- Email: [email protected]
Digit ratios and preferences for aggressive content in entertainment
Personality and Individual Differences 51 (2011) 451–453
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
Digit ratios and preferences for aggressive content in entertainment HaengRyang Huh ⇑ Department of Communication Arts, Sejong University, Chiphyun Bldg. 513, 98 Kunja-Dong, Kwangjin-Ku, Seoul, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 14 December 2010 Received in revised form 9 April 2011 Accepted 13 April 2011 Available online 14 May 2011 Keywords: Digit ratio (2D:4D) Aggressive contents Media violence Video games Movies Sports Music Erotic video clips
a b s t r a c t Digit ratios (2D:4D) contain information concerning an individual’s propensity towards aggression. Our study adds the first clue to better understanding the relationship between 2D:4D and exposure to aggressive contents in entertainment products. Our findings suggest that individuals with low 2D:4D prefer aggressive contents such as action films, sports telecast, killing and achieving games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips rather than do individuals with high 2D:4D. Also individuals with low 2D:4D tend to demonstrate less preference for romance films than individuals with high 2D:4D. In addition, we found that low 2D:4D was associated with a preference for sports instead of other genres of entertainment products. Therefore, 2D:4D (a putative correlate of prenatal sex steroids) helps us to better understand the rationale of individuals’ preferences for media violence. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Research has shown a significant association between the amount of time spent watching television violence and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive acts against others (Johnson, Cohen, Smailes, Kasen, & Brook, 2002). Previous studies have suggested that personality traits and socioeconomic factors are associated with exposure to media violence (Aluja-Fabregat & Torrubia-Beltri, 1998; Greene & Krcmar, 2005; Huesmann, 1986). On the other hand, individuals also have different digit ratios (2D:4D) and differing preferences for aggressive behaviors and media violence. Increasing evidence has indicated that digit ratios may be correlated with exposure to media violence, which can be interpreted as a manifestation of the tendency to use media to satisfy sensation-seeking urges. Thus far, no study has explored the link between digit ratios and preferences for aggression in media entertainment. Manning, Scutt, Wilson, and Lewis-Jones (1998) suggested that the relative lengths of the second and fourth fingers (2D:4D ratio) was a negative correlate of prenatal testosterone. The evidence for this hypothesis has subsequently been reviewed by Manning (2002, 2008), and recently Breedlove (2010). The significant sex differences in 2D:4D support the role of sex hormones in the development of digit lengths (Putz, Gaulin, Sporter, & McBurney, 2004). Previous studies have found evidence of a significant but weak negative correlation between 2D:4D and aggression in males, but ⇑ Tel.: +82 2 3408 3707; fax: +82 2 3408 4307. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] 0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.012
not in females (Bailey & Hurd, 2005; Honekopp & Watson, in press; Kuepper & Hennig, 2007). Indeed, digit ratios offer a valid test of the organizational hypothesis that androgens act early in life to masculinize various human behaviors (Breedlove, 2010). Previous research investigating the relationships between digit ratios (2D:4D) and the propensity of individuals to engage in risky and aggressive behavior has revealed associations between digit ratios and sports performance (Manning, 2008; Tester & Campbell, 2007), personality traits (Fink, Manning, & Neave, 2004; Lindova, Hruskova, Pivonkova, Kubena, & Flegr, 2008), aggression (Honekopp & Watson, in press), and sexual interests (Manning & Fink, 2008). Digit ratios have also been associated with recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors (Stenstrom, Saad, Nepomuceno, & Mendenhall, in press). Thus, digit ratios have been linked to individuals’ risk-taking and aggressive behaviors. Testosterone and aggression are closely related, and evidence has suggested an association between 2D:4D and physical aggression. Furthermore, digit ratios have been shown to mediate the impact of aggressive music videos on aggression (Millet & Dewitte, 2007). Millet and Dewitte (2007) found that there was a negative correlation between 2D:4D and physical aggression scores in response to aggressive music videos in men, but not in women. Moreover, the presence of aggressive environmental cues such as weapons has been shown to increase the accessibility of hostile, aggressive thoughts and to lead to increased aggressive behavior (Bartholow, Anderson, Carnagey, & Benjamin, 2005; Berkowitz & LePage, 1967). Testosterone responds to both virtual and actual reality. There is evidence that exposure to aggressive films and video games
452
H. Huh / Personality and Individual Differences 51 (2011) 451–453
has a specific stimulatory effect on testosterone (Oxford, Ponzi, & Geary, 2010; Schultheiss, Wirth, & Stanton, 2004). Previous studies of the relationship between personality factors and the enjoyment of various types of entertainment products have demonstrated that personality factors are associated with liking and watching certain content (Hall, 2005; Krcmar & Kean, 2005; Shim & Paul, 2007). Furthermore, various personality traits have been found to predict motives behind media use, preferences for particular types of media content, and post-media-exposure behaviors (Weaver, 2003). Studies have shown considerable correspondence between individuals’ predominant personality traits (especially the ‘big five’ factors) and their media preferences (Weaver, 1991). Research has also demonstrated that culture mediates movie preferences (Weaver, Brosius, & Mundorf, 1993). The current paper proposes that digit ratios, which reflect degrees of risk-taking and aggression, tend to guide individuals’ exposure to different types of entertainment products, especially with respect to aggressive content. Indeed, each type of entertainment is characterized by different degrees of aggression and violence. We hypothesized that individuals with lower digit ratios would show a stronger preference for aggressive content in various types of entertainment than would those with higher ratios. The current study explored the relationship between digit ratios and preferences for particular entertainment genres and content. 2. Method 2.1. Participants Two hundred and nine students were recruited from classes in a Korean high school; 21 students failed to complete the questionnaire, resulting in a final sample of 188. All participants were male, aged 16–18 years (mean = 17). The sample was ethnically homogeneous, consisting entirely of Koreans. Ethnic differences in 2D:4D (Manning, 2002) were controlled for in this study because we used an ethnically homogenous sample. Time and financial constraints restricted these students to a relatively narrow variety of entertainment products. These constraints helped us to explore the relationship between digit ratios and individual preferences for aggressive content in media entertainment. 2.2. Procedure and measures The current study hypothesized that individuals with higher levels of testosterone would prefer aggressive over non-aggressive content in entertainment products. First, participants were asked to complete a survey addressing media preferences, demographic characteristics, and other factors to examine their preferences for each type of entertainment (i.e., films, television series, sports telecasts, video games, music, video clips, and newspapers), which they rated on a 7-point scale from strongly dislike to strongly like. We then classified types of media content according to their level of aggression. Movies were classified as either action or romance films. Action films included those featuring physical stunts, extended fights, and high-speed chases, whereas romance films were loosely defined as those in which the central plot revolved around the romantic involvement of the protagonists. We also classified sports into soccer or baseball, as these vary in the degree of physical contact among players; soccer usually involves more and baseball usually involves less physical contact among participants. We also divided video games into four types: killing-oriented, achievement-oriented, exploration-oriented, or socially oriented games (Bartle, 1996). Here, killing- and achievement-oriented games were characterized by a higher degree of aggression, whereas exploration- and socially oriented games were
characterized by a lower degree of aggression. Additionally, we divided music into either hip-hop or ballads because these genres include different degrees of aggressive content (Hansen & Hansen, 1990). The current study also assessed participants’ preferences for video clips, which were categorized as either erotic or educational in content. Items used to investigate participants’ preferences for media included the following questions: ‘‘How much do you like watching action films (e.g., ‘Die Hard’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching romance films (e.g., ‘Love Letter’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching physical contact sports such as soccer?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching baseball?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing video games that involve killing (e.g., ‘Call of Duty’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing achievement-oriented games (e.g., ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing exploration-oriented games (e.g., ‘Race into Space’)?’’; and ‘‘How much do you like playing socially oriented games (e.g., ‘Sims’)?’’ We measured participants’ preferences for a specific type of media content on a 7-point scale from strongly dislike to strongly like. We included the traditional 2D:4D measure as a proxy of prenatal androgen exposure. The current study focused on digit ratios in the right hand because these tend to be more strongly expressive of risk-taking or aggression (Manning, 2002). We scanned participants’ right palms on the glass plate of a scanner and insured that details of the major creases could be seen on the scans. Finger lengths were measured from the ventral proximal crease to the fingertip by means of the Adobe Photoshop measure tool (using Millet and Dewitte (2007) procedure). When a band of creases appeared at the base of the digit, we measured from the most proximal crease (Millet & Dewitte, 2006). To check for reliability, a second independent rater also measured finger lengths. The two measurements of 2D:4D were highly correlated (r2D:4D = 0.98). 3. Results Pearson correlations between digit ratios and participants’ (n = 188) preferences for a variety of entertainment products are summarized in Table 1. Strong digit-ratio effects were found only for sports. More specifically, digit ratios were negatively correlated with preferences for sports (r = 0.221, p < 0.01). Contrary to our expectations, digit-ratio effects were not found for video games and movies, and no significant correlations for the other genres of entertainment products were observed. Our study also divided each genre of entertainment products into subcategories according to degree of aggressive content. Table 2 displays the Pearson correlations between digit ratios and participants’ (n = 188) preferences for aggressive media content, including significance levels. Overall, strong digit-ratio effects were found in our ethnically homogenous male sample. Specifically, 2D:4D was negatively correlated with preferences for action films (r = 0.153, p < 0.05), soccer (r = 0.146, p < 0.05), baseball (r = 0.186, p < 0.05), killing-oriented games (r = 0.166, p < 0.05), achievement-oriented games (r = 0.254, p < 0.05), hip-hop music Table 1 Correlation (Pearson r) of digit ratios (2D:4D) with genre of entertainment. Genre of entertainment Movies TV series Sports Video games Music Video clips Newspaper *
p < 0.01 (two-tailed).
2D:4D 0.050 0.056 0.221* 0.087 0.050 0.034 0.049
H. Huh / Personality and Individual Differences 51 (2011) 451–453 Table 2 Correlation (Pearson r) of digit ratios (2D:4D) with aggressive media content. Type of entertainment Action films Romance films Soccer Baseball Killing-oriented Achievement-oriented Exploration-oriented Socially oriented Hip-hop Ballad music Video clips – erotic Video clips – educational *
2D:4D 0.153* 0.185* 0.146* 0.186* 0.166* 0.254* 0.072 0.012 0.189* 0.044 0.186* 0.009
p < 0.05 (two-tailed).
(r = 0.189, p < 0.05), and erotic video clips (r = 0.186, p < 0.05). However, digit ratios were positively correlated with a preference for romantic films (r = 0.185, p < 0.05), and the data showed no significant relationships between digit ratios and other genres such as exploration- and socially-oriented video games, ballads, and educational video clips. These findings met our expectations to some extent. 4. Discussion Our results suggest that prenatal testosterone exposure affects individual preferences for the type and content of entertainment products. Specifically, individuals with lower digit ratios (2D:4D) showed stronger preferences for media with aggressive content such as action films, sports telecasts, killing- and achievementoriented games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips than did individuals with higher digit ratios. Additionally, individuals with lower digit ratios were less likely than those with higher ratios to prefer romance films. Our results contribute to understanding the relationship between digit ratios and exposure to aggressive content in entertainment products. Our results provide new insights into the probable chemistry of digit ratios and the relationship of such chemistry to exposure to aggressive content in entertainment products. This study is the first to explore the relationship between digit ratios and exposure to media violence or aggression. Digit ratios improve our understanding of the reasons behind individual preferences for media violence. Several studies have focused on the effects of situational cues such as sex and music videos on aggression (Hansen & Hansen, 1990). However, this study has several potential limitations. One concerns the well-established link between 2D:4D and sports (Manning, 2008). Individuals with low 2D:4D ratios tend to perform better in, and train longer for, sports than do those with high 2D:4D ratios. Thus, the negative association between 2D:4D and interest in soccer and baseball may simply reflect interest in these sports rather than a link with aggression. It is commonly believed that the relationship between aggressive media (e.g., action films, killing-oriented games, sports, etc.) and aggressive thoughts may reflect a direct causal link. However, our results suggest an alternative interpretation, namely that individuals who have experienced exposure to high levels of prenatal testosterone may prefer aggressive media and may also have aggressive behavioral tendencies. Acknowledgement This study was supported by sejong university.
453
References Aluja-Fabregat, A., & Torrubia-Beltri, R. (1998). Viewing of mass media violence, perception of violence, personality and academic achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 973–989. Bailey, A. A., & Hurd, P. L. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology, 68(3), 215–222. Bartholow, B. D., Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., & Benjamin, A. J. (2005). Interactive effects of life experience and situational cues on aggression: The weapons priming effect in hunters and nonhunters. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 48–60. Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202–207. Breedlove, S. M. (2010). Minireview: Organizational hypothesis: Instances of the fingerpost. Endocrinology, 151(9), 4116–4122. Fink, B., Manning, J. T., & Neave, N. (2004). Second to fourth digit ratio and the ‘big five’ personality factors. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 495–503. Greene, K., & Krcmar, M. (2005). Predicting exposure to and liking of media violence. a uses and gratifications approach. Communication Studies, 56(1), 71–93. Hall, A. (2005). Audience personality and the selection of media and media genres. Media Psychology, 7, 377–398. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1990). The influence of sex and violence on the appeal of rock music video. Communication Research, 17(2), 212–234. Honekopp, J., & Watson, S. (in press). Meta-analysis of the relationship between digit-ratio 2D:4D and aggression. Personality and Individual Differences. Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42(3), 125–139. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2002). Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science, 5564, 2468–2471. Krcmar, M., & Kean, L. G. (2005). Uses and gratifications of media violence. personality correlates of viewing and liking violent genres. Media Psychology, 7, 399–420. Kuepper, Y., & Hennig, J. (2007). Behavioral aggression is associated with the 2D:4D ratio in men but not in women. Journal of Individual Differences, 28, 64–72. Lindova, J., Hruskova, M., Pivonkova, V., Kubena, A., & Flegr, J. (2008). Digit ratio (2D:4D) and Cattell’s personality traits. European Journal of Personality, 22, 347–356. Manning, J. T. (2002). Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior and Health. New Brunswick, New Jersey, London: Rutgers University Press. Manning, J. T. (2008). The Finger Book. London: Faber & Faber. Manning, J. T., & Fink, B. (2008). Digit ratio (2D:4D), dominance, reproductive success, asymmetry, and sociosexuality in the BBC internet study. American Journal of Human Biology, 20, 451–461. Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Wilson, J., & Lewis-Jones, D. I. (1998). The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: A predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction, 13, 3000–3004. Millet, K., & Dewitte, S. (2006). Second to fourth digit ratio and cooperative behavior. Biological Psychology, 71, 111–115. Millet, K., & Dewitte, S. (2007). Digit ratio (2D:4D) moderates the impact of an aggressive music video on aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(2), 289–294. Oxford, J., Ponzi, D., & Geary, D. C. (2010). Hormonal responses differ when playing violent video games against an ingroup and outgroup. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(3), 201–209. Putz, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C., Sporter, R. J., & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–299. Schultheiss, O. C., Wirth, M. M., & Stanton, S. J. (2004). Effects of affiliation and power motivation arousal on salivary progesterone and testosterone. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 592–599. Shim, J., & Paul, B. (2007). Effects of personality types on the use of television genre. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 51(2), 287–304. Stenstrom, E., Saad, G., Nepomuceno, M.V., & Mendenhall, Z. (in press). Testosterone and domain-specific risk: Digit ratios (2D:4D and rel2) as predictors of recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences. Tester, N., & Campbell, A. (2007). Sporting achievement: What is the contribution of digit ratio. Journal of Personality, 75(4), 663–677. Weaver, J. B. (1991). Exploring the links between personality and media preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1293–1299. Weaver, J. B. (2003). Individual differences in television viewing motives. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1427–1437. Weaver, J. B., Brosius, H., & Mundorf, N. (1993). Personality and movie preferences: A comparison of American and German audiences. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 307–315.
Web References Bartle, R. (1996). Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: players who suit MUDs. Journal of MUD Research, 1(1). (retrieved from 13.12.10).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
Digit ratios and preferences for aggressive content in entertainment HaengRyang Huh ⇑ Department of Communication Arts, Sejong University, Chiphyun Bldg. 513, 98 Kunja-Dong, Kwangjin-Ku, Seoul, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 14 December 2010 Received in revised form 9 April 2011 Accepted 13 April 2011 Available online 14 May 2011 Keywords: Digit ratio (2D:4D) Aggressive contents Media violence Video games Movies Sports Music Erotic video clips
a b s t r a c t Digit ratios (2D:4D) contain information concerning an individual’s propensity towards aggression. Our study adds the first clue to better understanding the relationship between 2D:4D and exposure to aggressive contents in entertainment products. Our findings suggest that individuals with low 2D:4D prefer aggressive contents such as action films, sports telecast, killing and achieving games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips rather than do individuals with high 2D:4D. Also individuals with low 2D:4D tend to demonstrate less preference for romance films than individuals with high 2D:4D. In addition, we found that low 2D:4D was associated with a preference for sports instead of other genres of entertainment products. Therefore, 2D:4D (a putative correlate of prenatal sex steroids) helps us to better understand the rationale of individuals’ preferences for media violence. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Research has shown a significant association between the amount of time spent watching television violence and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive acts against others (Johnson, Cohen, Smailes, Kasen, & Brook, 2002). Previous studies have suggested that personality traits and socioeconomic factors are associated with exposure to media violence (Aluja-Fabregat & Torrubia-Beltri, 1998; Greene & Krcmar, 2005; Huesmann, 1986). On the other hand, individuals also have different digit ratios (2D:4D) and differing preferences for aggressive behaviors and media violence. Increasing evidence has indicated that digit ratios may be correlated with exposure to media violence, which can be interpreted as a manifestation of the tendency to use media to satisfy sensation-seeking urges. Thus far, no study has explored the link between digit ratios and preferences for aggression in media entertainment. Manning, Scutt, Wilson, and Lewis-Jones (1998) suggested that the relative lengths of the second and fourth fingers (2D:4D ratio) was a negative correlate of prenatal testosterone. The evidence for this hypothesis has subsequently been reviewed by Manning (2002, 2008), and recently Breedlove (2010). The significant sex differences in 2D:4D support the role of sex hormones in the development of digit lengths (Putz, Gaulin, Sporter, & McBurney, 2004). Previous studies have found evidence of a significant but weak negative correlation between 2D:4D and aggression in males, but ⇑ Tel.: +82 2 3408 3707; fax: +82 2 3408 4307. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] 0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.012
not in females (Bailey & Hurd, 2005; Honekopp & Watson, in press; Kuepper & Hennig, 2007). Indeed, digit ratios offer a valid test of the organizational hypothesis that androgens act early in life to masculinize various human behaviors (Breedlove, 2010). Previous research investigating the relationships between digit ratios (2D:4D) and the propensity of individuals to engage in risky and aggressive behavior has revealed associations between digit ratios and sports performance (Manning, 2008; Tester & Campbell, 2007), personality traits (Fink, Manning, & Neave, 2004; Lindova, Hruskova, Pivonkova, Kubena, & Flegr, 2008), aggression (Honekopp & Watson, in press), and sexual interests (Manning & Fink, 2008). Digit ratios have also been associated with recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors (Stenstrom, Saad, Nepomuceno, & Mendenhall, in press). Thus, digit ratios have been linked to individuals’ risk-taking and aggressive behaviors. Testosterone and aggression are closely related, and evidence has suggested an association between 2D:4D and physical aggression. Furthermore, digit ratios have been shown to mediate the impact of aggressive music videos on aggression (Millet & Dewitte, 2007). Millet and Dewitte (2007) found that there was a negative correlation between 2D:4D and physical aggression scores in response to aggressive music videos in men, but not in women. Moreover, the presence of aggressive environmental cues such as weapons has been shown to increase the accessibility of hostile, aggressive thoughts and to lead to increased aggressive behavior (Bartholow, Anderson, Carnagey, & Benjamin, 2005; Berkowitz & LePage, 1967). Testosterone responds to both virtual and actual reality. There is evidence that exposure to aggressive films and video games
452
H. Huh / Personality and Individual Differences 51 (2011) 451–453
has a specific stimulatory effect on testosterone (Oxford, Ponzi, & Geary, 2010; Schultheiss, Wirth, & Stanton, 2004). Previous studies of the relationship between personality factors and the enjoyment of various types of entertainment products have demonstrated that personality factors are associated with liking and watching certain content (Hall, 2005; Krcmar & Kean, 2005; Shim & Paul, 2007). Furthermore, various personality traits have been found to predict motives behind media use, preferences for particular types of media content, and post-media-exposure behaviors (Weaver, 2003). Studies have shown considerable correspondence between individuals’ predominant personality traits (especially the ‘big five’ factors) and their media preferences (Weaver, 1991). Research has also demonstrated that culture mediates movie preferences (Weaver, Brosius, & Mundorf, 1993). The current paper proposes that digit ratios, which reflect degrees of risk-taking and aggression, tend to guide individuals’ exposure to different types of entertainment products, especially with respect to aggressive content. Indeed, each type of entertainment is characterized by different degrees of aggression and violence. We hypothesized that individuals with lower digit ratios would show a stronger preference for aggressive content in various types of entertainment than would those with higher ratios. The current study explored the relationship between digit ratios and preferences for particular entertainment genres and content. 2. Method 2.1. Participants Two hundred and nine students were recruited from classes in a Korean high school; 21 students failed to complete the questionnaire, resulting in a final sample of 188. All participants were male, aged 16–18 years (mean = 17). The sample was ethnically homogeneous, consisting entirely of Koreans. Ethnic differences in 2D:4D (Manning, 2002) were controlled for in this study because we used an ethnically homogenous sample. Time and financial constraints restricted these students to a relatively narrow variety of entertainment products. These constraints helped us to explore the relationship between digit ratios and individual preferences for aggressive content in media entertainment. 2.2. Procedure and measures The current study hypothesized that individuals with higher levels of testosterone would prefer aggressive over non-aggressive content in entertainment products. First, participants were asked to complete a survey addressing media preferences, demographic characteristics, and other factors to examine their preferences for each type of entertainment (i.e., films, television series, sports telecasts, video games, music, video clips, and newspapers), which they rated on a 7-point scale from strongly dislike to strongly like. We then classified types of media content according to their level of aggression. Movies were classified as either action or romance films. Action films included those featuring physical stunts, extended fights, and high-speed chases, whereas romance films were loosely defined as those in which the central plot revolved around the romantic involvement of the protagonists. We also classified sports into soccer or baseball, as these vary in the degree of physical contact among players; soccer usually involves more and baseball usually involves less physical contact among participants. We also divided video games into four types: killing-oriented, achievement-oriented, exploration-oriented, or socially oriented games (Bartle, 1996). Here, killing- and achievement-oriented games were characterized by a higher degree of aggression, whereas exploration- and socially oriented games were
characterized by a lower degree of aggression. Additionally, we divided music into either hip-hop or ballads because these genres include different degrees of aggressive content (Hansen & Hansen, 1990). The current study also assessed participants’ preferences for video clips, which were categorized as either erotic or educational in content. Items used to investigate participants’ preferences for media included the following questions: ‘‘How much do you like watching action films (e.g., ‘Die Hard’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching romance films (e.g., ‘Love Letter’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching physical contact sports such as soccer?’’; ‘‘How much do you like watching baseball?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing video games that involve killing (e.g., ‘Call of Duty’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing achievement-oriented games (e.g., ‘Romance of the Three Kingdoms’)?’’; ‘‘How much do you like playing exploration-oriented games (e.g., ‘Race into Space’)?’’; and ‘‘How much do you like playing socially oriented games (e.g., ‘Sims’)?’’ We measured participants’ preferences for a specific type of media content on a 7-point scale from strongly dislike to strongly like. We included the traditional 2D:4D measure as a proxy of prenatal androgen exposure. The current study focused on digit ratios in the right hand because these tend to be more strongly expressive of risk-taking or aggression (Manning, 2002). We scanned participants’ right palms on the glass plate of a scanner and insured that details of the major creases could be seen on the scans. Finger lengths were measured from the ventral proximal crease to the fingertip by means of the Adobe Photoshop measure tool (using Millet and Dewitte (2007) procedure). When a band of creases appeared at the base of the digit, we measured from the most proximal crease (Millet & Dewitte, 2006). To check for reliability, a second independent rater also measured finger lengths. The two measurements of 2D:4D were highly correlated (r2D:4D = 0.98). 3. Results Pearson correlations between digit ratios and participants’ (n = 188) preferences for a variety of entertainment products are summarized in Table 1. Strong digit-ratio effects were found only for sports. More specifically, digit ratios were negatively correlated with preferences for sports (r = 0.221, p < 0.01). Contrary to our expectations, digit-ratio effects were not found for video games and movies, and no significant correlations for the other genres of entertainment products were observed. Our study also divided each genre of entertainment products into subcategories according to degree of aggressive content. Table 2 displays the Pearson correlations between digit ratios and participants’ (n = 188) preferences for aggressive media content, including significance levels. Overall, strong digit-ratio effects were found in our ethnically homogenous male sample. Specifically, 2D:4D was negatively correlated with preferences for action films (r = 0.153, p < 0.05), soccer (r = 0.146, p < 0.05), baseball (r = 0.186, p < 0.05), killing-oriented games (r = 0.166, p < 0.05), achievement-oriented games (r = 0.254, p < 0.05), hip-hop music Table 1 Correlation (Pearson r) of digit ratios (2D:4D) with genre of entertainment. Genre of entertainment Movies TV series Sports Video games Music Video clips Newspaper *
p < 0.01 (two-tailed).
2D:4D 0.050 0.056 0.221* 0.087 0.050 0.034 0.049
H. Huh / Personality and Individual Differences 51 (2011) 451–453 Table 2 Correlation (Pearson r) of digit ratios (2D:4D) with aggressive media content. Type of entertainment Action films Romance films Soccer Baseball Killing-oriented Achievement-oriented Exploration-oriented Socially oriented Hip-hop Ballad music Video clips – erotic Video clips – educational *
2D:4D 0.153* 0.185* 0.146* 0.186* 0.166* 0.254* 0.072 0.012 0.189* 0.044 0.186* 0.009
p < 0.05 (two-tailed).
(r = 0.189, p < 0.05), and erotic video clips (r = 0.186, p < 0.05). However, digit ratios were positively correlated with a preference for romantic films (r = 0.185, p < 0.05), and the data showed no significant relationships between digit ratios and other genres such as exploration- and socially-oriented video games, ballads, and educational video clips. These findings met our expectations to some extent. 4. Discussion Our results suggest that prenatal testosterone exposure affects individual preferences for the type and content of entertainment products. Specifically, individuals with lower digit ratios (2D:4D) showed stronger preferences for media with aggressive content such as action films, sports telecasts, killing- and achievementoriented games, hip-hop music, and erotic video clips than did individuals with higher digit ratios. Additionally, individuals with lower digit ratios were less likely than those with higher ratios to prefer romance films. Our results contribute to understanding the relationship between digit ratios and exposure to aggressive content in entertainment products. Our results provide new insights into the probable chemistry of digit ratios and the relationship of such chemistry to exposure to aggressive content in entertainment products. This study is the first to explore the relationship between digit ratios and exposure to media violence or aggression. Digit ratios improve our understanding of the reasons behind individual preferences for media violence. Several studies have focused on the effects of situational cues such as sex and music videos on aggression (Hansen & Hansen, 1990). However, this study has several potential limitations. One concerns the well-established link between 2D:4D and sports (Manning, 2008). Individuals with low 2D:4D ratios tend to perform better in, and train longer for, sports than do those with high 2D:4D ratios. Thus, the negative association between 2D:4D and interest in soccer and baseball may simply reflect interest in these sports rather than a link with aggression. It is commonly believed that the relationship between aggressive media (e.g., action films, killing-oriented games, sports, etc.) and aggressive thoughts may reflect a direct causal link. However, our results suggest an alternative interpretation, namely that individuals who have experienced exposure to high levels of prenatal testosterone may prefer aggressive media and may also have aggressive behavioral tendencies. Acknowledgement This study was supported by sejong university.
453
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