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Dietary Factors Affecting Feather Growth
Dietary Factors Affecting Feather Growth H. L. FULLER 1 AND H. L. WILCKE
Poultry Husbandry Subsection, Agricultural Experiment Station (Received for publication April 13, 1942)
'Formerly Quaker Oats Fellow in the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station; now serving in the U. S. Army. Journal paper No. J-1002 of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 513.
and barley groups. Wilcke (1936) found that 72 parts of ground whole oats in the ration resulted in normal growth, excellent feathering, and no bone abnormalities. Poley (1938) reported a high percentage of plumage abnormalities when the chicks were fed rations containing ground wheat and ground yellow or white corn. The abnormalities in structure were reduced appreciably by the addition of 15 percent of bran, 15 percent each of bran and middlings, or 5 percent of dried skimmilk, but these substances were ineffective against the abnormalities in pigmentation. Three percent of certain samples of alfalfa leaf meal was effective in producing normal feathers with regard to both structure and color. Evidence has been presented by Mussehl, Ackerson, and Blish (1940) to show that some factor essential to normal feather growth was destroyed when the grain portion of the ration was autoclaved. When such a ration was supplemented with wheat bran the rate of feathering was decidedly better than when the same ration was supplemented with ground wheat or shorts. Miller and Bearse (1937, 1938) found that both oats and oat hulls were effective in preventing cannibalism (as measured by feather picking) and in improving the quality of feathering of White Leghorn pullets. The same property was found to be present in the oat hull fiber which was obtained by dilute acid digestion (Bearse, Miller, and McClary, 1940). Likewise, Kennard and Chamberlin (1936) concluded that the feeding of whole oats, free choice, largely pre-
[S40]
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ACK of proper feather development is J of considerable economic importance, particularly in the broiler industry where the occurrence of "barebacks" presents a serious problem. This is a condition in which the birds fail to feather properly over the dorsal region, and it is highly undesirable from a market standpoint. Improper growth of feathers manifests itself in several ways other than the "bareback" condition. Faulty structure of the feather itself and abnormal plumage patterns are among the most obvious, and these conditions result in an unthrifty appearance of the poultry flock. That many factors are involved in normal feather development is evidenced by the large variety of reports dealing with feather studies. However, most of the earlier investigations were confined to studies of genetic and hormonal influences. Several investigators have reported that cereal grains differ markedly with regard to their influence upon growth and feather development. Branion (1934), Wilcke (1936), and Wilcke and Hammond (1940) observed a poor quality of feathering in groups of chicks receiving a high level of corn in their ration. Branion (1934) stated that feathering in general was retarded in the corn-fed lots, although these chicks were superior in growth to the wheat, oat groats,
1
G FEATHER GROWTH
vented the trouble previously experienced with feather picking and cannibalism. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) and Thompson (1940) presented evidence to show that some substance or group of substances was present in'oats which exerted a beneficial
effect on growth and on the quality of feathering; however, Thompson concluded that the action of oat hulls and wheat bran in improving the rate of feathering was simply a result of better growth. Radi and Warren (1938) studied numerous factors affecting the rate of feathering. They concluded that the level of vitamin A or G was of questionable significance as was the level of protein. The choice of grains produced a slight difference in favor of oats, but this difference was not significant . It has been reported recently by Hegsted, Briggs, Elvehjem, and Hart (1941) that a diet deficient in glycine and arginine results in very poor feather structure. This was more pronounced in the rapidly feathering White Leghorns than in the slower feathering Barred Plymouth Rock chicks. There is a considerable difference of opin-
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PLATE 1. Degrees of feather development.
541
542
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The purpose of this investigation has been to determine whether or not the effect of wheat bran and oat hulls in accelerating the rate of feather growth is simply a result of an improved general growth. At the same time it was proposed to isolate as nearly as possible the factor or group of factors in oat hulls and wheat bran which might be responsible for the alleged improvement in feather growth. To accomplish this, oat hulls and wheat bran were subjected to various treatments and fed to similar lots of chicks in addition to a basal ration containing oat groats as the sole cereal grain. The supplements used are shown in Table 1 together with the completed rations and calculated analyses. The oat hulls were finely ground to avoid the danger of impaction. The autoclaved oat hulls and wheat bran were treated in 2 5 pound lots which were placed in shallow metal pans and autoclaved for two hours at IS pounds of pressure. The heated oat hulls were subjected to a temperature of 100°C. for 24 hours at atmospheric pressure. The following procedure was adopted for making water extractions of the oat hulls: The oat hulls were mixed with sufficient water to make a thin slop and allowed to
stand for 12 hours at room temperature. The mixture was then filtered through a Buchner funnel by means of suction, and the filtrate was refiltered. The flour-like residue which remained with the first filtrate provided an excellent filtering medium for the second filtration. The entire process was performed four times with each sample of oat hulls. Since the fourth extraction was almost water clear it was assumed that most of the water soluble material had been removed. The filtrates from the four extractions were combined and evaporated down to about 2 liters in a constant temperature dryer held at 40-45 °C. The concentrated filtrate was then mixed with the sawdust portion of the ration and the drying process completed. The water-extracted portion was also used in other experimental rations. Sawdust was used in those rations which did not contain some form of oat hull fiber in order to maintain a uniform level of fiber in all the rations. Twenty-two lots of Barred Plymouth Rock and 16 lots of New Hampshire chicks were used in a series of four experiments. The lots consisted of 16-20 chicks each. The chicks were weighed at bi-weekly intervals, and beginning with the fourth week the chicks were scored each week for degree of feather development as explained by Thompson (1940). Plate 1 illustrates this system of scoring. The final recorded feather scores and body weights for each experiment were analyzed for variance and covariance according to the method of Snedecor (1940). The age at which these final recordings were made depended upon the rate of feather development of the most rapidly feathering lots. As soon as about 50 percent of the females in these lots had attained a score of " 1 " the experiment was terminated. This stage was reached by the New Hampshires at approximately 6 weeks of age and by the
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ion as to the relationship between body weight and feathering. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) found that within each sex the chicks which feathered the most rapidly were also the largest chicks. A correlation coefficient of +0.8120 ±0.0109 between body weight and feathering at eight weeks of age was reported by Gericke and Piatt (1932). On the other hand, Jaap and Morris (1937) obtained a correlation coefficient of only 0.23 between eight-week weight and feathering. This low correlation was substantiated by the work of Radi and Warren (1938).
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH
543
TABLE 1.—Composition and calculated analyses'of the experimentafyations Ration no. Ingredients 1
Total Calculated Analyses^ Crude protein Calcium Phosphorus Crude fiber
62.0
3
4
5
35.0 25.0
35.0
35.0
62.0
6 35.0
7 40.0
8 40.0
25.0 25.0 25.0% 25.0% 25.0 8.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
18.88 1.06 0.75 8.38
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
5.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
25.0 5.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
100.0* 100.0* 100.0
100.0
8.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
18.89 1.06 0.75 8.38
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.37 1.07 0.98 7.88
19.37 1.07 0.98 7.88
* Approximately 100.0 lbs. t The calculations were based on figures from Morrison (1936), and average composition values were used.
Barred Rocks at 8-10 weeks. No detailed records with respect to feather quality of the individual chicks were kept, except in a few outstanding cases. Rather, the lots as a whole were compared with one another, and observations on plumage pattern and feather structure were recorded at the time of the final weighing. Feather quality studies were limited to the Barred Rocks. RESULTS Throughout this investigation, attention was focused chiefly on rate of feather development. Therefore, the results of the individual feather score observations together with the individual body weights were subjected to detailed study. Tables 2 and 3 deal only with mean weights and feather scores, since detailed tables or charts of individual lots would be too lengthy to include in this paper. In view of the decided breed differences in rate of
feathering, these figures are presented in two separate tables. The data for the Barred Rocks are shown in Table 2 and those for the New Hampshires in Table 3. It will be noticed in Table 2 that the chicks in experiment 3 were scored and weighed at 8 instead of 10 weeks of age. This is due to the much faster rate of growth and feather development exhibited by these chicks. The lots receiving untreated oat hulls, or untreated wheat bran,"appeared to be the fastest feathering groups, followed closely by the lots receiving heated oat hulls and those receiving the water extract of oat hulls. The oat groats and sawdust lots and the water-extracted oat hulls lots were, in most instances, the slowest feathering. As may be seen in Tables 2 and 3, this was not always true, but, in general, they appeared to follow the above order. It was observed that the most rapidly feathering chicks were usually the heaviest in body weights; therefore an analysis of
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Oat groats, ground Untreated oat hulls Autoclaved oat hulls Heated oat hulls Water extract of oat hulls, equiv. to Water extracted oat hulls, equiv. to Autoclaved wheat bran Untreated wheat bran Sawdust Dried skimmilk Dried whey NaCl Steamed bone meal Oyster shell, ground Cod liver oil, 85 units
2
544
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE TABLE 2
—Final mean weights and feather scores of Barred Plymouth Rock pullets and cockerels
&
Lot no.
1 2 3
16 21 31
Oat groats+sawdust
1 2 3 3
18 22 32 38
1 2
Supplement
Age
9 Mean weight
Mean score
8 5 6
grams 490 535 494
2.9 2.5 1.9
7 4 7
3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3
3 3 8 9
668 533 520 428
2.2 2.3 2.2 2.3
4 3 5 10
497 640
3.4 3.0
5 5
543 673
2.2 1.5
6 6
10 8 8
625 551 456
2.0 3.5 3.1
4 8 10
633 571 516
1.5 1.6 2.0
4 7 • 10
Water extracted oat hulls
10 8 8
530 479 508
3.3 3.9 2.9
7 8 8
615 492 511
2.2 2.7 2.1
5 9 8
17 26 37
Untreated oat hulls
10 10 8
579 538 441
2.9 3.2 3.7
8 8 7
474 605 435
2.4 1.3 2.8
7 6 6
3 3
35 41
Autoclaved wheat bran
8 8
450 507
3.9 2.8
8 9
447 ,500
2.7 1.4
9 8
3 3
36 42
Untreated wheat bran
8 8
510 574
2.9 2.5
9 8
536 486
1.4 1.4
9 9
Mean weight
Mean score
weeks 10 10 8
grams 515 644 597
3.0 2.8 3.5
Autoclaved oat hulls
10 10 8 8
637 507 464 463
19 23
Heated oat hulls
10 10
2 3 3
24 33 39
Water extract of oat hulls
2 3 3
25 34 40
1 2 3
/
variance was made on both the body weights and the feather scores of all the chicks. They were separated according to breed, sex, ration, and experiment and separate tests were made on each. The analysis showed a significant difference only among the feather scores of the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1 and the Barred Rock pullets of experiment 3. In the former this difference favored the oat hull rations. The untreated and the heated oat hulls resulted in the most rapid feathering, while the best growth occurred in the lot receiving the autoclaved oat hulls. The differences in body weights in experiment 1 were not found to be significant, however, even though a slight negative correlation was found to exist between body weight and rate of feathering. The result of this type of
No. of birds
No. of birds
correlation was to make the feather score differences almost highly significant when adjusted to the same body weight and tested for covariance. The analysis of variance indicated a highly significant difference in body weights among the pullets of experiment 3 as well as a significant difference in the feather scores. The body weights were positively correlated with rate of feathering. In spite of this positive correlation, an analysis of covariance showed a significant difference in feather scores when adjusted to the same body weight. A test of individual values was employed to determine the origin of this difference. It was found to lie in the abnormally high feather score, or low degree of feathering, of one of the lots receiving the water extracted oat hulls when
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Exp. no.
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH
545
TABLE 3.—Final mean weights and feather scores of New Hampshire pullets and cockerels (six weeks of age)
Lot no.
1 2 4
11 27 43
1 2 4
& Supplement
9
Mean weight
Mean score
No. of birds
Mean weight
Mean score
Oat groats+sawdust
grams 334 343 289
3.0 2.6 2.5
10 7 8
grams 319 270 231
2.3 2.0 2.4
9 4 8
13 28 44
Autoclaved oat hulls
357 316 290
2.7 2.5 2.3
10 8 9
353 316 283
2.01.6 1.7
8 7 9
1 2 4
14 29 47
Heated oat hulls
320 340 302
2.6 2.1 2.8
10 9 11
311 339 301
1.7 1.1 1.9
10 7 7
2 4
30 45
Water extracted oat hulls
373 310
1.5 2.7
8 10
340 290
1.7 2.0
7 8
4
46
Water extract of oat hulls
268
3.2
9
275
2.2
11
1 4
12 SO
Untreated oat hulls
354 330
2.4 2.3
9 9
331 239
1.7 1.9
9 9
4
48
Autoclaved wheat bran
288
2.3
8
262
1.6
9
4
49
Untreated wheat bran
393
1.8
9
301
1.5
9
compared to the very low feather score of the untreated wheat bran lots, which was peculiar to this experiment alone. A summary of the observations made on feather quality in the Barred Rock chicks shows that the oat groats and sawdust ration invariably resulted in faulty pattern and structure of the feathers. The color was usually a light gray but varied somewhat to a darker shade in a few instances. The barring was almost always indistinct and in about 50 percent of the chicks the feathers of the thigh and dorsal wing regions were silky or downy in structure. Extreme cases gave the appearance of having long hairs in place of normal feathers in these regions. In contrast to this the lots receiving untreated oat hulls or untreated wheat bran exhibited plumage of normal color and structure in all but a very few instances. The same was true for the lots receiving the heated oat hulls. The autoclaved oat hulls and the auto-
No. of birds
claved wheat bran gave somewhat comparable results. In both cases the feather structure was nearly normal, but in neither case was the pattern normal. This was especially pronounced on the outer wing parts where the color ranged from very light to solid black. This solid black wing occurred most often in the autoclaved wheat bran lots, the predominating characteristic of the autoclaved oat hull lots being lighter wing tips. The plumage pattern over the entire body, however, was distinctly better than in the oat groats lots. The lots receiving the water extract of oat hulls and sawdust showed a considerable number of plumage abnormalities in every trial. About one-fourth of the chicks were recorded as having the silky or hairy type of feathering that was described for the oat groats lots. These groups were also characterized by abnormal feather patterns. In many cases the barring was indistinct, the color being predominantly light gray;
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Exp. no.
546
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE
DISCUSSION
It has been shown that significant differences were found in.the rate of feathering only in the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1 and the Barred Rock pullets of experiment 3. In both cases, however, the relationship of the differences reported was found to be peculiar to the experiment under consideration. In none of the other trials, nor in the cockerels of experiments 1 and 3, could any significant differences be found in rate of feathering. Furthermore, the final body weights were positively correlated with rate of feathering in every case except in the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1. From these results it appears logical to conclude that any increase in rate of feathering caused by feeding oat hulls or wheat bran is primarily the result of an improved general development. This is in agreement with the conclusions of Wilcke and Hammond (1940) and Thompson (1940). The results obtained with respect to feather quality present quite a different picture. It is apparent from the high percentage of plumage abnormalities resulting from the oat groats ration that such a ration is deficient in some factor or group of factors necessary to produce normal feather structure and pigmentation. On the other hand, the excellent feather quality obtained when the oat groats basal was supplemented with untreated oat hulls or
wheat bran offers quite conclusive evidence that these feeds contain the substance that was lacking in the oat groats ration. The heated oat hulls gave results which were comparable to the untreated product. The small percentage of plumage defects in these lots was not considered to be abnormal. Duplicate lots receiving the autoclaved products varied somewhat in their response; however, the incidence of plumage defects was considerably greater than in the lots receiving untreated oat hulls or wheat bran. Inasmuch as these defects were confined almost entirely to pigmentation and very little to structure, the possibility is suggested that different substances are responsible for these two manifestations of feather quality. Poley (1938) found this to be the case. The results of feeding the autoclaved products indicate that a substance necessary for normal pigmentation of feathers is destroyed, but that the autoclaving process does not interfere with a substance for normal structure. The variability of results occurring in the lots receiving the water extract of oat hulls and the extracted portion renders it difficult to draw any definite conclusions regarding these fractions of the oat hull. However, the extracted portion resulted in fewer plumage defects, on the whole, than the water extract. That is, in those lots which were fed the water extract of oat hulls, there was a higher incidence of such feather abnormalities as silky feathers, abnormal barring, or nondescript color, and poor feather structure in general. The factors that affect structure and pigmentation, then, are apparently not water soluble, although further evidence will be needed to establish this point definitely. SUMMARY A series of four experiments was conducted to determine the influence of oat
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however, the percentage of plumage abnormalities appeared to be less than SO percent. The water-extracted oat hulls resulted in only slight variations in shade which could hardly be classed as abnormal. No significance was attached to the fact that most of the chicks in all lots were somewhat ragged in appearance, inasmuch as they, were slightly crowded in the batteries.
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH REFERENCES
Bearse, G. E., V. L. Miller, and C. F. McClary, 1940. The cannibalism preventing properties of the fiber fraction of oat hulls. Poultry Sci. 19:210-215. Branion, H. D., 1934. The role of cereal grains in avian nutrition. Atti. V Congresso Mondiale di Pollicoltura, 1933. 2 :57S-580. Gericke, A. M. M., and C. S. Piatt, 1932. Feather development in Barred Plymouth Rock chicks. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 543. Hegsted, D. M., G M. Briggs, C. A. Elvehjem, and E. B. Hart, 1941. The role of arginine and glycine in chick nutrition. Jour. Biol. Chem. 140:191-200. Jaap, R. G., and L. Morris, 1937. Genetical differences in eight-week weight and feathering. Poultry Sci. 16 :44-48. Kennard, D. C , and V. D. Chamberlin, 1936. Oats for chickens. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bimo. Bui. 181:95-98. Miller, M. W., and G. E. Bearse, 1937. The cannibalism preventing properties of oats. Poultry Sci. 16:314-321. Miller, M. W., and G. E. Bearse, 1938. The cannibalism preventing properties of oats hulls. Poultry Sci! 17:466-471. Mussehl, F . E., C. W. Ackerson, and M. J. Blish, 1940. The influence of whole wheat, bran, and shorts on body weight and feather growth in chicks. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 119. Poley, W. E., 1938. The utilization of wheat and wheat by-products in feeding young chickens. IV. Ground wheat as a source of vitamin G growth factor. Unknown factors which affect plumage color and structure. Poultry Sci. 17: 390-398. Radi, M. H., and D. C. Warren, 1938. Studies on the physiology and inheritance of feathering in the growing chick. Jour. Agr Res. 56:679706. Snedecor, G. W., 1940. Statistical methods. Ed. 3. Collegiate Press, Inc. Ames, Iowa. Thompson, J. N., 1940. Gizzard erosion and feathering in chicks as influenced by the diet. Unpublished doctor's thesis. Iowa State College. Wilcke, H. L., 1936. The influence of single grains on slipped tendons. Poultry Sci. 15: 264-269: Wilcke, H. L., and J. C. Hammond, 1940. Feathering, growth, feed consumption, and rachitogenesis in chicks as influenced by the kind of grain in the diet. Jour. Agr. Res. 61:369-380.
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hulls and wheat bran on feather growth and to attempt to isolate a factor, or group of factors, affecting feather development if any were found in these feedstuffs. A basal ration composed of oat groats, dried skimmilk, dried whey, minerals, and cod liver oil was supplemented with oat hulls and wheat bran. that had been subjected to various treatments and with the untreated products. In a few of the trials the addition of oat hulls or wheat bran in any form to the oat groats basal ration accelerated the rate of feathering but growth was also improved by the addition of these substances. In the study of feather quality it was found that the oat groats ration was lacking in some factor or factors necessary to produce normal pigmentation and structure of the feathers. The addition of untreated oat hulls or wheat bran to the basal ration resulted in normal plumage pattern and color and normal feather structure. This applied also to the oat hulls which had been heated at 100°C. for 24 hours, and to a lesser extent to the water extracted oat hulls. When the oat groats basal ration was supplemented with autoclaved oat hulls or wheat bran the feathers appeared to be normal in structure but decidedly abnormal in pigmentation and pattern. Thus evidence was presented which indicated that separate factors are involved in normal feather structure and normal pigmentation in the Barred Plymouth Rock chick, and only the factor, or factors, necessary for normal pigmentation was destroyed by the autoclaving process. The water extract of oat hulls resulted in only slightly fewer plumage abnormalities than the oat groats ration. These results indicate that the factors necessary for normal feather quality are not removed from the oat hulls by successive extractions with water.
547
Poultry Husbandry Subsection, Agricultural Experiment Station (Received for publication April 13, 1942)
'Formerly Quaker Oats Fellow in the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station; now serving in the U. S. Army. Journal paper No. J-1002 of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 513.
and barley groups. Wilcke (1936) found that 72 parts of ground whole oats in the ration resulted in normal growth, excellent feathering, and no bone abnormalities. Poley (1938) reported a high percentage of plumage abnormalities when the chicks were fed rations containing ground wheat and ground yellow or white corn. The abnormalities in structure were reduced appreciably by the addition of 15 percent of bran, 15 percent each of bran and middlings, or 5 percent of dried skimmilk, but these substances were ineffective against the abnormalities in pigmentation. Three percent of certain samples of alfalfa leaf meal was effective in producing normal feathers with regard to both structure and color. Evidence has been presented by Mussehl, Ackerson, and Blish (1940) to show that some factor essential to normal feather growth was destroyed when the grain portion of the ration was autoclaved. When such a ration was supplemented with wheat bran the rate of feathering was decidedly better than when the same ration was supplemented with ground wheat or shorts. Miller and Bearse (1937, 1938) found that both oats and oat hulls were effective in preventing cannibalism (as measured by feather picking) and in improving the quality of feathering of White Leghorn pullets. The same property was found to be present in the oat hull fiber which was obtained by dilute acid digestion (Bearse, Miller, and McClary, 1940). Likewise, Kennard and Chamberlin (1936) concluded that the feeding of whole oats, free choice, largely pre-
[S40]
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Karolinska Institutet University Library on May 31, 2015
ACK of proper feather development is J of considerable economic importance, particularly in the broiler industry where the occurrence of "barebacks" presents a serious problem. This is a condition in which the birds fail to feather properly over the dorsal region, and it is highly undesirable from a market standpoint. Improper growth of feathers manifests itself in several ways other than the "bareback" condition. Faulty structure of the feather itself and abnormal plumage patterns are among the most obvious, and these conditions result in an unthrifty appearance of the poultry flock. That many factors are involved in normal feather development is evidenced by the large variety of reports dealing with feather studies. However, most of the earlier investigations were confined to studies of genetic and hormonal influences. Several investigators have reported that cereal grains differ markedly with regard to their influence upon growth and feather development. Branion (1934), Wilcke (1936), and Wilcke and Hammond (1940) observed a poor quality of feathering in groups of chicks receiving a high level of corn in their ration. Branion (1934) stated that feathering in general was retarded in the corn-fed lots, although these chicks were superior in growth to the wheat, oat groats,
1
G FEATHER GROWTH
vented the trouble previously experienced with feather picking and cannibalism. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) and Thompson (1940) presented evidence to show that some substance or group of substances was present in'oats which exerted a beneficial
effect on growth and on the quality of feathering; however, Thompson concluded that the action of oat hulls and wheat bran in improving the rate of feathering was simply a result of better growth. Radi and Warren (1938) studied numerous factors affecting the rate of feathering. They concluded that the level of vitamin A or G was of questionable significance as was the level of protein. The choice of grains produced a slight difference in favor of oats, but this difference was not significant . It has been reported recently by Hegsted, Briggs, Elvehjem, and Hart (1941) that a diet deficient in glycine and arginine results in very poor feather structure. This was more pronounced in the rapidly feathering White Leghorns than in the slower feathering Barred Plymouth Rock chicks. There is a considerable difference of opin-
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PLATE 1. Degrees of feather development.
541
542
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The purpose of this investigation has been to determine whether or not the effect of wheat bran and oat hulls in accelerating the rate of feather growth is simply a result of an improved general growth. At the same time it was proposed to isolate as nearly as possible the factor or group of factors in oat hulls and wheat bran which might be responsible for the alleged improvement in feather growth. To accomplish this, oat hulls and wheat bran were subjected to various treatments and fed to similar lots of chicks in addition to a basal ration containing oat groats as the sole cereal grain. The supplements used are shown in Table 1 together with the completed rations and calculated analyses. The oat hulls were finely ground to avoid the danger of impaction. The autoclaved oat hulls and wheat bran were treated in 2 5 pound lots which were placed in shallow metal pans and autoclaved for two hours at IS pounds of pressure. The heated oat hulls were subjected to a temperature of 100°C. for 24 hours at atmospheric pressure. The following procedure was adopted for making water extractions of the oat hulls: The oat hulls were mixed with sufficient water to make a thin slop and allowed to
stand for 12 hours at room temperature. The mixture was then filtered through a Buchner funnel by means of suction, and the filtrate was refiltered. The flour-like residue which remained with the first filtrate provided an excellent filtering medium for the second filtration. The entire process was performed four times with each sample of oat hulls. Since the fourth extraction was almost water clear it was assumed that most of the water soluble material had been removed. The filtrates from the four extractions were combined and evaporated down to about 2 liters in a constant temperature dryer held at 40-45 °C. The concentrated filtrate was then mixed with the sawdust portion of the ration and the drying process completed. The water-extracted portion was also used in other experimental rations. Sawdust was used in those rations which did not contain some form of oat hull fiber in order to maintain a uniform level of fiber in all the rations. Twenty-two lots of Barred Plymouth Rock and 16 lots of New Hampshire chicks were used in a series of four experiments. The lots consisted of 16-20 chicks each. The chicks were weighed at bi-weekly intervals, and beginning with the fourth week the chicks were scored each week for degree of feather development as explained by Thompson (1940). Plate 1 illustrates this system of scoring. The final recorded feather scores and body weights for each experiment were analyzed for variance and covariance according to the method of Snedecor (1940). The age at which these final recordings were made depended upon the rate of feather development of the most rapidly feathering lots. As soon as about 50 percent of the females in these lots had attained a score of " 1 " the experiment was terminated. This stage was reached by the New Hampshires at approximately 6 weeks of age and by the
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ion as to the relationship between body weight and feathering. Wilcke and Hammond (1940) found that within each sex the chicks which feathered the most rapidly were also the largest chicks. A correlation coefficient of +0.8120 ±0.0109 between body weight and feathering at eight weeks of age was reported by Gericke and Piatt (1932). On the other hand, Jaap and Morris (1937) obtained a correlation coefficient of only 0.23 between eight-week weight and feathering. This low correlation was substantiated by the work of Radi and Warren (1938).
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH
543
TABLE 1.—Composition and calculated analyses'of the experimentafyations Ration no. Ingredients 1
Total Calculated Analyses^ Crude protein Calcium Phosphorus Crude fiber
62.0
3
4
5
35.0 25.0
35.0
35.0
62.0
6 35.0
7 40.0
8 40.0
25.0 25.0 25.0% 25.0% 25.0 8.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
18.88 1.06 0.75 8.38
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
5.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
25.0 5.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
100.0* 100.0* 100.0
100.0
8.0 25.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
18.89 1.06 0.75 8.38
35.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0
19.03 1.21 0.75 8.32
19.37 1.07 0.98 7.88
19.37 1.07 0.98 7.88
* Approximately 100.0 lbs. t The calculations were based on figures from Morrison (1936), and average composition values were used.
Barred Rocks at 8-10 weeks. No detailed records with respect to feather quality of the individual chicks were kept, except in a few outstanding cases. Rather, the lots as a whole were compared with one another, and observations on plumage pattern and feather structure were recorded at the time of the final weighing. Feather quality studies were limited to the Barred Rocks. RESULTS Throughout this investigation, attention was focused chiefly on rate of feather development. Therefore, the results of the individual feather score observations together with the individual body weights were subjected to detailed study. Tables 2 and 3 deal only with mean weights and feather scores, since detailed tables or charts of individual lots would be too lengthy to include in this paper. In view of the decided breed differences in rate of
feathering, these figures are presented in two separate tables. The data for the Barred Rocks are shown in Table 2 and those for the New Hampshires in Table 3. It will be noticed in Table 2 that the chicks in experiment 3 were scored and weighed at 8 instead of 10 weeks of age. This is due to the much faster rate of growth and feather development exhibited by these chicks. The lots receiving untreated oat hulls, or untreated wheat bran,"appeared to be the fastest feathering groups, followed closely by the lots receiving heated oat hulls and those receiving the water extract of oat hulls. The oat groats and sawdust lots and the water-extracted oat hulls lots were, in most instances, the slowest feathering. As may be seen in Tables 2 and 3, this was not always true, but, in general, they appeared to follow the above order. It was observed that the most rapidly feathering chicks were usually the heaviest in body weights; therefore an analysis of
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Oat groats, ground Untreated oat hulls Autoclaved oat hulls Heated oat hulls Water extract of oat hulls, equiv. to Water extracted oat hulls, equiv. to Autoclaved wheat bran Untreated wheat bran Sawdust Dried skimmilk Dried whey NaCl Steamed bone meal Oyster shell, ground Cod liver oil, 85 units
2
544
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE TABLE 2
—Final mean weights and feather scores of Barred Plymouth Rock pullets and cockerels
&
Lot no.
1 2 3
16 21 31
Oat groats+sawdust
1 2 3 3
18 22 32 38
1 2
Supplement
Age
9 Mean weight
Mean score
8 5 6
grams 490 535 494
2.9 2.5 1.9
7 4 7
3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3
3 3 8 9
668 533 520 428
2.2 2.3 2.2 2.3
4 3 5 10
497 640
3.4 3.0
5 5
543 673
2.2 1.5
6 6
10 8 8
625 551 456
2.0 3.5 3.1
4 8 10
633 571 516
1.5 1.6 2.0
4 7 • 10
Water extracted oat hulls
10 8 8
530 479 508
3.3 3.9 2.9
7 8 8
615 492 511
2.2 2.7 2.1
5 9 8
17 26 37
Untreated oat hulls
10 10 8
579 538 441
2.9 3.2 3.7
8 8 7
474 605 435
2.4 1.3 2.8
7 6 6
3 3
35 41
Autoclaved wheat bran
8 8
450 507
3.9 2.8
8 9
447 ,500
2.7 1.4
9 8
3 3
36 42
Untreated wheat bran
8 8
510 574
2.9 2.5
9 8
536 486
1.4 1.4
9 9
Mean weight
Mean score
weeks 10 10 8
grams 515 644 597
3.0 2.8 3.5
Autoclaved oat hulls
10 10 8 8
637 507 464 463
19 23
Heated oat hulls
10 10
2 3 3
24 33 39
Water extract of oat hulls
2 3 3
25 34 40
1 2 3
/
variance was made on both the body weights and the feather scores of all the chicks. They were separated according to breed, sex, ration, and experiment and separate tests were made on each. The analysis showed a significant difference only among the feather scores of the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1 and the Barred Rock pullets of experiment 3. In the former this difference favored the oat hull rations. The untreated and the heated oat hulls resulted in the most rapid feathering, while the best growth occurred in the lot receiving the autoclaved oat hulls. The differences in body weights in experiment 1 were not found to be significant, however, even though a slight negative correlation was found to exist between body weight and rate of feathering. The result of this type of
No. of birds
No. of birds
correlation was to make the feather score differences almost highly significant when adjusted to the same body weight and tested for covariance. The analysis of variance indicated a highly significant difference in body weights among the pullets of experiment 3 as well as a significant difference in the feather scores. The body weights were positively correlated with rate of feathering. In spite of this positive correlation, an analysis of covariance showed a significant difference in feather scores when adjusted to the same body weight. A test of individual values was employed to determine the origin of this difference. It was found to lie in the abnormally high feather score, or low degree of feathering, of one of the lots receiving the water extracted oat hulls when
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Exp. no.
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH
545
TABLE 3.—Final mean weights and feather scores of New Hampshire pullets and cockerels (six weeks of age)
Lot no.
1 2 4
11 27 43
1 2 4
& Supplement
9
Mean weight
Mean score
No. of birds
Mean weight
Mean score
Oat groats+sawdust
grams 334 343 289
3.0 2.6 2.5
10 7 8
grams 319 270 231
2.3 2.0 2.4
9 4 8
13 28 44
Autoclaved oat hulls
357 316 290
2.7 2.5 2.3
10 8 9
353 316 283
2.01.6 1.7
8 7 9
1 2 4
14 29 47
Heated oat hulls
320 340 302
2.6 2.1 2.8
10 9 11
311 339 301
1.7 1.1 1.9
10 7 7
2 4
30 45
Water extracted oat hulls
373 310
1.5 2.7
8 10
340 290
1.7 2.0
7 8
4
46
Water extract of oat hulls
268
3.2
9
275
2.2
11
1 4
12 SO
Untreated oat hulls
354 330
2.4 2.3
9 9
331 239
1.7 1.9
9 9
4
48
Autoclaved wheat bran
288
2.3
8
262
1.6
9
4
49
Untreated wheat bran
393
1.8
9
301
1.5
9
compared to the very low feather score of the untreated wheat bran lots, which was peculiar to this experiment alone. A summary of the observations made on feather quality in the Barred Rock chicks shows that the oat groats and sawdust ration invariably resulted in faulty pattern and structure of the feathers. The color was usually a light gray but varied somewhat to a darker shade in a few instances. The barring was almost always indistinct and in about 50 percent of the chicks the feathers of the thigh and dorsal wing regions were silky or downy in structure. Extreme cases gave the appearance of having long hairs in place of normal feathers in these regions. In contrast to this the lots receiving untreated oat hulls or untreated wheat bran exhibited plumage of normal color and structure in all but a very few instances. The same was true for the lots receiving the heated oat hulls. The autoclaved oat hulls and the auto-
No. of birds
claved wheat bran gave somewhat comparable results. In both cases the feather structure was nearly normal, but in neither case was the pattern normal. This was especially pronounced on the outer wing parts where the color ranged from very light to solid black. This solid black wing occurred most often in the autoclaved wheat bran lots, the predominating characteristic of the autoclaved oat hull lots being lighter wing tips. The plumage pattern over the entire body, however, was distinctly better than in the oat groats lots. The lots receiving the water extract of oat hulls and sawdust showed a considerable number of plumage abnormalities in every trial. About one-fourth of the chicks were recorded as having the silky or hairy type of feathering that was described for the oat groats lots. These groups were also characterized by abnormal feather patterns. In many cases the barring was indistinct, the color being predominantly light gray;
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Exp. no.
546
H. L. FULLER AND H. L. WILCKE
DISCUSSION
It has been shown that significant differences were found in.the rate of feathering only in the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1 and the Barred Rock pullets of experiment 3. In both cases, however, the relationship of the differences reported was found to be peculiar to the experiment under consideration. In none of the other trials, nor in the cockerels of experiments 1 and 3, could any significant differences be found in rate of feathering. Furthermore, the final body weights were positively correlated with rate of feathering in every case except in the New Hampshire pullets of experiment 1. From these results it appears logical to conclude that any increase in rate of feathering caused by feeding oat hulls or wheat bran is primarily the result of an improved general development. This is in agreement with the conclusions of Wilcke and Hammond (1940) and Thompson (1940). The results obtained with respect to feather quality present quite a different picture. It is apparent from the high percentage of plumage abnormalities resulting from the oat groats ration that such a ration is deficient in some factor or group of factors necessary to produce normal feather structure and pigmentation. On the other hand, the excellent feather quality obtained when the oat groats basal was supplemented with untreated oat hulls or
wheat bran offers quite conclusive evidence that these feeds contain the substance that was lacking in the oat groats ration. The heated oat hulls gave results which were comparable to the untreated product. The small percentage of plumage defects in these lots was not considered to be abnormal. Duplicate lots receiving the autoclaved products varied somewhat in their response; however, the incidence of plumage defects was considerably greater than in the lots receiving untreated oat hulls or wheat bran. Inasmuch as these defects were confined almost entirely to pigmentation and very little to structure, the possibility is suggested that different substances are responsible for these two manifestations of feather quality. Poley (1938) found this to be the case. The results of feeding the autoclaved products indicate that a substance necessary for normal pigmentation of feathers is destroyed, but that the autoclaving process does not interfere with a substance for normal structure. The variability of results occurring in the lots receiving the water extract of oat hulls and the extracted portion renders it difficult to draw any definite conclusions regarding these fractions of the oat hull. However, the extracted portion resulted in fewer plumage defects, on the whole, than the water extract. That is, in those lots which were fed the water extract of oat hulls, there was a higher incidence of such feather abnormalities as silky feathers, abnormal barring, or nondescript color, and poor feather structure in general. The factors that affect structure and pigmentation, then, are apparently not water soluble, although further evidence will be needed to establish this point definitely. SUMMARY A series of four experiments was conducted to determine the influence of oat
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however, the percentage of plumage abnormalities appeared to be less than SO percent. The water-extracted oat hulls resulted in only slight variations in shade which could hardly be classed as abnormal. No significance was attached to the fact that most of the chicks in all lots were somewhat ragged in appearance, inasmuch as they, were slightly crowded in the batteries.
DIETARY FACTORS AFFECTING FEATHER GROWTH REFERENCES
Bearse, G. E., V. L. Miller, and C. F. McClary, 1940. The cannibalism preventing properties of the fiber fraction of oat hulls. Poultry Sci. 19:210-215. Branion, H. D., 1934. The role of cereal grains in avian nutrition. Atti. V Congresso Mondiale di Pollicoltura, 1933. 2 :57S-580. Gericke, A. M. M., and C. S. Piatt, 1932. Feather development in Barred Plymouth Rock chicks. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 543. Hegsted, D. M., G M. Briggs, C. A. Elvehjem, and E. B. Hart, 1941. The role of arginine and glycine in chick nutrition. Jour. Biol. Chem. 140:191-200. Jaap, R. G., and L. Morris, 1937. Genetical differences in eight-week weight and feathering. Poultry Sci. 16 :44-48. Kennard, D. C , and V. D. Chamberlin, 1936. Oats for chickens. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bimo. Bui. 181:95-98. Miller, M. W., and G. E. Bearse, 1937. The cannibalism preventing properties of oats. Poultry Sci. 16:314-321. Miller, M. W., and G. E. Bearse, 1938. The cannibalism preventing properties of oats hulls. Poultry Sci! 17:466-471. Mussehl, F . E., C. W. Ackerson, and M. J. Blish, 1940. The influence of whole wheat, bran, and shorts on body weight and feather growth in chicks. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 119. Poley, W. E., 1938. The utilization of wheat and wheat by-products in feeding young chickens. IV. Ground wheat as a source of vitamin G growth factor. Unknown factors which affect plumage color and structure. Poultry Sci. 17: 390-398. Radi, M. H., and D. C. Warren, 1938. Studies on the physiology and inheritance of feathering in the growing chick. Jour. Agr Res. 56:679706. Snedecor, G. W., 1940. Statistical methods. Ed. 3. Collegiate Press, Inc. Ames, Iowa. Thompson, J. N., 1940. Gizzard erosion and feathering in chicks as influenced by the diet. Unpublished doctor's thesis. Iowa State College. Wilcke, H. L., 1936. The influence of single grains on slipped tendons. Poultry Sci. 15: 264-269: Wilcke, H. L., and J. C. Hammond, 1940. Feathering, growth, feed consumption, and rachitogenesis in chicks as influenced by the kind of grain in the diet. Jour. Agr. Res. 61:369-380.
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hulls and wheat bran on feather growth and to attempt to isolate a factor, or group of factors, affecting feather development if any were found in these feedstuffs. A basal ration composed of oat groats, dried skimmilk, dried whey, minerals, and cod liver oil was supplemented with oat hulls and wheat bran. that had been subjected to various treatments and with the untreated products. In a few of the trials the addition of oat hulls or wheat bran in any form to the oat groats basal ration accelerated the rate of feathering but growth was also improved by the addition of these substances. In the study of feather quality it was found that the oat groats ration was lacking in some factor or factors necessary to produce normal pigmentation and structure of the feathers. The addition of untreated oat hulls or wheat bran to the basal ration resulted in normal plumage pattern and color and normal feather structure. This applied also to the oat hulls which had been heated at 100°C. for 24 hours, and to a lesser extent to the water extracted oat hulls. When the oat groats basal ration was supplemented with autoclaved oat hulls or wheat bran the feathers appeared to be normal in structure but decidedly abnormal in pigmentation and pattern. Thus evidence was presented which indicated that separate factors are involved in normal feather structure and normal pigmentation in the Barred Plymouth Rock chick, and only the factor, or factors, necessary for normal pigmentation was destroyed by the autoclaving process. The water extract of oat hulls resulted in only slightly fewer plumage abnormalities than the oat groats ration. These results indicate that the factors necessary for normal feather quality are not removed from the oat hulls by successive extractions with water.
547