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Dimensions of mother-infant interaction: Measurement, stability, and predictive validity
INFANT
BEHAVIOR
AND
DEVELOPMENT
12,
379-393
(1989)
Dimensions of Mother-Infant Interaction: Measurement, Stability, and Predictive Validity EARL S. SCHAEFER University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Goals of identifying and determining stability and predictive validity of replicated dimensions of mother-infant interaction guided analyses of data from observations during bathing, dressing, and play ond from ratings of entire home visits at 4 and 12 months. Factor analyses identified dimensions of positive interaction and gentle/sensitive versus punitive/irritable at 4 and 12 months. Higher reliability ond stability was found for positive interaction than for gentle/sensitive, The dimension of positive interaction was significantly correlated with child academic competence, but the less reliable and less stable dimension of gentle/sensitive was not significantly correlated with child behovior during kindergarten.
observation
rating reliability
mother stability
infant prediction
interaction academic
factor competence
analysis
Despite convergence in identification of major dimensions of maternal behavior with older children (Becker, 1964; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Martin, 1975; Schaefer, 1959), consensus has not been achieved in identification of major dimensions of maternal behavior with infants. Replicated dimensions are needed to integrate the many studies reviewed by Lytton (1971) and Boyer, Simon, and Karafin (1973) as well as more recent studies of mother-infant interaction. Factor analyses of data on maternal behavior during infancy by Beckwith, Cohen, Kopp, Parmelee, and Marcy (1976), Clarke-Stewart (1973), and Stern, Caldwell, Hersher, Lipton, and Richmond (1969) have identified from four to nine factors that have not been clearly replicated for different ages, for different samples, and for data from different methods, Multifactor I gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of Earl Siegel, Karl Bauman, Minta M. Saunders, and Deborah D. Ingram in the implementation of the infancy research and in the development of data collection methods and of Marianna Edgerton in data analysis. Preparation of this article was supported in part by National Institute of Child Health and Development Grant HD9003, by the National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH35253, and by the W.T. Grant Foundation. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Earl S. Schaefer, Department of Maternal and Child Health, CB #7400, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514.
380
SCHAEFER
analyses of maternal behavior with older children also have not achieved replication of factors, although analyses of two major factors have yielded replicated dimensions (Schaefer, 1959). Perhaps a basis for parsimonious integration of studies of maternal behavior during infancy is provided by Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) identification of factors of positive attentiveness and negative attentiveness from maternal behavior at the child’s age of 2 years. Positive attentiveness was significantly correlated with similar interaction factors at 1, 3, and 8 months, and negative attentiveness had low correlations with factors at earlier ages. Similarity of the social interaction, verbal stimulation, and responsiveness components of positive attentiveness with Clarke-Stewart’s (1973) first and largest factor of optimal maternal care of infants 9 to 18 months of age suggests the possibility of replication across studies as well as ages. The factor of negative attentiveness, with variables of mandatory bids, criticism, interferences, and rejection of child bids, is similar to (a) a factor of hostility and rejection in a study of maternal behavior during the first 3 years (Schaefer, 1959), (b) a proposed dimension of demanding, controlling behavior (Maccoby & Martin, 1983), or (c) a combination of hostile and demanding behavior. An emphasis on counting specific mother-infant interactions has resulted in the frequent use of time sampling methods. However, ratings of motherinfant interaction have yielded higher cross-time stability (Clarke-Stewart & Hevey, 1981) and higher prediction of child competence (Bakeman & Brown, 1980). Maccoby and Martin’s (1983) review of studies of parent behavior revealed increases in concurrent use of different data sources and methods. Observations in different situations, data collection with different methods, and data from different observers provide complementary perspectives on mother-infant interaction. A major goal of this research is to identify replicated dimensions of maternal behavior during infancy by factor analyses of two types of data: (a) estimates of frequency of discrete behaviors and judgments of maternal affect during specific child care situations and (b) ratings of maternal behavior for an entire home visit that included both observations of specific child care situations and an extensive interview with the mothers. Independent analyses of data collected at 4 months and 12 months postnatally allow cross-age replication of the identified dimensions. Correlations among factor scores for 4 and 12 months allow analysis of stability and predictability of the dimensions. Determination of predictive validity of major dimensions of mother-infant interaction from correlations with child adaptive behavior during kindergarten is also a goal of this study. Reviews of research on parent behavior with older children have often focused upon correlations with child social and emotional development (Becker, 1964; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Martin, 1975), yet studies of mother-infant interaction have more often reported significant correlations with child intellectual development (Beckwith et al., 1976; Bee et al.,
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
381
1982; Clark-Stewart, 1973; Olson, Bates, & Bayles, 1984; Ramey, Farran, & Campbell, 1979; Van Doorminck, Caldwell, Wright, & Frankenburg, 1981). Maternal behavior at 12, 18, and 24 months has shown higher correlations than maternal behavior at 4 and 6 months with child preschool intelligence scores (Bee et al., 1982; Bradley & Caldwell, 1976). METHOD Subjects
The sample at birth consisted of 321 low-income women who received prenatal care from public health clinics, and whose full-term infants did not have major biomedical problems during the perinatal period. The initial sample of mothers were 72% black and 28% white, 44% under the age of 20 years, 47% with at least one other child, 40% married, and 50% with less than 12 years of education. Of the subjects who were enrolled in the project at birth, 83% participated at 4 months and 84% participated at 12 months postnatally. Demographic characteristics and initial mother-infant interaction scores of the follow-up sample were not significantly different from the initial sample. Data Collection Procedures Observations of mother-infant interaction during specific child care situations in the home were completed at the child’s age of 4 and 12 months. Data were collected by college graduate data collectors (N=7) who were trained and supervised by a developmental psychologist. Two data collectors, one black and one white, visited each home at 4 and 12 months. Both data collectors observed child care situations of bathing, dressing, and play scheduled at the convenience of the mother. Observations were recorded immediately after each child care situation. After leaving the home, each data collector independently rated the mother’s behavior with the infant during the approximately 2-hour home visit. Observation methods were developed to describe mother and infant behavior during bathing, dressing, and play. The observation categories that were selected to describe maternal attachment to the infant focussed on maternal acceptance, interaction, and responsiveness to the infant as well as infant’s responses to the mother. An observation manual provided detailed instructions for observers (Saunders, Schaefer, Bauman, Siegel, & Ingram, 1978). Items were based upon previous studies of mother-infant interaction and observations of pilot subjects in the child care situations. Observation forms for each child care situation included approximately 30 specific behaviors. The frequency of discrete behaviors was estimated on a 4-point scale of never, rare/y (occurs once or twice), somtimes (occurs 3 to 6 times), and often (occursmore than 6 times). Qualitative items such as mother’s “gentle” and “sensitive” behavior were estimated on a 4-point scale ranging from not at all to very much.
382
SCHAEFER
The Attachment Inventory (Schaefer, Ingram, Bauman, Siegel, & Saunders, 1978), a maternal behavior rating method, was developed to describe the mother’s behavior with the infant during the entire visit. Many of the 75 items were adapted from items describing maternal behavior during the first 3 years of life (Schaefer, Bell, & Bayley, 1959) and from narrative descriptions of maternal behavior during laboratory observations in the first year of life (Brody, 1956). Concepts that were sampled with both positive and negative behavior items included, but were not limited to, affection and contact (Klaus & Kennell, 1976) and acceptance and involvement (Becker, 1964; Schaefer, 1959). Teacher ratings of the child’s social and emotional behavior and academic competence during kindergarten were collected with the Classroom Behavior Inventory (CBI) which included 5-item scales for extraversion, curiosity/ creativity, verbal intelligence, task orientation, independence, and considerateness (Schaefer & Edgerton, 1978). Factor analyses of the CBI have identified three dimensions of adaptive behavior best defined by (a) extraversion, (b) considerateness, and (c) verbal intelligence, with substantial loadings on curiosity/creativity, independence, and task orientation (Schaefer & Edgerton, 1982). The three factors are similar to factors of social assertiveness, social responsibility, and cognitive competence identified by Baumrind (1982) from Q-sorts and ratings of child behavior for a sample of middle-class Caucasian g-year-old children. Validity of the CBI scales has been reported by Kohn (1977), McKinney and Forman (1982), Schaefer (1981), and Schaefer and Edgerton (1985). Data Analyses Means and standard deviations of all items of the observations and ratings were calculated to examine distributions and variabilities. Interobserver reliabilities were also calculated for all items. In order to identify major dimensions of mother-infant interaction, observations of each of the child care situations and ratings of the entire home visit were factor analyzed separately at both 4 and 12 months using iterated principal component analyses with varimax rotation (Harman, 1976). The use of Cattell’s (1966) scree criterion for retention of factors resulted in rotation of a small number of factors with substantial proportions of common factor variance. A second criterion for factor retention was rotation of an equal number of factors for each child care situation in order to increase probability of identification of similar factors. Factor scores for each of the child care situations were computed, and interobserver reliabilities of the factor scores were determined. Factor scores were intercorrelated and factor analyzed to determine similarity of factors identified from observations of the three child care situations. Interobserver/interrater reliabilities were determined for factor scores from the combined observations of child care situations and from the Attachment Inventory ratings at 4 and 12
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
383
months. Summed factor scores for the two data collectors were intercorrelated to determine correlations between factor scores for different methods and ages. Finally, factor scores for the observations and ratings were correlated with teacher ratings of child behavior during kindergarten.
RESULTS Factor Analyses of Observations of Child Care Situations and Attachment Inventory Ratings Cattell’s scree criterion for factor retention and rotation consistently revealed three factors for the child care situations at both 4 and 12 months, with the first factor including the most variance, the second and third factors including approximately equal proportions of variance, and subsequent factors including substantially lower and small proportions of variance. Proportions of total variance included in the three factors for child care situations of bathing, dressing, and play were 38.6070, 39.1%, and 32.5% at 4 months, and 41.5%, 41.2070, and 37.4070 at 12 months, respectively. Despite the high unreliability and unique variance that is typical of items as contrasted to reliable scales, the factors that were rotated include substantial common factor variance. Very similar loadings for the items that best describe the three factors for bathing and dressing observations are reported in Table 1. The clearly replicated factors were labeled Positive Mother-Infant Interaction, Mother Gentle, and Mother Consoles the Crying Infant.’ Unreported factor loadings for factors from bathing and dressing observations at 12 months replicated the factors identified at 4 months. The factor loadings of items that describe Positive Mother-Infant Interaction which included both visual and vocal interaction were similar for the two situations. The factor Mother Gentle was identical to that found at 4 months. Again, the third factor for both 4 and 12 months had high loadings on items that describe infant negative affect and the mother’s consoling behavior. For the observation of the play situation, three factors were identified from factor analysis of items at 4 and 12 months. Two Play factors at each age differentiated (a) one-to-one mother-infant positive interaction and (b) positive interaction involving a provided toy, with the first more highly correlated with Positive Mother-Infant Interaction factors during bathing and dressing. A factor with loadings on infant negative affect and mother’s consoling was identified at both 4 and 12 months. Although the factor analyses for the play situation are not reported here, the factor scores for the play situations were included in the analyses that integrate factors identified from observations of mother-child interaction in different situations. ’ Unreported
statistical analyses are available upon request from the author.
at I
M smiles
Nofe. All a l=Positive
decimal points Mother-Infant
M consoles I: Verbally M consoles I: Physically I cries, fusses
M’s handling of I: Insensitive M washes/dresses I: Roughly
contact
to M
omitted. Interaction;
I: En face I: Makes eye
M washes/dresses I: Gently M’s handling of I: Sensitive
contact with contact with l’s sounds
at Mother (M) makes happy sounds
M’s visual M’s visual M imitates
Infant (I) smiles I COOS, gurgles,
items
00
Gentle;
-03 -20
Ill=Mother
Consoles
-14 -41
-07
-04
-05
13 12
03
66 49 63
63 67
70
Dressing
Crying
Infant.
-05 -19
-04
-71 -60
81 79
15 00 39
06 17
01
Bathing
II
Factors”
00 10
-03 02
09
02 -60 -68
81
17 18 22
-13
Dressing
TABLE 1 of Bathing and Dressing at 4 Months two observers per subject.
08 -00 -01
64 58 57
00 75 67
Bathing
I
Loadings of Observations N=266 subjects with
II=Mother
Factor
73
02 64
06 05
-03 -01
-09
22 27 09
-10 -17
Bathing
III
79 73 71
02
06 12 01
19
16 23
-22 10
-17
Dressing
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
385
The two factors that were retained and rotated from factor analyses of the items of the Attachment Inventory reported in Table 2 included 43.3% of the total variance at 4 months and 50.9% at 12 months. Items with high loadings on the two factors at both age levels that are reported in Table 2 describe mother-infant Positive Interaction and Punitiveness/Irritability. In order to determine replicability of these factors for different samples, separate factor analyses were computed for black and white subjects and for mothers with less than 12 years or 12 years or more of education. Factor structures were essentially identical for each group. Analyses of the items that had high loadings on the factor of Positive MotherInfant Interaction for bathing and dressing at 4 and 12 months revealed good distributions, substantial variability, and good interobserver reliability. However, items that describe the factor of Gentle versus Insensitive behavior show a low frequency of negative behaviors and low variability at both 4 and 12 months. Means, standard deviations, and interrater reliabilities for items of the Attachment Inventory that describe the factor Positive Interaction show good distributions, substantial variability, and good interrater reliabilities at both 4 and 12 months. Although maternal behaviors described by items included in the factor Punitiveness/Irritability are infrequent at both 4 and 12 months, higher frequencies, variabilities, and interrater reliabilities are found at 12 months. Integration of Factors From Observations of Child Care Situations and From Ratings In order to determine whether factors identified from observations of bathing, dressing, and play situations at 4 months are similar, factor scores were computed for the two observers, and interobserver reliabilities and intercorrelations of factor scores across situations were calculated. Uncorrected interobserver reliabilities for specific child care situations that varied from .57 to .83 with a median of .69 are higher than the intercorrelations of scores for the combined observers for similar factors across situations that varied from .20 to .67 with a median of .41. A factor analysis of intercorrelations of the factor scores for the three child care situations yielded appropriate loadings for each child care situation on combined factors of Positive Mother-Infant Interaction, Mother Gentle, and Mother Consoling the Crying Infant. The bathing and dressing factors that were obtained from similar observation forms have higher factor loadings than the play factors on the factors for the combined child care situations. The analysis revealed that replicated maternal behavior factors can be identified from observations of different child care situations, despite the fact that correlations of maternal behavior factor scores across situations are of moderate size. A similar analysis of interobserver reliability and of intercorrelations of factor scores for the three child care situations was completed for 12-month data. The median uncorrected interobserver reliability of .80 with a range from .52
I
With
12 Months
(N=247)
playful irritated irritable doesn’t
Note. All decimal ’ I=lrritoble/Punitive;
points
omitted. II=Positive Interaction.
with some of infant’s behavior. at times with an irritable voice. rough, and unsympathetic with
interaction with infant. when caring for infant. when infant fusses, cries,
Punishes infant when displeased. Shouts and yells ot infant.
Seems irritated Talks to infant Voice is harsh,
Enjoys Seems Seems
infant.
drink
his/her milk,
bb 64
bb 69 68
-31 65 65
67 70
67 67 72
-40 61 67
-40 -43
-29 -28 -32 -29
-28 -28
him/her.
etc.
12 Months
4 Months
and
Plays with infant in ways that please Loving and playful in care of infant.
playing.
TABLE 2 (N=217)
-22
and
at 4 Months
-12 -17 -19 -31
Items
-14
Inventory
Sings, hums, or coos to infant. Plays little games with infant. Admires infant’s abilities to do things. Often smiles at infant.
Attachment
-05 -06 -22
for
00 -04 -11
loadings
Points out things infant con do. Reports how smart or how good infant is. Stimulates infant frequently, handling, e.g., lots of talking, Praises infant’s new responses or responses to new events.
Factor
Per
-07 -01
-09 -10 -01
-00 -12
-27 -24 -19
65 -32 -27
70 71 60
65 77 78 76 -09 -14
65 70 bb
71 73 67
BO 73 81 75
12 Months 74
II
Subject
73 82 78
4 Months
Observers
Factorsa
Two
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
387
to .89 again shows higher agreement between observers than intercorrelations of similar maternal behavior factors across child care situations that range from .34 to .68. Again the factors from bathing and dressing have higher correlations with one another than with factors for the play situation and have higher loadings on the three factors for the combined observations of child care situations. Uncorrected interobserver reliabilities for factors from the combined observations of child care situations and interrater reliabilities for factors of the Attachment Inventory at 4 and 12 months are reported in Table 3. After factor scores for the two data collectors were summed, correlations between factor scores from different methods and for different ages were computed. Correlations between similar maternal behavior factor scores from different methods at the same age are .49 for positive interaction at 4 months, .75 for positive interaction at 12 months, and - .63 between the Mother Gentle factor from observations of specific situations and Mother Punitive factor from the Attachment Inventory ratings at both 4 and 12 months. Correlations among 4- and 1Zmonth Positive Interaction factor scores from observations and from ratings of .46, .47, .48, and .55 are substantially higher than correlations of the Gentle observation factor and Not Punitive rating factor scores between 4 and 12 months of .Ol, .05, .09, and .33. The observation factor Mother Consoling the Crying Infant at 4 months is not significantly correlated with the similar observation factor at 12 months but is correlated significantly with the rating factor of Positive Interaction at 4 months and with both observation and rating factors of Positive Interaction at 12 months. Correlation of Maternal Behavior Factors With Child Behavior in Kindergarten The predictive validity of factors of mother-infant interaction was determined by correlating each of the 4- and 1Zmonth observation and rating factors with teacher ratings of the child’s adaptive behavior in kindergarten. Only the correlations for the Positive Interaction factors yielded significant correlations with child behavior during kindergarten (Table 4). Both observation and rating factors of Positive Interaction at 4 months were significantly correlated with child verbal intelligence and curiosity/creativity. A stronger pattern of correlations of the Positive Interaction factor for observations and ratings with child adaptive behavior was found at 12 months, with highest correlations with scales of verbal intelligence and curiosity/creativity. Significant but lower positive correlations were found between Positive Interaction at 12 months and child independence, task orientation, and extraversion. Somewhat higher correlations are seen with rating factors than with observation factors of Positive Interaction at both 4 and 12 months. The Gentle observation factors and Punitive rating factors at 4 and 12 months did not show significant correlations with teacher ratings of child social behavior or competence in kindergarten.
interaction interaction
3. Positive 4. Positive
(R-12) (O-12)
(O-4) (R-4)
Note. All decimal points ’ O=combined observations b Uncorrected interobserver * Significant at p I .Ol .
5. Gentle (O-4) 6. Punitive (R-4) 7. Punitive (R-12) 8. Gentle (O-12) 9. Consoling infant (O-4) 10. Infant affect (O-12)
interaction interaction
(Method-Age)”
1. Positive 2. Positive
Factor
-11 -11
40’ -21’ -03 09 3B* -09
16 06 03
46’
(72) 55*
2
Scores
03
49’ 4B* 47’
Wb
1
of Factor
and
-03 -22 30’ 26’ 05
11
(69) 75’
.3
Intercorrelations
omitted. N varies from 160 to 238. of child care: R=ratings on Attachment reliabilities in diagonal cells.
Reliability 4
3 Across
Inventory;
06 33* 03
(79) 02 03 -18
TABLE
4=at
Methods
4 months:
(71) -63’ -09 01 03 -13
5
Different
12=ot
33* -05 05 -03
(16)
6
and 7
12 months.
(30) -63’ 01 -01
Different
Ages
(79) 04 05
8
(79) -10
9
(87)
10
MOTHER-INFANT
TABLE Correlations
of Positive
Interaction With
389
INTERACTION
Factors From Child Behavior
4 Observations in Kindergarten Interaction
and
Ratings
Behavior
Scales
Ratings
4 months (N=lB4)
12 Months
.06 .19’
.17* .29’**
.17’ .lO
.33*** .29*** .19*
Extraversion Curiosity/Creativity Verbal Intelligence Independence Task Orientation Consideroteness l
p<.os.
.07 .07 ** pc.01.
+**
12 Months
Factors
Observations
Child
at 4 and
(N=
.lB*
160)
4 Months
12 Months
(N=200)
(N=211)
.09 .21** .23**
.16’
.OB .lO .lO
.31*** .20+* .lO
.37*** .36***
p<.BBl.
The replicated dimensions of maternal behavior from several child care situations, from different methods, and at two ages of the infant provide evidence of convergence within this study and across studies upon dimensions of positive interaction and negative interaction. The dimension of positive interaction that is replicated at 4 and 12 months is similar to Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) factor of positive attentiveness at 2 years, to Clarke-Stewart’s (1973) factor of optimal maternal care for the period from 9 to 18 months, and to Belsky, Taylor, and Rovine’s (1984) factor of reciprocal interaction at 1, 3, and 9 months. Significant correlations of Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) positive attentiveness at 2 years with factors of social at 1 month, social responsiveness at 3 months, and mutual social and intellectual stimulation at 8 months suggest that a dimension of positive responsiveness, attentiveness, and interaction can be identified from 1 month through 24 months. Variables with significant loadings on similar factors across ages in Beckwith et al. (1976) and in Belsky et al. (1984) included vocalizations which are not commands or criticism, summary measures of attentiveness, contingent vocalizations, face-to-face talk, stimulation, and object presentation. The bipolar dimension of gentle, sensitive versus irritable, punitive behavior that was identified at 4 and 12 months is similar to Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) factor of negative attentiveness which included variables of mandatory bids, criticism, interferences, and rejection of child’s bids. Beckwith et al. (1976) also isolated a factor identified as control at 3 and 8 months defined by demands and criticism. Dimensions of punitiveness/irritability and negative attentiveness are similar to a dimension of maternal hostility defined by ratings of punitiveness, irritability, punishment, strictness, and use of fear to control from observations during the first 3 years (Schaefer, 1959). Although negative interaction has been quantified by ratings in this study, components of negative attentiveness have also been quantified by counts of discrete behaviors (Beckwith et al., 1976).
390
SCHAEFER
Longitudinal correlations in this study as well as in Cohen and Beckwith (1979) and in Belsky et al. (1984) show substantial stability over time for a dimension of positive mother-infant interaction with components of attentiveness, responsiveness, interaction, and stimulation. Clarke-Stewart (1973) also reported stability of maternal responsiveness to social signals of the infant from 11 to 17 months. Convergence in the identification of a dimension of positive interaction as well as correlations between similar factors at different ages suggest that this dimension can probably be identified in other studies and at other ages during infancy. However, the dimension of punitiveness and irritability in this study and dimensions of control at 3 and 8 months and negative attentiveness at 24 months (Cohen & Beckwith, 1979) do not show significant stability during infancy. Lower frequencies of occurrence, poorer distributions of negative interactions, and lower reliability of ratings of punitiveness and irritability during a single home visit contribute to lower stability through time of the dimension of negative maternal affect and behavior. Aggregation of repeated observations may be more necessary for reliable data on negative interaction than for positive interaction (Wachs, 1987). Negative maternal affect and behavior during a single observation may partially reflect the mother’s emotional state rather than a stable trait or relationship with the infant. Repeated observation sessions and observation at higher ages may have contributed to stability of the dimension of love versus hostility from 0 to 3 years to 9 to 14 years reported by Schaefer and Bayley (1960). The observation dimension defined by infant crying and mother’s consoling behavior at 4 and 12 months was also identified by infant cry/fuss and mother soothe at 1, 3, and 9 months by Belsky et al. (1984). Contingency of maternal consoling behavior upon infant negative affect which is unstable over time contributes to low stability of this dimension in Belsky et al. and in this study. Correlations of observations of consoling at 4 months with positive interaction at 12 months suggests that mother’s consoling response to the infant’s cry may predict maternal responsiveness to the infant in other situations. This analysis suggests that reliability and stability of observations of motherinfant interaction during the first and second year of life can be improved by observations in several different situations. Observation during specific motherinfant interaction situations may result in higher stability across occasions or age periods than naturalistic observation (Wachs, 1987). The analyses of observations of bathing, dressing, and play situations at 4 and 12 months reveal higher correlations between two observers for the same situation than correlations among their summed scores across situations. Correlations between observers for scores from the same method are typically higher than correlations of their summed scores between methods. Thus, moderate although significant correlations are found among maternal behavior scores for different situations, methods, observers, occasions, and age periods. Aggregation of scores for replicated dimensions of mother-infant interaction across different sources of
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
391
data may contribute to reliability, stability, and predictive validity of estimates of mother-infant interaction. These analyses also contribute to understanding the strengths of counting discrete behaviors in specific situations and of rating behavior for an entire home visit. Higher interobserver reliability was found for observations Of SPecific child care situations than for ratings of the entire home visit. Despite lower reliability, ratings had equal or higher stability over time, thus replicating the findings on stability of Clarke-Stewart and Hevey (1981). Somewhat higher predictive validity of ratings in this study and in Bakeman and Brown (1980) also suggests that ratings, despite lower interrater reliability, may yield valid descriptions of maternal behavior. The finding that mother-infant interaction during the first year of life is significantly correlated with child academic competence during kindergarten complements earlier research on correlations between mother-infant interaction and child competence in the preschool years. Clark-Stewart (1973) reported that maternal verbal stimulation was correlated with child competence at approximately 18 months. Other mother-infant interaction behaviors also loaded on Clarke-Stewart’s factor of maternal optimal care which was significantly correlated with child competence. Cohen and Beckwith (1979) reported that social interaction of mother and infant at 1 month is related to child competence including receptive language and Bayley scores at 2 years. Bee et al. (1982) found that HOME scores (Caldwell & Bradley, 1978) and teaching scores at 4 and 12 months are significantly correlated with child IQ and receptive and expressive language at 36 months. Bradley and Caldwell (1976) also reported that HOME scores at 6 and 24 months are significantly correlated with child IQ scores at 54 months. Thus, many studies of mother-infant interaction have reported significant long-term prediction of child intellectual development as contrasted to limited evidence of long-term correlations with child social and emotional behavior (Bradley, Caldwell, & Rock, 1988; Wachs & Gruen, 1982). This study suggests that mother-infant interaction may also predict the child’s motivation for learning, including curiosity and instrumental independence, both of which are correlated with verbal intelligence ratings. A possible explanation for the correlations of the stable dimension of motherinfant interaction with child intellectual development is suggested by Vygotsky’s (1978) discussion of the “internalization of higher psychological functions.” Vygotsky stated (p. 57) that an “interpersonal process is transformed into an intrapersonal one,” and the “transformation of an interpersonal process into an intrapersonal one is the result of a long series of developmental events.” A relatively stable pattern of positive interaction between mother and child apparently has an early and continuing influence on the child’s verbal intelligence and academic competence. Further replications of dimensions of positive interaction and negative interaction may be possible through factor analyses of existing data. The numerous studies of mother-infant interaction might be examined to determine whether
392
SCHAEFER
behaviors were included that have defined replicated dimensions. Factor analysis and rotation of those behaviors might replicate and provide more comprehensive behavioral descriptions of major dimensions of mother-infant interaction. Analyses of reliability, stability, and predictive validity of replicated dimensions would contribute significantly to integration of research on measurement and correlates of mother-infant interaction. REFERENCES Bakeman, R., &Brown, J.V. (1980). Early interaction: Consequences for social and mental development at three years. Child Development, SI, 437-441. Baumrind, D. (1982). Are androgynous individuals more effective persons and parents? Child Development, 53, 44-75. Becker, W.C. (1964). Consequences of parental discipline. In M.L. Hoffman & L.W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 1). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Beckwith, L., Cohen, S.E., Kopp, C.B., Parmelee, A.H., & Marcy, T.G. (1976). Caregiverinfant interaction and early cognitive development in preterm infants. Child Development, 47, 579-581. Bee, H.L., Barnard, K.E., Eyres, S.J., Gray, C.A., Hammond, M.A., Spietz, A.L., Snyder, C., &Clark, B. (1982). Prediction of IQ and language skill from perinatal status, child performance, family characteristics, and mother-infant interaction. Child Development, 53, 1134-1156.
Belsky, J., Taylor, D.G., & Rovine, M. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family Development Project II. The development of reciprocal interaction in the mother-infant dyad. Child Development, 55, 706-7 17. Boyer, E.G., Simon, A., & Karafin, G.K. (1973). Measures of moturution. Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools. Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1976). The relation of infants’ home environment to mental test performance at fifty-four months: A follow-up study. Child Development, 47, 1172-l 174. Bradley, R.H., Caldwell, B.M., & Rock, S.L. (1988). Home environment and school performances: A ten-year follow-up and examination of three models of environmental action. Child Development, 59, 852-867. Brody, S. (1956). Putterns ofmofhering. New York: International Universities Press. Caldwell, B.M., & Bradley, R.H. (1978). Munuulfor the Home Observation for Meusurement of the Environment. Unpublished manuscript, University of Arkansas, Little Rock. Cattell, R.B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. MultivuriuteEehuviorul Research, I, 245-276. Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1973). Interactions between mothers and their young children: Characteristics and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38(6-7, Serial No. 153). Clarke-Stewart, K.A., & Hevey, C.M. (1981). Longitudinal relations in repeated observations of mother-child interaction from 1 to 2% years. Developmentul Psychology, 17, 127-145. Cohen, SE., & Beckwith, L. (1979). Preterm infant interaction with the caregiver during the first year of life and competence at age two. Child Development, SO, 761-116. Harman, H.H. (1976). Modern fuctor unulysis (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Klaus, M.H., & Kennel], J.H. (1976). Muternul-infant bonding. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. Kohn, M.L. (1977). Sociul competence, symptoms, and underuchievement in childhood: A longitudinulperspective. New York: Wiley. Lytton, H. (1971). Observation studies of parent-child interaction: A methodological review. Child Development, 42, 651-684.
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Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Series Ed.), E.M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed)., Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development. (Vol. 4.) New York: Wiley. Martin, B. (1975). Parent-child relations. In F.D. Horowitz (Ed.), Review ofchild development reseurch (Vol. 4). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. McKinney, J.D., & Forman, S. (1982). Classroom behavior patterns of EMH, LD, and EH students. Journal of School Psychology, 20, 271-289. Olson, S.L., Bates, J.E., & Bayles, K. (1984). Mother-infant interaction and the development of individual differences in children’s cognitive competence. Developmental Psychology, 20, 166-179.
Ramey, C.T., Farran, D.C., & Campbell, F.A. (1979). Predicting IQ from mother-infant interaction. Child Development, 50, 804-814. Saunders, M.M., Schaefer, E.S., Bauman, K.E., Siegel, E., & Ingram, D.D. (1978). Maternal behovior observotion forms and manual. Unpublished manuscript, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Schaefer, E.S. (1959). A circumplex model for maternal behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 226-235. Schaefer, E.S. (1981). Development of adaptive behavior: Conceptual models and family correlates. In M.J. Begab, H.C. Haywood, & H.L. Garber (Eds.), Psychosocial influences in retarded development: Vol. I. Issues and theories in development. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. Schaefer, E.S., & Bayley, N. (1960). Consistency of maternal behavior from infancy to preadolescence. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, l-6. Schaefer, E.S., Bell, R.Q., & Bayley, N. (1959). Development of a maternal research instrument. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 95, 83-104. Schaefer, E.S., & Edgerton, M. (1978). Ciussroom Behavior Inventory. Unpublished manuscript, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Schaefer, E.S., & Edgerton, M. (August, 1982). Circumplex and spherical models for child school odjustment ond competence. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Schaefer, E.S., & Edgerton, M. (1985). Parent and child correlates of parental modernity. In I.E. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Schaefer, E.S., Ingram, D.D., Bauman, K.E., Siegel, E., & Saunders, M.M. (1978). Attachment Inventory. Unpublished manuscript, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Stern, G.G., Caldwell, B.M., Hersher, L., Lipton, E.L., & Richmond, J.B. (1969). A factor analytic study of the mother-infant dyad. Child Development, 40, 163-182. Van Doorminck, W.J., Caldwell, B.M., Wright, C., & Frankenburg, W.K. (1981). The relationship between twelve-month home stimulation and school achievement. ChildDevelopment, 52, 1080-1083. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.) Catdridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wachs, T.D. (1987). Short-term stability of aggregated and nonaggregated measures of parent behavior. Child Development, 58, 796-797. Wachs, T.D., & Gruen, G.E. (1982). Early experience and human development. New York: Plenum. 15 July 1988; Revised 19 May 1989
n
BEHAVIOR
AND
DEVELOPMENT
12,
379-393
(1989)
Dimensions of Mother-Infant Interaction: Measurement, Stability, and Predictive Validity EARL S. SCHAEFER University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Goals of identifying and determining stability and predictive validity of replicated dimensions of mother-infant interaction guided analyses of data from observations during bathing, dressing, and play ond from ratings of entire home visits at 4 and 12 months. Factor analyses identified dimensions of positive interaction and gentle/sensitive versus punitive/irritable at 4 and 12 months. Higher reliability ond stability was found for positive interaction than for gentle/sensitive, The dimension of positive interaction was significantly correlated with child academic competence, but the less reliable and less stable dimension of gentle/sensitive was not significantly correlated with child behovior during kindergarten.
observation
rating reliability
mother stability
infant prediction
interaction academic
factor competence
analysis
Despite convergence in identification of major dimensions of maternal behavior with older children (Becker, 1964; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Martin, 1975; Schaefer, 1959), consensus has not been achieved in identification of major dimensions of maternal behavior with infants. Replicated dimensions are needed to integrate the many studies reviewed by Lytton (1971) and Boyer, Simon, and Karafin (1973) as well as more recent studies of mother-infant interaction. Factor analyses of data on maternal behavior during infancy by Beckwith, Cohen, Kopp, Parmelee, and Marcy (1976), Clarke-Stewart (1973), and Stern, Caldwell, Hersher, Lipton, and Richmond (1969) have identified from four to nine factors that have not been clearly replicated for different ages, for different samples, and for data from different methods, Multifactor I gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of Earl Siegel, Karl Bauman, Minta M. Saunders, and Deborah D. Ingram in the implementation of the infancy research and in the development of data collection methods and of Marianna Edgerton in data analysis. Preparation of this article was supported in part by National Institute of Child Health and Development Grant HD9003, by the National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH35253, and by the W.T. Grant Foundation. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Earl S. Schaefer, Department of Maternal and Child Health, CB #7400, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514.
380
SCHAEFER
analyses of maternal behavior with older children also have not achieved replication of factors, although analyses of two major factors have yielded replicated dimensions (Schaefer, 1959). Perhaps a basis for parsimonious integration of studies of maternal behavior during infancy is provided by Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) identification of factors of positive attentiveness and negative attentiveness from maternal behavior at the child’s age of 2 years. Positive attentiveness was significantly correlated with similar interaction factors at 1, 3, and 8 months, and negative attentiveness had low correlations with factors at earlier ages. Similarity of the social interaction, verbal stimulation, and responsiveness components of positive attentiveness with Clarke-Stewart’s (1973) first and largest factor of optimal maternal care of infants 9 to 18 months of age suggests the possibility of replication across studies as well as ages. The factor of negative attentiveness, with variables of mandatory bids, criticism, interferences, and rejection of child bids, is similar to (a) a factor of hostility and rejection in a study of maternal behavior during the first 3 years (Schaefer, 1959), (b) a proposed dimension of demanding, controlling behavior (Maccoby & Martin, 1983), or (c) a combination of hostile and demanding behavior. An emphasis on counting specific mother-infant interactions has resulted in the frequent use of time sampling methods. However, ratings of motherinfant interaction have yielded higher cross-time stability (Clarke-Stewart & Hevey, 1981) and higher prediction of child competence (Bakeman & Brown, 1980). Maccoby and Martin’s (1983) review of studies of parent behavior revealed increases in concurrent use of different data sources and methods. Observations in different situations, data collection with different methods, and data from different observers provide complementary perspectives on mother-infant interaction. A major goal of this research is to identify replicated dimensions of maternal behavior during infancy by factor analyses of two types of data: (a) estimates of frequency of discrete behaviors and judgments of maternal affect during specific child care situations and (b) ratings of maternal behavior for an entire home visit that included both observations of specific child care situations and an extensive interview with the mothers. Independent analyses of data collected at 4 months and 12 months postnatally allow cross-age replication of the identified dimensions. Correlations among factor scores for 4 and 12 months allow analysis of stability and predictability of the dimensions. Determination of predictive validity of major dimensions of mother-infant interaction from correlations with child adaptive behavior during kindergarten is also a goal of this study. Reviews of research on parent behavior with older children have often focused upon correlations with child social and emotional development (Becker, 1964; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Martin, 1975), yet studies of mother-infant interaction have more often reported significant correlations with child intellectual development (Beckwith et al., 1976; Bee et al.,
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
381
1982; Clark-Stewart, 1973; Olson, Bates, & Bayles, 1984; Ramey, Farran, & Campbell, 1979; Van Doorminck, Caldwell, Wright, & Frankenburg, 1981). Maternal behavior at 12, 18, and 24 months has shown higher correlations than maternal behavior at 4 and 6 months with child preschool intelligence scores (Bee et al., 1982; Bradley & Caldwell, 1976). METHOD Subjects
The sample at birth consisted of 321 low-income women who received prenatal care from public health clinics, and whose full-term infants did not have major biomedical problems during the perinatal period. The initial sample of mothers were 72% black and 28% white, 44% under the age of 20 years, 47% with at least one other child, 40% married, and 50% with less than 12 years of education. Of the subjects who were enrolled in the project at birth, 83% participated at 4 months and 84% participated at 12 months postnatally. Demographic characteristics and initial mother-infant interaction scores of the follow-up sample were not significantly different from the initial sample. Data Collection Procedures Observations of mother-infant interaction during specific child care situations in the home were completed at the child’s age of 4 and 12 months. Data were collected by college graduate data collectors (N=7) who were trained and supervised by a developmental psychologist. Two data collectors, one black and one white, visited each home at 4 and 12 months. Both data collectors observed child care situations of bathing, dressing, and play scheduled at the convenience of the mother. Observations were recorded immediately after each child care situation. After leaving the home, each data collector independently rated the mother’s behavior with the infant during the approximately 2-hour home visit. Observation methods were developed to describe mother and infant behavior during bathing, dressing, and play. The observation categories that were selected to describe maternal attachment to the infant focussed on maternal acceptance, interaction, and responsiveness to the infant as well as infant’s responses to the mother. An observation manual provided detailed instructions for observers (Saunders, Schaefer, Bauman, Siegel, & Ingram, 1978). Items were based upon previous studies of mother-infant interaction and observations of pilot subjects in the child care situations. Observation forms for each child care situation included approximately 30 specific behaviors. The frequency of discrete behaviors was estimated on a 4-point scale of never, rare/y (occurs once or twice), somtimes (occurs 3 to 6 times), and often (occursmore than 6 times). Qualitative items such as mother’s “gentle” and “sensitive” behavior were estimated on a 4-point scale ranging from not at all to very much.
382
SCHAEFER
The Attachment Inventory (Schaefer, Ingram, Bauman, Siegel, & Saunders, 1978), a maternal behavior rating method, was developed to describe the mother’s behavior with the infant during the entire visit. Many of the 75 items were adapted from items describing maternal behavior during the first 3 years of life (Schaefer, Bell, & Bayley, 1959) and from narrative descriptions of maternal behavior during laboratory observations in the first year of life (Brody, 1956). Concepts that were sampled with both positive and negative behavior items included, but were not limited to, affection and contact (Klaus & Kennell, 1976) and acceptance and involvement (Becker, 1964; Schaefer, 1959). Teacher ratings of the child’s social and emotional behavior and academic competence during kindergarten were collected with the Classroom Behavior Inventory (CBI) which included 5-item scales for extraversion, curiosity/ creativity, verbal intelligence, task orientation, independence, and considerateness (Schaefer & Edgerton, 1978). Factor analyses of the CBI have identified three dimensions of adaptive behavior best defined by (a) extraversion, (b) considerateness, and (c) verbal intelligence, with substantial loadings on curiosity/creativity, independence, and task orientation (Schaefer & Edgerton, 1982). The three factors are similar to factors of social assertiveness, social responsibility, and cognitive competence identified by Baumrind (1982) from Q-sorts and ratings of child behavior for a sample of middle-class Caucasian g-year-old children. Validity of the CBI scales has been reported by Kohn (1977), McKinney and Forman (1982), Schaefer (1981), and Schaefer and Edgerton (1985). Data Analyses Means and standard deviations of all items of the observations and ratings were calculated to examine distributions and variabilities. Interobserver reliabilities were also calculated for all items. In order to identify major dimensions of mother-infant interaction, observations of each of the child care situations and ratings of the entire home visit were factor analyzed separately at both 4 and 12 months using iterated principal component analyses with varimax rotation (Harman, 1976). The use of Cattell’s (1966) scree criterion for retention of factors resulted in rotation of a small number of factors with substantial proportions of common factor variance. A second criterion for factor retention was rotation of an equal number of factors for each child care situation in order to increase probability of identification of similar factors. Factor scores for each of the child care situations were computed, and interobserver reliabilities of the factor scores were determined. Factor scores were intercorrelated and factor analyzed to determine similarity of factors identified from observations of the three child care situations. Interobserver/interrater reliabilities were determined for factor scores from the combined observations of child care situations and from the Attachment Inventory ratings at 4 and 12
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
383
months. Summed factor scores for the two data collectors were intercorrelated to determine correlations between factor scores for different methods and ages. Finally, factor scores for the observations and ratings were correlated with teacher ratings of child behavior during kindergarten.
RESULTS Factor Analyses of Observations of Child Care Situations and Attachment Inventory Ratings Cattell’s scree criterion for factor retention and rotation consistently revealed three factors for the child care situations at both 4 and 12 months, with the first factor including the most variance, the second and third factors including approximately equal proportions of variance, and subsequent factors including substantially lower and small proportions of variance. Proportions of total variance included in the three factors for child care situations of bathing, dressing, and play were 38.6070, 39.1%, and 32.5% at 4 months, and 41.5%, 41.2070, and 37.4070 at 12 months, respectively. Despite the high unreliability and unique variance that is typical of items as contrasted to reliable scales, the factors that were rotated include substantial common factor variance. Very similar loadings for the items that best describe the three factors for bathing and dressing observations are reported in Table 1. The clearly replicated factors were labeled Positive Mother-Infant Interaction, Mother Gentle, and Mother Consoles the Crying Infant.’ Unreported factor loadings for factors from bathing and dressing observations at 12 months replicated the factors identified at 4 months. The factor loadings of items that describe Positive Mother-Infant Interaction which included both visual and vocal interaction were similar for the two situations. The factor Mother Gentle was identical to that found at 4 months. Again, the third factor for both 4 and 12 months had high loadings on items that describe infant negative affect and the mother’s consoling behavior. For the observation of the play situation, three factors were identified from factor analysis of items at 4 and 12 months. Two Play factors at each age differentiated (a) one-to-one mother-infant positive interaction and (b) positive interaction involving a provided toy, with the first more highly correlated with Positive Mother-Infant Interaction factors during bathing and dressing. A factor with loadings on infant negative affect and mother’s consoling was identified at both 4 and 12 months. Although the factor analyses for the play situation are not reported here, the factor scores for the play situations were included in the analyses that integrate factors identified from observations of mother-child interaction in different situations. ’ Unreported
statistical analyses are available upon request from the author.
at I
M smiles
Nofe. All a l=Positive
decimal points Mother-Infant
M consoles I: Verbally M consoles I: Physically I cries, fusses
M’s handling of I: Insensitive M washes/dresses I: Roughly
contact
to M
omitted. Interaction;
I: En face I: Makes eye
M washes/dresses I: Gently M’s handling of I: Sensitive
contact with contact with l’s sounds
at Mother (M) makes happy sounds
M’s visual M’s visual M imitates
Infant (I) smiles I COOS, gurgles,
items
00
Gentle;
-03 -20
Ill=Mother
Consoles
-14 -41
-07
-04
-05
13 12
03
66 49 63
63 67
70
Dressing
Crying
Infant.
-05 -19
-04
-71 -60
81 79
15 00 39
06 17
01
Bathing
II
Factors”
00 10
-03 02
09
02 -60 -68
81
17 18 22
-13
Dressing
TABLE 1 of Bathing and Dressing at 4 Months two observers per subject.
08 -00 -01
64 58 57
00 75 67
Bathing
I
Loadings of Observations N=266 subjects with
II=Mother
Factor
73
02 64
06 05
-03 -01
-09
22 27 09
-10 -17
Bathing
III
79 73 71
02
06 12 01
19
16 23
-22 10
-17
Dressing
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
385
The two factors that were retained and rotated from factor analyses of the items of the Attachment Inventory reported in Table 2 included 43.3% of the total variance at 4 months and 50.9% at 12 months. Items with high loadings on the two factors at both age levels that are reported in Table 2 describe mother-infant Positive Interaction and Punitiveness/Irritability. In order to determine replicability of these factors for different samples, separate factor analyses were computed for black and white subjects and for mothers with less than 12 years or 12 years or more of education. Factor structures were essentially identical for each group. Analyses of the items that had high loadings on the factor of Positive MotherInfant Interaction for bathing and dressing at 4 and 12 months revealed good distributions, substantial variability, and good interobserver reliability. However, items that describe the factor of Gentle versus Insensitive behavior show a low frequency of negative behaviors and low variability at both 4 and 12 months. Means, standard deviations, and interrater reliabilities for items of the Attachment Inventory that describe the factor Positive Interaction show good distributions, substantial variability, and good interrater reliabilities at both 4 and 12 months. Although maternal behaviors described by items included in the factor Punitiveness/Irritability are infrequent at both 4 and 12 months, higher frequencies, variabilities, and interrater reliabilities are found at 12 months. Integration of Factors From Observations of Child Care Situations and From Ratings In order to determine whether factors identified from observations of bathing, dressing, and play situations at 4 months are similar, factor scores were computed for the two observers, and interobserver reliabilities and intercorrelations of factor scores across situations were calculated. Uncorrected interobserver reliabilities for specific child care situations that varied from .57 to .83 with a median of .69 are higher than the intercorrelations of scores for the combined observers for similar factors across situations that varied from .20 to .67 with a median of .41. A factor analysis of intercorrelations of the factor scores for the three child care situations yielded appropriate loadings for each child care situation on combined factors of Positive Mother-Infant Interaction, Mother Gentle, and Mother Consoling the Crying Infant. The bathing and dressing factors that were obtained from similar observation forms have higher factor loadings than the play factors on the factors for the combined child care situations. The analysis revealed that replicated maternal behavior factors can be identified from observations of different child care situations, despite the fact that correlations of maternal behavior factor scores across situations are of moderate size. A similar analysis of interobserver reliability and of intercorrelations of factor scores for the three child care situations was completed for 12-month data. The median uncorrected interobserver reliability of .80 with a range from .52
I
With
12 Months
(N=247)
playful irritated irritable doesn’t
Note. All decimal ’ I=lrritoble/Punitive;
points
omitted. II=Positive Interaction.
with some of infant’s behavior. at times with an irritable voice. rough, and unsympathetic with
interaction with infant. when caring for infant. when infant fusses, cries,
Punishes infant when displeased. Shouts and yells ot infant.
Seems irritated Talks to infant Voice is harsh,
Enjoys Seems Seems
infant.
drink
his/her milk,
bb 64
bb 69 68
-31 65 65
67 70
67 67 72
-40 61 67
-40 -43
-29 -28 -32 -29
-28 -28
him/her.
etc.
12 Months
4 Months
and
Plays with infant in ways that please Loving and playful in care of infant.
playing.
TABLE 2 (N=217)
-22
and
at 4 Months
-12 -17 -19 -31
Items
-14
Inventory
Sings, hums, or coos to infant. Plays little games with infant. Admires infant’s abilities to do things. Often smiles at infant.
Attachment
-05 -06 -22
for
00 -04 -11
loadings
Points out things infant con do. Reports how smart or how good infant is. Stimulates infant frequently, handling, e.g., lots of talking, Praises infant’s new responses or responses to new events.
Factor
Per
-07 -01
-09 -10 -01
-00 -12
-27 -24 -19
65 -32 -27
70 71 60
65 77 78 76 -09 -14
65 70 bb
71 73 67
BO 73 81 75
12 Months 74
II
Subject
73 82 78
4 Months
Observers
Factorsa
Two
MOTHER-INFANT
INTERACTION
387
to .89 again shows higher agreement between observers than intercorrelations of similar maternal behavior factors across child care situations that range from .34 to .68. Again the factors from bathing and dressing have higher correlations with one another than with factors for the play situation and have higher loadings on the three factors for the combined observations of child care situations. Uncorrected interobserver reliabilities for factors from the combined observations of child care situations and interrater reliabilities for factors of the Attachment Inventory at 4 and 12 months are reported in Table 3. After factor scores for the two data collectors were summed, correlations between factor scores from different methods and for different ages were computed. Correlations between similar maternal behavior factor scores from different methods at the same age are .49 for positive interaction at 4 months, .75 for positive interaction at 12 months, and - .63 between the Mother Gentle factor from observations of specific situations and Mother Punitive factor from the Attachment Inventory ratings at both 4 and 12 months. Correlations among 4- and 1Zmonth Positive Interaction factor scores from observations and from ratings of .46, .47, .48, and .55 are substantially higher than correlations of the Gentle observation factor and Not Punitive rating factor scores between 4 and 12 months of .Ol, .05, .09, and .33. The observation factor Mother Consoling the Crying Infant at 4 months is not significantly correlated with the similar observation factor at 12 months but is correlated significantly with the rating factor of Positive Interaction at 4 months and with both observation and rating factors of Positive Interaction at 12 months. Correlation of Maternal Behavior Factors With Child Behavior in Kindergarten The predictive validity of factors of mother-infant interaction was determined by correlating each of the 4- and 1Zmonth observation and rating factors with teacher ratings of the child’s adaptive behavior in kindergarten. Only the correlations for the Positive Interaction factors yielded significant correlations with child behavior during kindergarten (Table 4). Both observation and rating factors of Positive Interaction at 4 months were significantly correlated with child verbal intelligence and curiosity/creativity. A stronger pattern of correlations of the Positive Interaction factor for observations and ratings with child adaptive behavior was found at 12 months, with highest correlations with scales of verbal intelligence and curiosity/creativity. Significant but lower positive correlations were found between Positive Interaction at 12 months and child independence, task orientation, and extraversion. Somewhat higher correlations are seen with rating factors than with observation factors of Positive Interaction at both 4 and 12 months. The Gentle observation factors and Punitive rating factors at 4 and 12 months did not show significant correlations with teacher ratings of child social behavior or competence in kindergarten.
interaction interaction
3. Positive 4. Positive
(R-12) (O-12)
(O-4) (R-4)
Note. All decimal points ’ O=combined observations b Uncorrected interobserver * Significant at p I .Ol .
5. Gentle (O-4) 6. Punitive (R-4) 7. Punitive (R-12) 8. Gentle (O-12) 9. Consoling infant (O-4) 10. Infant affect (O-12)
interaction interaction
(Method-Age)”
1. Positive 2. Positive
Factor
-11 -11
40’ -21’ -03 09 3B* -09
16 06 03
46’
(72) 55*
2
Scores
03
49’ 4B* 47’
Wb
1
of Factor
and
-03 -22 30’ 26’ 05
11
(69) 75’
.3
Intercorrelations
omitted. N varies from 160 to 238. of child care: R=ratings on Attachment reliabilities in diagonal cells.
Reliability 4
3 Across
Inventory;
06 33* 03
(79) 02 03 -18
TABLE
4=at
Methods
4 months:
(71) -63’ -09 01 03 -13
5
Different
12=ot
33* -05 05 -03
(16)
6
and 7
12 months.
(30) -63’ 01 -01
Different
Ages
(79) 04 05
8
(79) -10
9
(87)
10
MOTHER-INFANT
TABLE Correlations
of Positive
Interaction With
389
INTERACTION
Factors From Child Behavior
4 Observations in Kindergarten Interaction
and
Ratings
Behavior
Scales
Ratings
4 months (N=lB4)
12 Months
.06 .19’
.17* .29’**
.17’ .lO
.33*** .29*** .19*
Extraversion Curiosity/Creativity Verbal Intelligence Independence Task Orientation Consideroteness l
p<.os.
.07 .07 ** pc.01.
+**
12 Months
Factors
Observations
Child
at 4 and
(N=
.lB*
160)
4 Months
12 Months
(N=200)
(N=211)
.09 .21** .23**
.16’
.OB .lO .lO
.31*** .20+* .lO
.37*** .36***
p<.BBl.
The replicated dimensions of maternal behavior from several child care situations, from different methods, and at two ages of the infant provide evidence of convergence within this study and across studies upon dimensions of positive interaction and negative interaction. The dimension of positive interaction that is replicated at 4 and 12 months is similar to Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) factor of positive attentiveness at 2 years, to Clarke-Stewart’s (1973) factor of optimal maternal care for the period from 9 to 18 months, and to Belsky, Taylor, and Rovine’s (1984) factor of reciprocal interaction at 1, 3, and 9 months. Significant correlations of Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) positive attentiveness at 2 years with factors of social at 1 month, social responsiveness at 3 months, and mutual social and intellectual stimulation at 8 months suggest that a dimension of positive responsiveness, attentiveness, and interaction can be identified from 1 month through 24 months. Variables with significant loadings on similar factors across ages in Beckwith et al. (1976) and in Belsky et al. (1984) included vocalizations which are not commands or criticism, summary measures of attentiveness, contingent vocalizations, face-to-face talk, stimulation, and object presentation. The bipolar dimension of gentle, sensitive versus irritable, punitive behavior that was identified at 4 and 12 months is similar to Cohen and Beckwith’s (1979) factor of negative attentiveness which included variables of mandatory bids, criticism, interferences, and rejection of child’s bids. Beckwith et al. (1976) also isolated a factor identified as control at 3 and 8 months defined by demands and criticism. Dimensions of punitiveness/irritability and negative attentiveness are similar to a dimension of maternal hostility defined by ratings of punitiveness, irritability, punishment, strictness, and use of fear to control from observations during the first 3 years (Schaefer, 1959). Although negative interaction has been quantified by ratings in this study, components of negative attentiveness have also been quantified by counts of discrete behaviors (Beckwith et al., 1976).
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Longitudinal correlations in this study as well as in Cohen and Beckwith (1979) and in Belsky et al. (1984) show substantial stability over time for a dimension of positive mother-infant interaction with components of attentiveness, responsiveness, interaction, and stimulation. Clarke-Stewart (1973) also reported stability of maternal responsiveness to social signals of the infant from 11 to 17 months. Convergence in the identification of a dimension of positive interaction as well as correlations between similar factors at different ages suggest that this dimension can probably be identified in other studies and at other ages during infancy. However, the dimension of punitiveness and irritability in this study and dimensions of control at 3 and 8 months and negative attentiveness at 24 months (Cohen & Beckwith, 1979) do not show significant stability during infancy. Lower frequencies of occurrence, poorer distributions of negative interactions, and lower reliability of ratings of punitiveness and irritability during a single home visit contribute to lower stability through time of the dimension of negative maternal affect and behavior. Aggregation of repeated observations may be more necessary for reliable data on negative interaction than for positive interaction (Wachs, 1987). Negative maternal affect and behavior during a single observation may partially reflect the mother’s emotional state rather than a stable trait or relationship with the infant. Repeated observation sessions and observation at higher ages may have contributed to stability of the dimension of love versus hostility from 0 to 3 years to 9 to 14 years reported by Schaefer and Bayley (1960). The observation dimension defined by infant crying and mother’s consoling behavior at 4 and 12 months was also identified by infant cry/fuss and mother soothe at 1, 3, and 9 months by Belsky et al. (1984). Contingency of maternal consoling behavior upon infant negative affect which is unstable over time contributes to low stability of this dimension in Belsky et al. and in this study. Correlations of observations of consoling at 4 months with positive interaction at 12 months suggests that mother’s consoling response to the infant’s cry may predict maternal responsiveness to the infant in other situations. This analysis suggests that reliability and stability of observations of motherinfant interaction during the first and second year of life can be improved by observations in several different situations. Observation during specific motherinfant interaction situations may result in higher stability across occasions or age periods than naturalistic observation (Wachs, 1987). The analyses of observations of bathing, dressing, and play situations at 4 and 12 months reveal higher correlations between two observers for the same situation than correlations among their summed scores across situations. Correlations between observers for scores from the same method are typically higher than correlations of their summed scores between methods. Thus, moderate although significant correlations are found among maternal behavior scores for different situations, methods, observers, occasions, and age periods. Aggregation of scores for replicated dimensions of mother-infant interaction across different sources of
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data may contribute to reliability, stability, and predictive validity of estimates of mother-infant interaction. These analyses also contribute to understanding the strengths of counting discrete behaviors in specific situations and of rating behavior for an entire home visit. Higher interobserver reliability was found for observations Of SPecific child care situations than for ratings of the entire home visit. Despite lower reliability, ratings had equal or higher stability over time, thus replicating the findings on stability of Clarke-Stewart and Hevey (1981). Somewhat higher predictive validity of ratings in this study and in Bakeman and Brown (1980) also suggests that ratings, despite lower interrater reliability, may yield valid descriptions of maternal behavior. The finding that mother-infant interaction during the first year of life is significantly correlated with child academic competence during kindergarten complements earlier research on correlations between mother-infant interaction and child competence in the preschool years. Clark-Stewart (1973) reported that maternal verbal stimulation was correlated with child competence at approximately 18 months. Other mother-infant interaction behaviors also loaded on Clarke-Stewart’s factor of maternal optimal care which was significantly correlated with child competence. Cohen and Beckwith (1979) reported that social interaction of mother and infant at 1 month is related to child competence including receptive language and Bayley scores at 2 years. Bee et al. (1982) found that HOME scores (Caldwell & Bradley, 1978) and teaching scores at 4 and 12 months are significantly correlated with child IQ and receptive and expressive language at 36 months. Bradley and Caldwell (1976) also reported that HOME scores at 6 and 24 months are significantly correlated with child IQ scores at 54 months. Thus, many studies of mother-infant interaction have reported significant long-term prediction of child intellectual development as contrasted to limited evidence of long-term correlations with child social and emotional behavior (Bradley, Caldwell, & Rock, 1988; Wachs & Gruen, 1982). This study suggests that mother-infant interaction may also predict the child’s motivation for learning, including curiosity and instrumental independence, both of which are correlated with verbal intelligence ratings. A possible explanation for the correlations of the stable dimension of motherinfant interaction with child intellectual development is suggested by Vygotsky’s (1978) discussion of the “internalization of higher psychological functions.” Vygotsky stated (p. 57) that an “interpersonal process is transformed into an intrapersonal one,” and the “transformation of an interpersonal process into an intrapersonal one is the result of a long series of developmental events.” A relatively stable pattern of positive interaction between mother and child apparently has an early and continuing influence on the child’s verbal intelligence and academic competence. Further replications of dimensions of positive interaction and negative interaction may be possible through factor analyses of existing data. The numerous studies of mother-infant interaction might be examined to determine whether
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behaviors were included that have defined replicated dimensions. Factor analysis and rotation of those behaviors might replicate and provide more comprehensive behavioral descriptions of major dimensions of mother-infant interaction. Analyses of reliability, stability, and predictive validity of replicated dimensions would contribute significantly to integration of research on measurement and correlates of mother-infant interaction. REFERENCES Bakeman, R., &Brown, J.V. (1980). Early interaction: Consequences for social and mental development at three years. Child Development, SI, 437-441. Baumrind, D. (1982). Are androgynous individuals more effective persons and parents? Child Development, 53, 44-75. Becker, W.C. (1964). Consequences of parental discipline. In M.L. Hoffman & L.W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 1). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Beckwith, L., Cohen, S.E., Kopp, C.B., Parmelee, A.H., & Marcy, T.G. (1976). Caregiverinfant interaction and early cognitive development in preterm infants. Child Development, 47, 579-581. Bee, H.L., Barnard, K.E., Eyres, S.J., Gray, C.A., Hammond, M.A., Spietz, A.L., Snyder, C., &Clark, B. (1982). Prediction of IQ and language skill from perinatal status, child performance, family characteristics, and mother-infant interaction. Child Development, 53, 1134-1156.
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