presents medium size, with dark-green leaves whose length varies from 35 to 70 cm. The spines are variable, with clones completely without spines and others with few spines at the edges of the leaves. The fruit is small, weighing from 1.0 to 1.5 kg, cylindrical, and with low sugar content (10–12 °Brix) and low acidity. The plant is vigorous, with a regular production of slips and ground suckers. The occurrence of multiple crowns is frequent. It shows some resistance to pests and diseases. Queen: small plant, 60–80 cm high, vigorous, with silvery leaves, small, and with occurrence of dense spines. It produces a large number of ground suckers, but the number of slips is variable, and they are usually poorly developed. The fruit is small (0.5–1.0 kg) with yellow peel. The pulp is yellow and sweet (14–16 °Brix) and has low acidity, excellent flavor, and long shelf life. This cultivar exhibits some characteristics similar to the P
erola variety. Red Spanish: the plants are medium sized, vigorous, with dark-green leaves, with small and short spines, and being prickly or partially prickly. The fruit is of medium size (1.2–2.0 kg) in the shape of a barrel, white or pale yellow, juicy, sweet-tasting pulp (total soluble solids around 12 °Brix) and low acidity, and with a pleasant aroma. Generally, it produces few slips and suckers. Perolera: adapted to altitudes up to 1500 m, behaves as resistant to fusariosis. The plant has a height (distance from soil level to fruit base) of 51 cm, long peduncle, a length of 29.2 cm, leaf of dark-green color, and slick edge, evidencing a little pronounced silver strip, producing 1 or 2 suckers and 8–10 slips, and presents a long peduncle that can favor the tipping of fruits. Its fruit is of cylindrical shape, weighing 1.5–3.0 kg, of yellow peel and pulp, with total soluble solid content around 13 °Brix, titratable acidity around 10 mEq/100 mL, and high content of ascorbic acid. P
erola: the plant has medium size and erect growth; it is vigorous, with leaves about 65 cm in length and spines at the edges. The peduncle of the fruit is long (around 30 cm). It produces many slips (5–15) attached to the peduncle, close to the base of the fruit, which presents a conical shape, yellowish peel (when ripe), white pulp, juicy, and with total soluble solids of 14–16 °Brix, pleasant to the Brazilian taste. The fruit weighs 1.0–1.5 kg, has a large crown, and has not been much used for export in nature and industrialization in the form of slices. Presents tolerance to wilt associated with cochineal and susceptibility to fusariosis. There are numerous other varieties cultivated on a reduced scale for local and regional markets in the world, especially in Latin American countries. Variants of the established cultivars are being selected and improved genetically, allowing to obtain new characteristics of interest, fruits of good quality, and resistance to pests and diseases.

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50. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

5 Commercial belts About 43.3% of all pineapples in the world come from Asia, while 36.4% come from the Americas and 19.9% from Africa. The fruit is produced in many countries all around the world, and its trade generates about 2 billion dollars per year (International Trade Center. Trade Map, 2018). Costa Rica is the main pineapple producer, with over 3 million tons. Exports increased from approximately 41 thousand tons in 1986 to over 2 million tons in 2016 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017), and now, the country is also the main exporter of this fruit, sending about 48% of the exported volume to the United States and the other 52% to Europe, which generated almost one billion dollars in revenue in 2018 (International Trade Center. Trade Map, 2018). Philippines is the second main pineapple producer, with 2.67 million tons in 2017 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). The country exports about 567 thousand tons of the fruit, generating over 228 million dollars in revenue, setting it as the second main exporter. About 31% of these fruits go to Japan, 20% to China, and 17% to South Korea (International Trade Center. Trade Map, 2018). Brazil, despite being the center of origin of this species and showing increasing production of this fruit since the middle of the 1970s (2.64 million tons in 2017), is also the main consumer market for pineapples, and this causes the export volume to be very low, about three thousand tons in 2017 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017).

6 Major soil types with taxonomical distribution Pineapple is cultivated on several soil types around the world, all of them with peculiar characteristics and attributes, and it is very important to know them very well to maximize their use potential. Soils for this crop should be sand-clayey, well drained, preferably flat, and with good depth and pH around 5.5. They should not be too heavy or subjected to waterlogging. Clayey soils can be used, provided that they have good aeration and drainage conditions. Soil preparation consists of plowing and harrowing operations, which should be done to facilitate the proper development of the fragile root system of the plants (Cunha et al., 1995). In Costa Rica, the main producer, pineapple is cultivated on a variety of soils, but the ones used for pineapple cultivation are mostly ultisols (acrisols). Some other regions show soils derived from volcanic rocks. These volcanic soils, mostly cambisols (inceptisols), usually show high fertility (Bertsch et al., 2000), but some of them present minerals such as allophane and imogolite, which have great phosphate adsorption capacity. According to Parfitt (2009), in this kind of soils, large amounts of labile P are required to neutralize the high absorption capacity of allophane and other Al compounds to ensure adequate P supply for plant growth. Pineapple is grown mainly in southern regions of Thailand, especially in the provinces of Prachuap Khiri Khan, Rayon, Chumphon, and others (Anupunt et al., 2000), where there are many types of soils. The peats show usually little to no plasticity and cohesion and very high compressibility and are commonly black and fibrous. Parts of these soils have developed under salty water conditions. Therefore, they may be acid or very acid, showing high sulfur contents (Land Development Department, 2014). Other soil class frequently used for pineapple cultivation in Thailand is Gray Podzolic. These are usually sandy loam or loamy sand in the surface and sandy loam to loam in the subsurface, with good drainage (Land Development Department, 2014). Ultisols (acrisols), which are mostly acidic and show high levels of Al, especially, in the subsoils are also frequent in Thai pineapple areas and, when fine-loamy, present a very good water retention capacity. They also show low-activity clays, low CEC, and consequently low nutrient availability for the plants (West et al., 1997). This soil class is also the most frequent under pineapple plantations in another top producer, the Philippines. Other types of soil in this country are cambisols and luvisols (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017). In some states of Brazil, the third main world producer, the crop is grown on coastal tablelands, as in the state of Paraíba, in which the soils are mostly sandy and acidic and have low natural fertility (Souza, 2000). Although apparently uniform, this ecosystem presents a great diversity of soil classes, being the most important the yellow ferralsols (oxisols), the yellow podzolics, and the gray podzolics (Cintra and Libardi, 1998). In the state of Minas Gerais, most of the soils used for planting pineapples are oxisols, which are highly intemperized and, due to a low cation exchange capacity (CEC), usually have a very low availability of nutrients for the plants, especially phosphorus. Most of these soils are acid, with pH values ranging from 4 to 5.5, and have low fertility. However, they are frequently located in flat areas and are usually friable and well drained, which is important when it comes to soil preparation and crop management.

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7 Soil property-fruit quality relationship Soil is considered one of the main factors of production in pineapple, being responsible for the dynamics in the supply of water and nutrients to the plants. Pineapple is cultivated worldwide in soils with a wide range of physical and chemical characteristics, with high organic matter content, such as in Malaysian soils; on volcanic soils in Hawaii, Costa Rica, and the Philippines; on sandy soils of Queensland (Australia) and in South Africa (Uriza-Ávila et al., 2018); and in soils with low fertility, the presence of exchangeable aluminum, and acidic pH such as Brazilian Cerrado soils and coastal tablelands. The physical and chemical properties of soils interfere with the production and quality of pineapple fruits. These properties include soil texture, organic matter content, nutrients, pH, Al content, and CEC. The cultivation of pineapple should preferably be done in deep and well-drained soils, since it is a species that has low tolerance to flooded environments or with low aeration in the root system (Guinto and Inciong, 2012). The taste and quality of fruits grown on sandy soils (<15% clay) and medium soils (15%–35% clay) are considered superior (Hossain, 2016). This can be explained by the fact that these soils present a balanced dynamics in the supply of nutrients and water during the cycle of cultivation of pineapple especially after fertilization. They also enable deepening of the root system of pineapple (Manica, 1999) and better aeration and drainage conditions (Uriza-Ávila et al., 2018). The quality of the clays present in the mineral fraction of the soils also interferes in the production and quality of fruits. According to Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew (2018), pineapple cultivation in weathered soils with kaolinite mineralogy, where 1:1 minerals predominate, lead to the formation of microaggregation (granular structure) of clay particles and greater porosity and infiltration of the water in the profile. These factors imply higher yield and fruit quality after fertilization compared with temperate soils with 2:1 mineralogy. Still according to these authors, the ultisols, alfisols, and oxisols present the best physical characteristics for the pineapple cultivation. The production of larger pineapple fruits correlates positively with root growth of the plants and their distribution in the soil profile. However, the morphology of the pineapple roots and their distribution in the soil profile are dependent on their physical characteristics, since the plant presents a superficial and fragile root system, with the majority of the roots distributed in the first 25–35 cm, being able to develop up to 60 cm depth (Manica, 1999), in aerated and permeable soils. However, plantings in clayey soils present a greater propensity to compaction and flooding, limiting plant development and fruit growth. However, pineapples grown on different types of soil may have different postharvest quality. For example, in Malaysia, the pineapple grown on mineral soil is sweeter than those grown on organic peat. However, “Josapine” pineapple grown on mineral soil is more susceptible to bacterial heart rot disease (Hassan and Othman, 2011). Soil organic matter (SOM) content interferes with soil water and nutrient dynamics for cultivated plants, especially in tropical soils, where cation exchange capacity is dependent on its content in the soil. The application of organic matter coupled with mineral fertilization in pineapple fields has benefited nutrient absorption and chlorophyll content in the leaves (Leonardo et al., 2013), weight and quality of the fruits, and soil nutrient content (Darnaudery et al., 2018; Weber et al., 2010), contributing to the improvement of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil ( Jin et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2013; Primo et al., 2017; Sampaio et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2010). However, in tropical environments under conventional cultivation systems, with soil tillage and only mineral fertilization, it is difficult to maintain or increase the SOM content (Amaral et al., 2015). In Mexico, in pineapple-producing regions, located in Playa Vicente and Isla, Uriza-Ávila et al. (2018) describe that the majority of soils with intense agricultural exploitation have lower levels of organic matter, citing that 30% of pineapple soils are poor (0.6%–1.2%) or extremely poor (<0.6%) in organic matter and 50% present moderately poor (1.2%–1.8%) to medium (1.81%–2.4%) contents. The authors point out that these soils are located in areas with slopes higher than 5%, lack mechanical or cultural techniques to control the erosion caused by rainwater, and have favorable climatic conditions for rapid decomposition of organic matter and soil degradation. In regions with sandy soils and sloping topography (land with more than 5% slope), this process of degradation of SOM may be considered internal. The intense mineralization process of SOM in tropical soils dominated by pineapple crops in the world, and the low production capacity of plant residues in the first 6 months of cultivation has contributed to the reduction of SOM in conventional crops with constant soil rotation and without addition of organic compounds (organic mulching, organic fertilizer, etc.). This phenomenon can reduce crop sustainability and fruit quality. However, cultural management practices, such as the maintenance of crop residues from the harvest, the use of organic mulching, the addition of organic compounds as fertilizers, and the crop rotation, can reverse this process of soil degradation and contribute to the sustainable pineapple production. The use of organic fertilizers, such as biosolids (nitrogen source) in the production and nutrition of the cultivars P
erola, Vitória, Smooth Cayenne, and IAC Fantástico, was equal to mineral fertilization in relation to the production

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and postharvest quality of pineapple fruits, with positive effects in the soil, with an increase in organic matter content, in the availability of phosphorus, calcium, iron, and zinc, and, consequently, increased cation exchange capacity and soil saturation (Mota, 2016). The addition of organic compounds (composted pineapple residue) to the soil increased the contents of chlorophyll, soluble sugars, and soluble protein, as well as root vigor, fruit transverse and longitudinal diameters, weight, and yield of next-cropped pineapple (Liu et al., 2013). The soluble sugar content after composted pineapple residue addition was increased by 39.6% and that for soluble protein by 29.5% in positive response of several factors related to soil organic compounds, such as decreasing the bulk density, increasing the fertility, the abundance of microorganisms (increased the abundance of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes), and activity of enzymes (urease, catalase, acid phosphatase, and invertase) of the soil where the next-cropped pineapple grown (Liu et al., 2013). The application of 250-g poultry manure, azospirillum, and phosphobacteria at 650 mg each along with N, P2O5, and K2O at 8:4:8/g plant recorded higher values in terms of growth of plants, juice percentage, and quality parameters of fruits. Soil fertility parameters such as available P and K of the experimental plots increased after 1 year. Organic carbon of soil also increased significantly, when compared with the control plots (Devadas and Kuriakose, 2005). Research on organic (chicken manure) and mineral (urea) using a control with NPK presents the following results: the lowest doses of N applied (2.62 and 4.50 g/plant) resulted in the contents of total soluble and nonreducing sugars different for the control. Without it, the use of 152 g/plant chicken manure resulted in ascorbic acid accumulation. Lower doses of urea resulted in the highest yellow flavonoids, and when combined with chicken manure, it resulted in higher antioxidant activity and ascorbic acid content. Principal components analysis explained 64.7% of variability covering most of the variables analyzed, except for total antioxidant activity by the DPPH method. All together, the use of chicken manure combined with urea was effective in improving the quality of “Vitória” pineapple at doses of up to 4.5 g/plant of N (Dantas et al., 2015). However, it should be emphasized that the isolated use of organic compounds without the supplementation of mineral fertilizers can reduce the production and quality of pineapple fruits. Darnaudery et al. (2018) described that with organic fertilization (organic: Mucuna pruriens green manure incorporated into the soil and foliar applications of sugarcane vinasse from a local distillery), rich in K (14.44 g/L), pineapple growth was slower, 199 days after planting versus 149 days for integrated M. pruriens green manure (240.03 kg/ha N, 18.62 kg/ha P, and 136.11 kg/ha K) incorporated into the soil or conventional fertilizations (NPK fertilizer at recommended doses: 265.5 kg/ha N, 10.53 kg/ha P, and 445.71 kg/ha K), and fruit yield was lower, 47.25 t/ha versus 52.51 and 61.24 t/ha, respectively. Interestingly, organic fertilization significantly reduced leathery pocket disease and produced the best quality fruit with the highest total soluble solid contents (TSS) and the lowest titratable acidity (TTA). Fruit quality was also significantly improved with integrated fertilization, with fruit weight similar to that of conventional fertilization (Darnaudery et al., 2018). A study published by Guinto and Inciong (2012) described the existence of positive correlation between Mg content and organic matter of the soils of the Philippines with the production of pineapple fruits. Exchangeable Mg and organic C are closely positively related to yield. Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves that uses sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. Organic matter acts as a source and sink of nutrients in soils, and it appears that it is also a sensitive indicator for crop yield. Thus, any changes in these variables are likely to be good predictors of pineapple productivity. In summary, the presence of organic matter in soils cultivated with pineapple is essential for maintaining or increasing the production and postharvest quality of pineapple fruits. Table 50.1 shows the main positive effects of SOM on soil and pineapple production. Pineapple presents adequate growth in soils with pH between 4.5 and 5.5. Therefore, it is one of the few agricultural crops well adapted to soil conditions with relatively high acidity (Reinhardt et al., 2000; Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). Under soil conditions with pH above or below the mentioned range, there are negative changes in the availability and absorption of nutrients by pineapple plants (Reinhardt et al., 2000). When the pH rises above 5.5, there are deficiencies in micronutrient utilization by the plant. These factors may reduce the accumulation of nutrients in fruits, implying changes in their quality. Agricultural crops in soils with pH between 4.5 and 5.5 provide the presence of Al3+, potentially phytotoxic to most cultivated plants. However, pineapple plants present high tolerance to Al3+ present in the soil solution. This phenomenon is attributed to several adaptation mechanisms of the species, which can be divided into two main groups: The first one is related to mechanisms of exclusion, with exudation of organic ligands (mucilage, organic compounds of low molecular weight, etc.) by the roots, which are capable of complexing Al by the efflux of the Al accumulated in the roots and by the alteration in the pH of the rhizosphere (Langer et al., 2009). The second group of tolerance mechanisms is related to internal detoxification, by the fixation of Al in the cell wall, by the complexation in the symplast via organic ligands, and by the accumulation of Al in the vacuole (Ryan et al., 1994). Despite the adaptation of the cultivation of pineapples in acid soils and of the presence of Al3+, there are distinct responses of pineapple varieties to the presence of this element. According to Le Van and Masuda (2004),

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TABLE 50.1

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Positive effects of soil organic matter on pineapple cultivation.

Soil

Plant

Positive Increases soil aggregation

Greater growth and deepening of the root system in the soil profile

Lowers soil compaction

Greater absorption of water and nutrients

Reduction of the propensity of soil loss by erosive processes

Higher chlorophyll content, shoot and fruit growth

Increases soil CEC

Decreases cultivation cycle

Increases soil fertility

Increased efficiency of water and nutrients use by plants

Promotes the transport of nutrients to the plant roots

More and heavier fruits

3+

Neutralization of Al

Higher sugar and protein content in fruits

Aids in the complexation and precipitation of toxic metals

Higher antioxidant activity and ascorbic acid content

Increase in soil water availability

Higher content of nutrients and vitamins in fruits

Increases microbiological activity (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes)

Higher content of antioxidant substances in fruits

Increases enzymatic activity of soil

Better (balanced) sugar/acidity ratio in fruits (TSS/TTA)

considering the cultivars Cayenne, Queen, Soft Touch, Honey Bright, Bogor, Red Spanish, and Cream Pine, the Cayenne was the most Al-tolerant and Soft Touch the most Al-sensitive cultivar after the application of a highly saturated Al concentration in a nutrient solution (300-μM AlCl3 or 90.5 μM of inorganic monomeric Al3+ activity). In addition to organic acids, variations in the proteins in root apices are regarded as the mechanism involved in Al resistance. Other studies confirmed the difference in response between pineapple varieties and the presence of Al3+. Mota et al. (2016) reported that “IAC Fantástico” was less affected by Al concentration than “Vitória.” Lin (2010) studying the cultivars Cayenne and Tainung No. 17 observed that the absorptions of macronutrients and micronutrients were not affected in Al-resistant Smooth Cayenne but the absorptions of Ca, Mg, and K were inhibited when AlCl3 was 200 μM and Fe, Mn, and Cu absorptions were inhibited significantly when AlCl3 was 300 μM in the Al-sensitive Tainung No. 17. Lin and Chen (2011) studying cultivars Cayenne, Tainung No. 6, Tainung No. 13, and Tainung No. 17 found greater tolerance of cv. Cayenne to Al3+ and cited the maintenance of Ca and Mg contents in the roots and leaves of this cultivar as an adaptation mechanism to aid in cell protection (Ca) and synthesis of phosphoglycerate kinase (Mg) was one of the important proteins of plants in an unfavorable environment. Al3+ phytotoxicity initially affects the root system of pineapple plants (Fig. 50.1), impairing root growth and the absorption of water and nutrients, causing the reduction of shoot growth and size and quality of the fruits. In this sense, the moderate application of soil correctives (gypsum or limestone) to reduce the solubility of Al3+ in soils with a high exchangeable content of this element can be considered as an alternative to increase fruit production and quality. Silva et al. (2006) observed that the application of gypsum or limestone did not increase the weight of fruits of the cultivar D10 in acid soil (pH of 1:1 soil-water paste, 4.5) of the Wahiawa series (very fine clayey, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, and Rhodic Haplustox) from central Oahu, Hawaii, but increased calcium levels in the soil and in D-leaf and fruit tissues. Mite et al. (2010) found positive effect in the growth of fruits of the cultivar MD2 after applying 1.5 t/ha of several pH amendments (dolomitic, calcitic, and magnesian limestone, plus gypsum) in soil of volcanic origin (pH [H2O] 4.4 and Al3+ 1.5 cmolc/kg) in Ecuador. Again, the effect of amendment application on soil Al3+ explains the response. Once Al3+ has been precipitated or complexed, there is no need for higher application rates. Actually, fruit yield was reduced with higher amendment rates (>1.5 t/ha), due to the presence of Phytophthora sp., a known risk of overapplying lime. For this reason, it is difficult to use general lime recommendation for all the sites based only on Al3+ content of the soil as is common practice in ultisols and oxisols (Mite et al., 2010). However, most studies on acid soils with or without the neutralization of Al3+ ionic activity in the soil solution did not identify changes in size and most postharvest characteristics of the fruits (Silva et al., 2006).

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50. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

FIG. 50.1 Normal (A) and damaged (B–D) pineapple roots by the addition of 400 μmol/L of AlCl3 in hydroponics.

8 Diagnosis of nutrient constraints Pineapple is considered to be nutrient demanding, and mineral or organic supplementation with macro- and micronutrients is required during its growing cycle to obtain high productivity and fruit quality. The main essential nutrients considered limiting for cultivation are N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, and Mo. Nitrogen is one of the most demanded macronutrients by pineapple and the one that is more related to fruit weight and productivity. To obtain 72 t/ha of “Vitória” pineapple fruits, the uptake of 452 kg/ha of N was observed at the end of the growing cycle (Pegoraro et al., 2014a). The “P
erola” pineapple, in turn, uptook 764 kg/ha of N to produce 66 t/ha of fruits (author’s data). Uptake values ranging up to 450 kg/ha are observed for cultivar Smooth Cayenne. These differences between varieties are due to variations in fruit growth and yield (Hiroce et al., 1977; Py et al., 1987). Nitrogen deficiency in commercial pineapple crops (Fig. 50.2) may occur due to several biotic and abiotic factors related to the management, climate, soil, and nutritional requirements of the varieties. Among these factors, we highlight planting crops in soils with low fertility, poor in organic matter, sandy, and under the wrong nutritional management. Pineapple cultivation in sandy soils is common around the world. These soils are well drained; however, they are poor in available nutrients and organic matter. These conditions imply the need to adopt cultural management with organic or green fertilization, with the aim of increasing the availability of nitrogen for the plants. The adequate nutrition with nitrogen provides fruits of larger size and higher productivity, besides an adequate ratio between acidity and soluble solids. However, in a deficiency condition, the plants present generalized chlorosis (yellowing; light gray in the print version). This symptom occurs initially in old leaves, since nitrogen is considered a mobile element in the plant (Hawkesford et al., 2012; Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). The omission of nitrogen in nutrient solution with the Imperial variety results, initially (26 days after the macronutrient concentration reduction to 10% of the complete solution), in leaves with yellowish-green coloration (light gray in the print version), with a higher intensity of this symptom in the older ones. Six months after planting, the leaves present progressive yellowing (dark gray in the print version) in a generalized way in the plant, which produces small fruits (reduced the fruit mass with crown at 58%), with chlorosis even in the leaves of the crown. In addition, fruits produced from nitrogen deficient plants had higher pulp firmness, higher titratable acidity (TA) and vitamin C, reduced SS/TA ratio, lower pH, and whitish pulp (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014; Ramos et al., 2009, 2010).

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FIG. 50.2

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Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency in pineapple cv. Vitória. (A) Plants without nitrogen deficiency. (B–D) Nitrogen-deficient plants.

8.1 Nitrogen Nitrogen deficiency causes a decrease in the synthesis of amino acids and, consequently, of proteins, resulting in reduced growth and accumulation of nonnitrogen metabolites, promoting greater availability of photoassimilates to be used in the synthesis of compounds of secondary metabolism, ascorbic acid, among other organic acids (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). However, it should be considered that the visual diagnosis of deficiency symptoms serves only to guide the occurrence of possible nutrition-related problems, because there are several nutrients responsible for the formation of color in the leaves of plants. Iron and magnesium are also responsible for the synthesis of chlorophyll in leaves. Therefore, the successful use of leaf color as an index is dependent on eliminating, minimizing, or recognizing all factors other than N that also can influence leaf color (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018).

8.2 Phosphorus Phosphorus is not among the most absorbed macronutrients by pineapple. However, it is the third most used macronutrient in the crops, because its dynamics in the soil is considered to be impaired, due to the low natural availability and the presence of specific adsorption with oxidic clay minerals in tropical weathered soils. This specific adsorption implies in the unavailability (nonlabile P) for the plants of considerable fraction of the phosphorus coming from the fertilization in the complex of exchange of the clay minerals. Phosphorus fixation can occur within 35 days after application (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018), especially after the application of soluble forms. However, there is a consensus about the lack of response of plants to phosphate fertilization, indicating that the amount of P available in the soil, even in tropical soils, is sufficient, in most cases, to meet the demand for pineapple. Phosphorus plays a number of roles in plants, among which it is notable for being a component of sugar phosphates, nucleic acids, nucleotides, coenzymes, phospholipids, and phytic acid, and the central role in reactions involving ATP (Taiz et al., 2017). Its deficiency in pineapples decreases the size of plants and fruits, besides altering postharvest quality. The most common visual symptoms of phosphorus deficiency are the yellowing of the leaves, followed by the appearance of red-purplish coloration, initially on old leaves and progressing to new leaves and fruits, as the severity of the deficiency increases.

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The cultivation of the Imperial variety in nutrient solution with omission of phosphorus results in the appearance of the red-purplish coloration in the central part of the limbo of young and medium leaves with well-defined green edges. The fruits of these plants have the reddish peel in contrast to the yellow-orange coloration (Ramos et al., 2009). Considering pineapple “Jupi” under P deficiency, the fruit mass with crown was reduced by 26.8% and the fruit length up to 33.7%. However, that condition did not influence the organoleptic characteristics of the fruits (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014).

8.3 Potassium Potassium is the most absorbed macronutrient by pineapple. To obtain 72 t/ha of “Vitória” pineapple fruits, the uptake of 898 kg/ha of potassium was observed at the end of the growing cycle (Pegoraro et al., 2014a). The “P
erola” pineapple, in turn, uptakes 796 kg/ha of potassium to produce 66 t/ha (author’s data). The adequate potassium nutrition in commercial crops has favored weight and organoleptic quality of fruits, especially by increasing soluble solids. However, most pineapple crops are grown in weathered soils with low availability of nutrients, which favors the occurrence of symptoms of nutritional deficiency, requiring the application of high doses of this nutrient via mineral fertilization. “Smooth Cayenne” pineapple achieved the maximum fruit yield (66.6 t/ha) when fertilized with 700 kg/ha of K2O (source: K2SO4). Under the same conditions, the fruit yield achieved 51.6 t/ha with no potassium fertilization. This trial was carried out on an ultisol (Teixeira et al., 2011a). The elevation of the potassium doses to 410.4 kg/ha increased infructescence (fruit) mass with crown, yield, fruit length and diameter, and soluble solid content (Rios et al., 2018a,b). The developmental changes in fruit potassium were significantly correlated with fruit acidity and fruit soluble solids in both high and low acid clones of “Smooth Cayenne,” possibly due to the promotion of sugar translocation to the fruit (Saradhuldhat and Paull, 2007). In addition, there are some reports showing that potassium fertilization does increase pineapple titratable acidity (Py et al., 1987). Potassium is required by plants as a cofactor of more than 40 enzymes, being the most abundant cation in the cytosol and responsible for establishing cellular turgor and maintaining cellular electroneutrality (Hawkesford et al., 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). When K is deficient, growth is retarded, and net transport of K+ from mature leaves and stems is enhanced. Under severe deficiency, these organs become chlorotic and necrotic, depending on the light intensity to which the leaves are exposed (Hawkesford et al., 2012). Visual symptoms of potassium deficiency in pineapple leaves are characterized by green to dark-green (light to dark gray in the print version) foliage, more pronounced with nitrogenized fertilization (Leonel and dos Reis, 2012). The leaves show small yellow dots (light gray dots in the print version) that grow, multiply, and may concentrate on the limb margins (Leonel and dos Reis, 2012) (Fig. 50.3), also characterized by presenting the apex of the older leaves browned and necrotic (Ramos et al., 2009). Potassium deficiency reduced by 23% the fruit mass with crown, caused bleaching of fruit pulp, and reduced fruit acceptance (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014). Potassium deficiency can also lead to the appearance of dark spots on the fruit pulp, corresponding to the symptoms of internal browning. In addition, this condition increases fruit firmness but reduces the percentage of juice, soluble solids (SS), vitamin C, pH, and sensory acceptance (Ramos et al., 2009, 2010). In

FIG. 50.3 Symptoms of potassium deficiency in pineapple cv. Vitória. (A) Anatomy of plants with potassium deficiency. (B) Anatomy of leaves with potassium deficiency.

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summary, the reduction in postharvest quality of pineapple fruits caused by potassium deficiency is related to imbalance in the metabolic activity of plants, as a consequence of the inadequate process of osmotic regulation and cellular electrochemical imbalances, besides the alteration of the enzyme activity and the loading and unloading of sucrose in the phloem.

8.4 Calcium Pineapple has a low demand for calcium, and the availability in soils for optimum growth should be higher than 100 mg/kg (neutral ammonium acetate extraction) (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018) or higher than 0.50 cmolc/kg. The pineapple accumulates, at the end of the growing cycle, in the plant shoots, an average content of 80–129 kg/ha of calcium (Amaral et al., 2014; Pegoraro et al., 2014a). However, due to the differences between the varieties, there may be greater accumulation, reaching values of 398 kg/ha of calcium, becoming the third most absorbed nutrient, only behind potassium and nitrogen. The occurrence of nutritional deficiencies and the need for fertilization with calcium sources is not common in commercial crops, especially due to adequate growth capacity in acid soils. When necessary, the application of calcium is usually associated with the use of soil acidity correctives (limestone, gypsum, calcium silicates, steel slag, etc.) or via fertilization with mineral sources of calcium. In weathered and sandy soils, extremely acid (pH <4.5), with high levels of Al3+ and lower natural availability of calcium, there is a need for soil correction for adequate fruit production. Thus, the application of moderate doses of limestone (1.5 t/ha) increases the production of roots and fruits of MD2 pineapple cultivated in an andisol with 1.5 cmolc/kg of Al3+ and pH (H2O) equal to 4.4 (Mite et al., 2010). Calcium is the constituent of the middle lamella of the cell walls; it is also required as a cofactor by some enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of ATP and phospholipids, besides acting as a secondary messenger in metabolic regulation (Taiz et al., 2017). However, calcium mobility in symplasm and phloem is low (Hawkesford et al., 2012). Its supply should be done especially during the initial stages of crop establishment, because cell division and differentiation are dependent on an adequate supply. In addition, calcium is also important after forcing because it also is a period of rapid cell division and growth although calcium uptake is reduced after that practice. Calcium may also improve cell structure and reduce fruit translucence (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018), and its application to the soil is an effective method to control or reduce internal browning (blackheard) development in “Mauritius” pineapple (Herath et al., 2003). According to these authors, the application of calcium as basal and top dressings is more effective than applying only a basal dressing in controlling internal browning and for the maintenance of fruit quality under cold storage. The application of calcium fertilizer as basal dressing (150 kg/ha) followed by a top dressing (100 kg/ha) 6 months after planting is more effective to control internal browning in cold stored “Mauritius” pineapple. Similar results have been described by Hewajulige et al. (2006), who studied the application of CaO and CaCl2 as spray in combination with basal dressing. However, Pusittigul et al. (2014) reported that calcium contents in pineapples harvested from various growing areas in Thailand showed inconsistent correlation with internal browning development. Pre- or postharvest application of calcium could raise calcium content in the fruit, but its effect on reducing internal browning was not reliable. It is suggested that internal browning is a result of multifactorial aspects and calcium content is one of the factors influencing this disorder. Calcium deficiency has less influence on the postharvest characteristics of fruits compared with nitrogen and potassium. The application of calcium in the “Imperial” variety results in an increase in the soluble solid content (SS) in the fruit pulp. This result can be attributed to higher potassium uptake, due to the lower competition between potassium and calcium by absorption sites (Ramos et al., 2010, 2011). On the other hand, there is no interference of calcium deficiency in the quality and organoleptic evaluation in the cultivar of “Jupi” pineapple fruits (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014). However, it should be noted that calcium deficiency in pineapples implies a severe reduction in plant growth and fruit production.

8.5 Magnesium Pineapple can be considered a demanding culture in magnesium. Scientific results report the absorption of similar contents of magnesium and calcium for pineapple cultivars, indicating that the availability in the soil and the supply through fertilization should establish a 1:1 ratio of Ca/Mg. Results from studies with the Vitória variety confirm this statement, since this genotype uptakes 126 kg/ha of magnesium and 129 kg/ha of calcium (Pegoraro et al., 2014a). Hanafi et al. (2009) obtained a similar use efficiency ratio of magnesium and calcium for cultivars N-36 and Josapine, corresponding, respectively, to 1.18 and 0.43 g of dry matter/mg of magnesium and 1.31 and 0.45 g of dry matter/mg

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50. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

of calcium absorbed, respectively. However, there may be differences in behavior between cultivars with those that require a higher Ca/Mg ratio (i.e., 2:1). Magnesium is considered a mobile element in plants, and its main functions are related to the constitution of many enzymes involved in the transfer of phosphates and in the constitution of the chlorophyll molecule. Magnesium ions also play a specific role in the activation of enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis (Rubisco), and the synthesis of DNA and RNA (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). A characteristic symptom of magnesium deficiency is chlorosis between leaf veins, occurring, first, in older leaves, because of the mobility of this cation (Fig. 50.4). This pattern of chlorosis occurs because chlorophyll in the vascular bundles remains unchanged for longer periods than that in the cells between the bundles. If the deficiency is long, the leaves may become yellow or white (light gray in the print version). An additional symptom of magnesium deficiency may be premature senescence and leaf abscission (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). Studies carried out with the omission of magnesium have described the lack of alteration in the postharvest quality of pineapple fruits because it does not alter the juice, total soluble solids, vitamin C content, acidity, and sensory properties of “Imperial” (Ramos et al., 2010) and “Jupi” (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014) pineapples. However, magnesium deficiency in pineapples increased the absorption of calcium and potassium (Ramos et al., 2011), indicating the existence of an antagonistic effect on the absorption of these cations in pineapple plants. The uptake of Mg2+ can be strongly depressed by other cations, such as K+, NH4 + , Ca2+, and Mn2+ or even low pH (H+) (Hawkesford et al., 2012). Notably, in tropical soils, a higher proportion of calcium in relation to magnesium has impaired magnesium absorption, being necessary the use of mineral fertilization with magnesium (MgSO4) for soils, the use of higher doses of potassic fertilizers, and the use of soil correctives and correction of deficiencies caused by nutritional imbalance in the soil. The use of magnesium silicates can also help correcting these deficiencies. Magnesium deficiency in plants may lead to reduced chlorophyll formation, reducing the photosynthetic activity of plants. This phenomenon in the pineapple is characterized in the visual diagnosis by the presence of old leaves with bright yellow limb, in leaves exposed to sunlight, and maintenance of the dark-green color in the leaves or in the part shaded by the younger leaves, located in the upper part of the plant (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). This symptom is characteristic for magnesium deficiency in pineapple and, under severe conditions of deficiency, can progress to generalized yellowing in the leaves after flowering, reducing CO2 assimilation capacity, stem diameter and length, root volume, acidity, sugar content, and the aroma of the fruits (Py et al., 1987). Sulfur deficiency in pineapple crops is considered to be uncommon, mainly due to the lower nutritional requirement and its use as a secondary source in nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium fertilizers. However, in sandy and in poor organic matter soils, it is possible to observe the nutritional deficiency of this nutrient. Sulfur is found in certain amino acids such as cystine, cysteine, and methionine and is a constituent of several coenzymes and vitamins, such as coenzyme A, S-adenosylmethionine, biotin, vitamin B1, and pantothenic acid, which are essential for metabolism (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). For a production of 72 t/ha of pineapple, the sulfur content accumulated in pineapple shoots can correspond to 134 kg/ha (Pegoraro et al., 2014a). In the P
erola variety, the plant accumulates 49 kg/ha of sulfur to produce 66 t/ha. These values indicate that this element is little absorbed by the plant, which may explain the small occurrence of its deficiency in experimental and field conditions.

FIG. 50.4 Deficiency symptoms of magnesium in pineapple. (A) Mg deficiency in the plant. (B) Deficiency of Mg in leaves.

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Sulfur is considered an immobile element in the plant, and the symptoms of deficiency are also associated with generalized chlorosis. However, chlorosis occurs initially on new leaves. Many of the symptoms of sulfur deficiency are similar to those of nitrogen deficiency, including chlorosis, reduced growth, and accumulation of anthocyanins, as both nutrients are constituents of proteins (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). However, there were no symptoms of sulfur deficiency in leaves and fruits of “Imperial” pineapple with the omission of this nutrient (Ramos et al., 2009). On the other hand, the omission of sulfur in “Jupi” pineapple increases the total soluble solid content (Ramos and Rocha Pinho, 2014). This result is due to the probable reduction in the synthesis of proteins, provoking the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates. Considering the absorption of all macronutrients by the pineapple, there is an order of accumulation that varies very little among the most diverse cultivated varieties. A sequence of accumulated macronutrients is normally K > N > Ca > Mg > S > P. Micronutrients deficiency of iron, zinc, boron, copper, manganese, molybdenum, and chlorine in pineapple crops is associated with variations in soil and climatic conditions and the adoption of misguided cultural management practices such as the lack of or excessive fertilization with macronutrients, cultivation of plants outside the ideal range of soil pH (4.5–5.5), excessive liming, removal of plant residues from the growing area, and the absence of crop rotation. Therefore, the use of soil or foliar fertilization with micronutrients implies positive results in the production and quality of the fruits of pineapple. The soil and foliar micronutrient application increased the concentrations of carbohydrates and N-aminosoluble and reduced the leaf pH, especially during flowering and fruit development (Amorim et al., 2013). The pineapple has an increase in dry-matter production after the application of micronutrients via soil or foliar route. This increase in shoot dry matter can be up to 234% when compared with plants that did not receive fertilization with micronutrients (Feitosa et al., 2011). Therefore, the importance of micronutrient fertilization on fruit quality is evident, but little is known about the effects of micronutrients on the characteristics of pineapple (Amorim et al., 2013). Considering the quantities absorbed by the pineapple plant and therefore demanded by the pineapple, the following decreasing order follows: Fe > Mn > Zn > B > Cu, with some variations depending on the cultivars. Iron, which is the most absorbed micronutrient by pineapple, is essential for the synthesis of complexes constituted by chlorophyll and protein in the chloroplast, being a constituent of enzymes involved in the transfer of electrons, such as cytochromes. In this process, iron is reversibly oxidized from Fe2+ to Fe3+, aiding in electron transfer (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). In plants, iron is considered an immobile micronutrient, and the initial symptoms of deficiency in fresh leaves include internerval chlorosis and yellow leaves with green spots (Newett and Rigden, 2015; Py et al., 1987). Under conditions of extreme or prolonged deficiency, the veins may also become chlorotic, causing the entire leaf to become white (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). Fruits on plants with severe iron deficiency will be small, hard, and reddish in color, with cracks between the fruitlets, and the crowns will be light yellow or creamy white in color (VásquezJim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). Pineapple plants growing in acid soils tolerate high levels of both soluble manganese and aluminum, where other plants either will not grow or show symptoms of toxicity (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). However, acidic soils with high natural manganese contents affect the absorption of other cationic micronutrients, such as iron. In this condition, it is important to establish an ideal relationship between iron and manganese in soils and plants. According to Vásquez-Jim
enez (2010), iron deficiency can occur when the Fe/Mn ratio is less than 0.4 (in D-leaf) for “Smooth Cayenne” while a 0.2 ratio (BG) is recommended for “MD-2.” Proportions lower than these can cause iron deficiency in plants. The earliest reports of manganese interference in iron absorption date back to the beginning of the last century (Gile, 1916). Iron sulfate sprays, often applied fortnightly on plants grown in soils high in soluble manganese, are used to manage iron deficiency. To be effective, the iron in iron sulfate sprays must be in reduced form, and dry storage conditions are required to prevent oxidation (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). Another alternative to reduce the excessive content of manganese in the soil would be the application of soil correctives to raise the pH and increase calcium supply. Cultivation in alkaline soils or the use of irrigation water that presents carbonates and raises soil pH promotes iron deficiency in pineapple. As a solution to this problem, it is recommended to apply a foliar application of this micronutrient, which can be up to 6 kg/ha (Py et al., 1987), or even the use of substances that lower soil pH, such as elemental sulfur, or the pH of water, such as nitric acid or other acid available at the planting site. To determine the amount of sulfur, it is necessary to take into account the pH of the soil, the pH units to be lowered, and the soil texture. If the option is the pH correction of an alkaline water, the amount of acid applied in the irrigation water is a function of the pH, of the presence of carbonates in the water, and of the pH to be reached. This amount can be calculated as a function of the stoichiometry of the acid-base reaction that will occur.

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The weathered and acidic tropical soils present high natural manganese contents. However, degradation conditions of organic matter, the lack of moisture in the soil, cultivations in sandy soils, and elevation of pH of the soil (above 6.5) or calcium content, associated with the absence of fertilization with manganese, may imply deficiency of manganese in pineapple plants, although this phenomenon is not common. Manganese is considered an immobile element in plants, and the main symptoms of deficiency are characterized by chlorosis between the veins associated with the development of small necrotic spots. This chlorosis can occur in young or older leaves, depending on plant species and growth speed. These symptoms are due to the main functions in the plant, since manganese acts in the photosynthetic process as an essential cofactor in the process of water oxidation and O2 generation (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). Although it is an essential nutrient for pineapple, manganese is neglected in scientific studies on this element and its relationship with pineapple. The papers and reports are usually focused on the interference of this nutrient in the absorption of iron. The zinc ion (Zn2+) is required for the activity of several enzymes and in the biosynthesis of plant chlorophyll. It also acts as a catalyst in oxidation and reduction processes and has great importance in sugar metabolism in pineapple (Kumari and Deb, 2018). This nutrient is considered to have low mobility in the plant, and its deficiency symptoms occur initially on new leaves. Its growth occurs in rosette, forming circular grouping that radiates in the soil or next to it. The leaves may also be small and twisted, with wrinkled appearance margins (Taiz et al., 2017). When the deficiency is severe, the center cluster of leaves is mildly to sharply curved. When the deficiency develops in older plants, the surface of older leaves develops yellowish-brown pinhead-sized dashes. The center leaves may have rips or serrations on their margins (Vásquez-Jim
enez and Bartholomew, 2018). The nutritional deficiency of zinc in pineapple crops is associated with, in sandy soils and poor organic matter soils and in regions of acid or semiarid climate, the presence of soil pH higher than 6.0, because this condition reduces the availability of zinc in the soil and its absorption by the pineapple. The mismanagement of fertilization with excessive doses of phosphorus also causes a reduction in the availability of zinc to the plants, due to the formation of zinc phosphate (Zn-HPO4), a complex considered of low solubility. The higher absorption of phosphorus also reduces the translocation of zinc from the root to the shoot, among others. Zinc deficiency reduces the size and alters the organoleptic properties of pineapple fruits. In this context, the correction of deficiencies with the foliar application of zinc sulfate (0.5%) in association with borax (0.5%) after the flowering of pineapple cv. Mauritius showed maximum TSS/acid ratio (21.46), total sugars (8.66%), and reducing sugars (1.72%) and lowest acidity (0.67%) along with higher TSS (14.4 °Brix). However, Maeda et al. (2011) did not observe changes in pineapple fruits with zinc fertilization. After the application of zinc and boron at 7 and 9 months of planting the cultivar Smooth Cayenne, these authors did not verify effects on soluble solids, titratable acidity, average fruit diameter, fruit length without crown, and fruit maturation index. Only boron, zinc, and potassium contents in the leaf were influenced by the treatments. Such variations in scientific results may be associated to different demands of zinc by pineapple cultivars. Copper is a redox-active transition element with roles in photosynthesis, respiration, C and N metabolism, and protection against oxidative stress (Broadley et al., 2012). Copper deficiencies in pineapple crops are usually observed in weathered soils with sandy texture, limestone soils, and soils with high organic matter content, since copper presents specific adsorption with organic compounds humidified from organic matter, preventing its absorption by plants. The initial symptom of copper deficiency in many plant species is the production of dark-green leaves, which may contain necrotic spots. These spots appear first in the apices of young leaves and then extend toward the base of the leaf along the edges. The sheets may also become twisted or malformed (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). Foliar applications of copper in the form of inorganic salts, oxides, or chelates can be used to rapidly correct its deficiency in soil grown plants (Broadley et al., 2012). However, excessive application of copper may lead to phytotoxicity in plants. Boron, like iron, is one of the most important micronutrients for the production of fruits in pineapple, playing important roles in sugar transport, cell wall synthesis, lignification, cell wall structure, carbohydrate metabolism, RNA metabolism, respiration, indole acetic acid (IAA) metabolism, phenol metabolism, and membranes (Broadley et al., 2012). Boron is considered a mobile micronutrient in the phloem of pineapple plants. According to Siebeneichler et al. (2005), pineapple plants show the ability to synthesize mannitol and sorbitol, which would allow the formation of mobile complexes in the phloem, like mannitol-B-mannitol or sorbitol-B-sorbitol. However, depending on the severity of the deficiency, visual symptoms can be observed in old and new leaves. Thus, 12 months after planting “Imperial” pineapple, Ramos et al. (2009) observed that the deficiency of boron caused deformation on the leaf of the slips, which had a serrated margin and a deformation in the leaf of the fruit crown, with the formation of corky excrescence and cracks between fruit. Boron fertilization in the cultivar P
erola increases leaf boron content but does not interfere with fruit weight and size (Siebeneichler et al., 2008). This is probably due to the availability of this element in the soil in quantity to meet the

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boron demand of this cultivar. The application of boron and zinc (110 g/ha of B and 250 g/ha of Zn), via two foliar sprays, at 7 and 9 months after planting of cv. Smooth Cayenne, had no effect on average diameter of the fruit, length of the fruit without crown, contents of TSS and TTA, and ratio TSS/TTA (Maeda et al., 2011). These results suggest that plant factors, such as the nutritional requirement of the cultivar and edaphic conditions related to soil texture, organic matter content, mineralogy, and soil pH, interfere in the dynamics of boron for plants and in the need for fertilization via soil or leaves. Molybdenum is considered a micronutrient little demanded by the pineapple culture. Normally, the levels present in the soil are considered sufficient for adequate molybdic nutrition. However, it is a component of several enzymes, including nitrate reductase, nitrogenase, xanthine dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase (Marschner, 2012; Taiz et al., 2017). The first indicative of molybdenum deficiency is widespread chlorosis between the veins and necrosis of older leaves. Deficiency of molybdenum may cause high nitrate levels in fruits, which leads to detinning in canned pineapple (Hassan and Othman, 2011). Research in Australia failed to demonstrate any change in fruit juice nitrate levels as a result of spraying plants with molybdenum (Scott, 2000).

9 Management of nutrient constraints

Vegetative biomass (%)

Fertilization in pineapple crops is considered a responsible cultural practice for increasing productivity and fruit quality. However, the balanced management of plant nutrition is dependent on the adoption of soil fertility diagnosis criteria and nutritional demand of the cultivars and the adoption of application practices that follow the nutritional demand of the crops in the different stages of growth and phenology of the plant (Pegoraro et al., 2014b). The pineapple shows sigmoidal growth (Fig. 50.5), with greater vegetative increase after the first 3–6 months of planting, intensifying its growth until the period of floral induction. In phases V2, V3, and V4, there is a greater increase of the vegetative growth, indicating a greater nutritional demand, which may guide the fertilization to the adequate growth of the culture, so that, by the moment of forcing, the plant has the correct size and weight to produce good commercial fruits (Maia et al., 2016; Pegoraro et al., 2014b). The production of plant biomass presents a positive linear correlation with the weight and size of pineapple fruits. To obtain a fruit weight greater than or equal to 1.2 kg/plant, flower induction in the “Vitória” pineapple was suggested for those plants having a minimum weight for D-leaf fresh matter of 70 g or with a minimum stem diameter of 8.5 cm (Vilela et al., 2015). In fact, plants with higher biomass production produce proportionally heavier fruits (Guarc¸oni and Aires Ventura, 2011; Razzaque and Hanafi, 2001; Rodrigues et al., 2010; Santos et al., 2018; Vilela et al., 2015). Mineral and organic fertilization plus the combination of these and the use of fertirrigation are management techniques that assist in the balanced supply of nutrients during the pineapple cultivation cycle. The adoption of top dressings and the integration between organic and mineral fertilization, for allowing a continuous supply of nutrients during the growing season, provide good results from the point of view of fruit quality and productivity. Some producing regions have adopted foliar fertilization applied by spray boom to supply all the needs of the crop, which implies in the formulation of a spray solution with all the necessary nutrients to the pineapple, in a balanced way and in quantity of diluted solute that does not cause necrosis of the leaves. Some growers use nutrient spraying

100

D-leaf: 70 g

80 60 40 20 0

D-leaf: 64 g D-leaf: 60 g D-leaf: 54 g

FIG. 50.5 Indication of phenological stages by means of relative production of vegetative biomass (leaves, stems, and roots) for the vegetative cycle of the “Vitória” pineapple and characterized by average D-leaf fresh weight. Five phenological stages are proposed based on vegetative biomass production: 20% biomass production (V1), 21%–40% (V2), 41%–60% (V3), 61%–80% (V4), and >80% (V5). From Pegoraro, R.F., Souza, B.A.M.D., Maia, V.M., Amaral, U.D., Pereira, M.C.T., 2014. Growth and production of irrigated Vitória pineapple grown in semi-arid conditions. Rev. Bras. Frutic. 36 (3), 693–703. doi:https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-2945-265/13 (web archive link).

D-leaf: 44 g

V1

V2 V3 V4 V5 Growth stage

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solutions with up to 9% diluted solutes, but it is a very risky practice. Values of up to 5% are well tolerated, especially in regions with high rainfall or irrigated irrigation. These cultivation techniques require the pineapple grower to have specific knowledge regarding the management of fertilization. Conventional fertilization in pineapple crops via mineral fertilization can be adopted with the use of formulated (mixed) or single fertilizers. The fertilization with formulated fertilizers has the preference of use by the rural producers, because it allows in a single application the supply of several nutrients. However, in the planting phase, in many crops, there is a need to use only a simple source of fertilizer, as in the use of phosphate fertilizer. It can be noticed that the choice of fertilization sources should mainly follow the nutritional demand of the crops and the soil. The use of organic fertilization provides several positive effects for soil and pineapple, as previously mentioned. We highlight the gradual supply of nitrogen to the plants and the contribution of organic matter to the soil. However, its isolated use does not provide sufficient and balanced amounts of macronutrients for the plants, being necessary the complementation of the fertilization via mineral fertilizers (Mota et al., 2018). In addition, it depends on the availability of organic fertilizer in the growing region. Therefore, it is considered that the optimal nutrition management in pineapple should advocate the use of organic fertilization in conjunction with mineral fertilization. Due to the anatomical conformation of the pineapple leaves (Fig. 50.6), which converge to the center of the plant, and the presence of adventitious roots in the stem, much of the mineral fertilization can be provided via fertirrigation or via foliar spraying, as already mentioned. In this management condition, top dressing during the vegetative period has provided good results in increasing productivity and fruit quality. The nutritional requirement varies according to the pineapple cultivars and their productive potential (Table 50.2) and usually follows this absorption order: K > N > Ca > Mg > S > P. Due to these variations in nutritional demand among cultivars (Table 50.3), different fertilization responses are observed in the production of pineapple fruits. These variations are further accentuated by the population of plants used in each field. This can be minimized when the fertilization recommendation changes to grams per plant in substitution of quantities per area (hectare). Table 50.3 can be used as reference for fertilization of several pineapple cultivars and the different populations used. As discussed in this chapter, nitrogen is the nutrient that has the greatest effect on fruit size and pineapple productivity. This effect can be visualized in Fig. 50.7, which shows the result of the application of increasing doses of nitrogen up to 20 g/plant, in the form of urea, on the size of the fruits of the “Vitória” cultivar (Fig. 50.2). These results confirm the high response potential of nitrogen fertilization for this fruit (Cardoso et al., 2013).

10 Use of sewage sludge and treated waste water on pineapple nutrition Increases in population, urbanization, and industrialization in the world have resulted in increased levels of liquid and solid waste generated in sewage treatment processes. These residues, when inadequately handled and treated, are a source of contamination to the environment and to living beings, especially when directed to dumps and water sources. In this context, studies have been intensified in the last years aiming at a correct disposal of these wastes, so that they are not only an environmental problem but also an economically feasible alternative for agriculture, since

FIG. 50.6 Anatomical conformation of the pineapple leaves converging to the center of the plant (A) and presence of adventitious roots in the stem of the pineapple (B).

FRUIT CROPS: DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT CONSTRAINTS

755

10 Use of sewage sludge and treated waste water on pineapple nutrition

TABLE 50.2

Macronutrient accumulation (kg/ha) in shoots of pineapple cultivars.

Source

N

P

Ca

Mg

S

“Vitória”

451.71

107.26

898.32

129.17

126.41

134.27

“Vitória”

453.00

36.00

1703.00

76.00

124.00

112.00

763.65

14.04

795.72

397.84

49.80

48.90

504.39

91.31

947.28

70.81

34.79

–

530.48

98.14

993.87

39.75

43.48

–

337.30

50.31

754.10

65.22

69.57

–

238.00

13.50

1234.00

253.00

157.00

17.00

“Smooth Cayenne”

252.00

13.00

441.00

161.00

33.00

35.00

Py et al. (1987)

450.00

75.00

650.00

205.00

120.00

a b

“P
erola”

c

“Gandul”

d

“N-36”

d

“Josapine”

d

“P
erola”

e f

a b c d e f

K

–

Pegoraro et al. (2014a). Souza et al. (2019)—“Vitória” with the lowest nitrogen dose and plant population (51,282 plants/ha)—article in press. Oliveira (2013). Hanafi et al. (2009), estimated for a population of 62,117 plants/ha. Paula et al. (1985). Paula et al. (1985), estimated for a population of 50,000 plants/ha.

TABLE 50.3 Source

Yield and average doses of macronutrients (kg/ha) observed for pineapple cultivars. Yield (t/ha)

Population (plants/ha)

N

P

K

72.00

51,280

769

154

769

“Smooth”

72.00

30,300

498

80

394

“Smooth”

54.44

36,000

391

161

450

26.36

41,666

285

80

410

“Vitória”

a b c

d

Imperial c

56.14

36,000

460

161

480

e

P
erola

62.00

–

397

130

583

f

66.41

47,619

714

87

860

MD2

P
erola a

Pegoraro et al. (2014a): Foliar sprayings were also carried out with 0.07% de B, 0.1% Zn, and 0.1% Cu, in the forms of boric acid, zinc sulfate, and copper sulfate, respectively (six applications during the vegetative cycle). b Spironello et al. (2004). c García et al. (2017). d Rios et al. (2018b): Borax (1.9 kg/ha), zinc sulfate (8 kg/ha), copper sulfate (8 kg/ha), and iron sulfate (16 kg/ha). e Agbangba et al. (2011). f Oliveira (2013).

they are a source of nutrients, being an alternative to reduce the high costs of inputs required for agricultural production. Considering the importance of pineapple farming to Brazil and the world and its high nutritional demand, it is proposed that the use of these residues can help increase productivity, reduce production costs, and improve the environmental sustainability of waste production systems, as well as pineapple residues. This practice becomes interesting because most of the nutritional demand of the pineapple occurs until the time of floral induction, preventing the direct contact of the effluent and the sewage sludge with the fruit, which reduces the risk of microbiological contamination. As previously written, pineapple presents high nutritional demand compared with other crops (Pegoraro et al., 2014a; Teixeira et al., 2011b). Therefore, wastewater and sludge may partially or totally replace fertilizers. Sewage sludge is defined as waste from the treatment of both domestic and industrial wastewater, with the aim of reducing its pollutant load and, consequently, its impact on the environment. Sludge, after treatment involving sanitation, stabilization, and drying stages, is called biosolid and can be used in agriculture (Melo et al., 2001).

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756

50. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple

FIG. 50.7 Nitrogen doses applied in the cultivation of “Vitória” pineapple.

This residue has large amounts of nutrients, especially nitrogen, and is very rich in organic matter. Therefore, the use of sewage sludge in the cultivation of pineapple can meet the demand in a significant way in relation to fertilization with conventional fertilization. However, sewage sludge, in addition to nutrients, has mineral contaminants such as lead, nickel, cadmium, chromium, copper, and zinc (Zuba Junio et al., 2019) and biological contaminants such as pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, and viruses), as well as a range of synthetic organic compounds (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, furans, pesticides, and synthetic and natural hormones), and it is necessary to manage this residue in a judicious manner (Nascimento et al., 2015). Due to the economic and social importance associated with the high demand of pineapple inputs, especially nitrogen, the use of sewage sludge as a source of nutrients can totally replace nitrogenous fertilization in the form of urea, without affecting production and quality of fruits and without microbiological contamination of them (Mota et al., 2018). In addition, it contributes to the reduction of environmental pollution caused by the inadequate disposal of this waste. Considering treated wastewater, the presence of nutrients in the sanitary sewer can be a problem that is not always easily solved, since it is necessary to comply with the requirements of the environmental laws of each country. On the other hand, nutrients can mean a substantial advantage for water reuse, since they are necessary inputs for plant cultivation, maintaining fertility and soil productivity levels by partially or totally substituting fertilization with mineral fertilizers. Treated wastewater (TWW) is seen as a renewable resource, and its agricultural use is common in several countries, such as Singapore, India, Barbados, Philippines, Spain, Australia, Japan, Jordan, the United States, and Belgium (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2012). In agriculture, the use of these waters can improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil, by providing essential nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for plant growth and fruit quality (Bourazanis et al., 2016), and by increasing organic matter content, main conditioner of tropical soils and responsible for the increase in water retention capacity (Hespanhol, 2003). The application of this water as a fertirrigation of pineapple becomes quite feasible, due to the high nutritional demand of this crop especially in relation to nitrogen and potassium, which are normally present in high concentrations in this type of effluent. The use of this technology can reduce the need to apply nitrogen, potassium, and clean water in 15%, 16%, and 25%, respectively (unpublished data). However, it is important that an adequate dose of residual water is defined for the cultivation of pineapple, to avoid imbalance in the supply of nutrients and problems such as excessive vegetative growth, with reduction of qualitative and quantitative yield of the crop (Pedrero et al., 2010). As with sewage sludge, wastewater can be a source of pathogenic organisms and chemicals such as bacteria, viruses, drugs, and hormones, as well as toxic mineral elements such as sodium, chlorine, and heavy metals (Gatta et al., 2015), although the latter are uncommon. As for sodium, as the plant presents CAM carbon fixation, this nutrient may probably be essential for the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate.

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References

757

11 Future line of research Despite considerable advances in pineapple nutrition, there are still gaps and opportunities for research lines in underexploited areas specific to this crop. Among these, the use of microorganisms can be highlighted, especially nitrogen-fixing plants or diazotrophs associated with specific growth-promoting bacteria and selected for pineapple. These studies are only increases in pineapple demand and may occur in production cycles that can be reduced in terms of improving cash flow and the ability to do so in addition to reducing the environmental impact of pineapple farming. The seeds can be incorporated into the use of species for the green cover, being incorporated or even cultivated simultaneously with the pineapple. Another point to consider, especially to enable pineapple cultivation in regions with low water availability, is studies related to the use of treated domestic sewage water, from secondary, tertiary, or quaternary treatment, evaluating agronomic viability and the long-term environmental impacts and the possible contamination of the fruits with microorganisms, drugs, and heavy metals. Add to this the studies with sewage sludge or biosolids that also come from sewage treatment plants. In addition, although pineapple crops are predominantly grown in acid soils, the study of cultivation of this species in alkaline soils or irrigation with water containing dilute calcium carbonate results in a rise in soil pH, and possible mitigation measures of this problem will allow the extension of cultivated areas to previously unexploited sites. Among the mitigation measures that can be studied, jointly or separately, are the use of elemental sulfur applied directly to the soil and the definition of doses according to soil type and pH, correction of pH of water with weak acids, and the foliar fertilization with sulfated sources as well as the uptake of nutrients applied with this technology. Finally, in spite of some references in the literature, more studies of pineapple cultivation in saline soils with the presence of chlorine and sodium are necessary, identifying possible salinity-tolerant genotypes, as well as the function of these nutrients in the physiology and metabolism of pineapple, especially sodium, allowing the characterization of this element as toxic, beneficial, or essential for pineapple.

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