- Email: [email protected]
Direct correlation of human skull vault thickness with geomagnetic intensity in some northern hemisphere populations
Francis Ivanhoe
Direct Correlation of Human Skull Vault Thickness with Geomagnetic Intensity in some Northern Hemisphere Populations
Department of PharmacoloD, Uniuersity of San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143 and Sonoma State Hospital, Elridge, Calzfornia 95431, U.S. A.
The purpose of this investigation was to test to what extent the recently discovered preferential occurrence of thick fossil human bone during eras of high geomagnetic intensity corresponds to actual skull vault thickness (SVT) measurements. A modification of Twiesselmann’s direct osteometric method was followed, employing nine of his standard points: frontal bosses, midfrontal, bregma, parietal bosses, obelion, pterion, asterion, lambda and cerebral fossas. An average SVT index, computed relative to the baseline modern values, was used in intergroup comparisons. Ambient geomagnetic intensities during lifetime were taken from data published by Wollin et al. (1971) and Bucha et al. (1970), in dipole moment units (DMU). Altogether 36 such SVT-DMU northern hemisphere populations of the last 360,000 years were studied, including 4 from Mesoamerica. SVT index is a direct function of DMU for these data. Depending on taxonomic and other pooling arrangements, the correlation coefficient (T) of the least-squares regression equation varies between 0.62 and 0.97, and is highly significant. Review of the medical literature leads to the advancement of a plurifactorial biomagnetic mechanism to account for this osteotrophic phenomenon.
Received 20 September 1978 and accepted 1 February 1979
1. Introduction The
worldwide
preferential
periods of high geomagnetic isms have Briefly,
advanced
my hypothesis
intensity 1970;
been
making
1969;
Wollin
cells (Bassett
of thick
to explain
this non-random
1971),
et al., 1968,
1973,
correlation measured
a first successful
1974;
regions because a straightforward vault is thought human skeleton.
Bassett,
hemisphere.
varies accordingly.
based on the highly intensity
of 36 Caucasoid,
abundance
measurement
technique
to be representative
on the bone In this paper
significant
direct
values and the corresponding Mongoloid
of comparative
and fossil populations than other anatomical
material
(Twiesselmann,
of bone thickness
2. Materials
1975).
of geomagnetic
and the total amount
The skull vault was used rather
of the greater
mechan-
(Ivanhoe,
influence
19741977),
organism
geomagnetic
human skull vault thicknesses
from the northern
geological
field strength varies in time (Bucha et al.,
test of this hypothesis,
found to hold between
during
physiologic
distribution
so does its positive trophic
of osseous tissue laid down by the developing I report
bone
bone mass is a direct function
as the earth’s magnetic et al.,
fossil human
has been noted, and plausible
states that human
during growth:
Cox,
occurrence intensity
and the availability
1941) : thickness
of
of the skull
and bone mass elsewhere
in the
and Methods
Twiesselmann (1941) has developed a practical method for the measurement of cranial wall thickness : the datum is obtained directly with osteometric calipers at twelve standard anatomical reference points of the braincase. In adapting Twiesselmann’s method to my purposes, I have excluded his three lowest placed points-temporal squamas, cerebellar fossas and zygomatic arches-which, along with the base, are often missing from poorly Journal of Human Evolution (1979) 8, 433-444 0047-2484/79/040433+
12 $02.00/O
@
1979 Academic
Press Inc. (London)
Limited
and
Paris
38.48 38.48 38.48 34.48 16.48 48.54 48.54 20.48 15.48
39.50
39.49 39.49 46 39.48 33.38
30.38 30.38
48 males females 47.48 42 39.50 39.49 39.50 38.44 39.48
and references
SPY 1 SPY 2 Tabun 1 Skhul4 skhu19 Chapelle-aux-Saints Ferrassie 1 Amud Combe Capelle Predmost 3 Predmost 4 Predmost 9 Predmost 10 Oberkassel 1 Oberkassel 2 Rochereil Cheix Sauveterre Byblos eneolithic Sialk Copper Age Hastitre neolithic French eneolithic Mari Assyrians Hyksos Egyptians
Swanscombe Suard Ehringsdorf Fonttchevade Neanderthal Shanidar 4
Brussels
Populations
Table 1
5.41 5.97 4.86 6 9 no standard 7.2 7 10 6 7 9 8.5 4.5 6 3 3 7 5.8 5 5.76 5.87 6.27 6.56 5.38 6.30
y------FB
Summary
4.50 4.89 4.10 7 4.0 -7 7 point i 5.7 5 8 6 8.2 5.0 9.0 5 4 5 5.53 4.89 5.65 5.64 4.88 5.95
F Near
OB East,
__ _ ~____
A. Europe,
PB
6.1 5.5 6 5 5 6.0 5.0 5.3 6.1 5.5 5.89 5.46 5.64 5.25 4.86 5.50
6 -
4.1 3.2 3-8 4.04 4.25 3.73 3.90 3.40 3.70
-
_-
-
__~ ___ _-. ._
a
7.0 7 > > 6 4 4 3.5 4 3 t 4.6 3 4.2 4.78 5.74 3.97 4.00 4.92 5.75
7.1 8.5 6 8 5.5 5 4
5.5 5.1 -
3.56 3.99 3.14 5 -.
CF
3.90 4.34 3.46 9.2 8 6.5 8 8.0
AS
3.14 3.52 2.76 6.2 -
Africa
~._~_
North
thickness (mm) n --------------PT L
16 05 11 16 30 23 23 10 23
.___._ -. -___.-__
9000 8750 8500 7500 5000 5000 4250 3800 3600
43
27,000
06 (09)
15,000
34,000 34,000 34,000 30,000 28,000
-02 09 49 39
8.5 a.2 8.0 6.1 6.4 6.4 7.4 7.8 8.1
9.0
7.0
11.7 11.7 12.0 10.0
11.7
11.4
41,000 27 61 (54)
10.3
50,000
12.1 8.0 7.0 7.0 9.6 9.8
270,000 105,000 85,000 85,000 56,000 55,000 65 30 16 37 55 49 44
8.3
DMU
100-300
Dating: assigned years BP
hemisphere
00
SVTI
data: fossil and recent man, northern
5.70 5.87 6.13 6.18 6.37 6.55 5.18 5.37 5.71 10.5 11.2 11.0 9 6 8 8.0 7.5 8 7 8 8 10.5 8.8 data: skull vault average only 10 lo.I0 8.2 8.7 8.7 8 I 6 5 10 10 11 11 6 5 6 6 G 7.5 7 7 8 9 8 6 11 6 9.5 G.5 6 6 7.5 6 4.5 5 5.0 12.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 5.9 8.5 7 7 6 7.5 8 7.2 4.8 8 8 8 7.37 6.88 7.07 7.22 7.10 6.43 7.58 8.85 6.40 6.68 6.90 7.78 6.82 6.65 6.72 7.65 5.60 5.24 6.14 7.10 6.00 6.25 7.11 7.35
5.29 5.65 4.92 7.2 7 6.0
B
Skull vault
of adult skull vault thickness
_
?z= 13* n= 101 ,t= 24* n= 15* n=5f n=9*
F
F
F
cast
n=400* n=200 n=200 cast
Remarks
Chinese males Sinanthropus 3 Sinanthropus 2 Sinanthropus 10 Sinanthropus 12
48 28,37,40
males females 35.43 21,40,43 43
39.48 16.48 1.48 48.57
and references
Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlapacoya Tepexpan Astahuacan 1 Astahuacan 2
Galley Hill Sialk Iron Age Susa Palmyra
Populations
6.69 7.15 6.23 IO.7 8.2 5.9 7.7
6.42 10.5 8.2 11-o 10.0
4.62 8.0 8.0 6.0 8.2
10 5.67 6.48 6.38
B
6.26 6.58 5.94 IO-9 5.6 6.3 6.1
5 4.57 5.19 5.55
F
6.02 12.5 11.0 9.6 10-O
6.22 6.42 6.01 6.3 6.0 7.0 6.8
a 5.30 6.62 7.20
L
PT
4.5 3.54 3.78 3.73
3.28 3.21 3.34 4.3 4.0 4.9 5.8
3.30 9.0 8.1 7.0 7.8
B. Mesoamerica 6.24 7.14 6.40 7.36 6.07 6.92 5.2 10.4 6.1 8.0 7.6 8.6 9.0 C. China 6.42 7.06 10.9 15.0 7.8 10.0 8.5 9.0 6.8 8-7
9 5.59 7.94 6.96
Near East, North Africa
OB
(mm)
9 7.17 8.14 7.73
A. Europe,
PB
Skull vault thickness L
12.8 10-2
6.52 17.8 -
6.14 6.58 5.71 8.4 9.9 8.0 7.9
7 5.46 6.55 5.12
AS
4.70 9.8 6.2 6.5 7.6
5.02 5.21 4.83 > 5.9 4.2 5.7 4.3 >
4.1 4.11 546 5.23
-------, CF
360,000
61
9700
20
50-100 360,000
23,000 11,000
24 11
03 104
500
3300 2900 2400 1700
21
40 09 30 26
SVTI
Dating: assigned yearsBP
16.0
8.1 16.0
8.8
9.4 10.0
9.0
8.8 a.7 11.0 11.5
DMU
casts
cast
n=49
F
F
n= 151* n=74 n=77
cast n=20* ?z= 14* n== 191
Remarks
Notes: FB = frontal bosses; F = midfrontal; B = bregma; PB = parietal bosses; OB = obelion; L = lambda; PT = pterion; AS = asterion; CF = cerebral fossas; see text. SVTI = skull vault thickness index. DMU = geomagnetic field strength in dipole moment units. (SVTI) = population SVTI excluding individuals measured at fewer than fivestandard points. Sex of skull population is male unless otherwise noted; F = female; * indicates a skull population made up of males and females.
5.72 9.0 12.2 8.0 9.6
5.04 5.04 5.05 5.4 3.8 7.0 5.7
10 5.48 5.70 6.54
Y-------FB
2
5
$
E
3
; fi
s
F.
436 preserved bregma
skulls.
The remaining
(B), parietal
and cerebral
IVANHOE
9 standard
bosses (PB),
fossas (CF)-share
obelion
points-frontal 1ambda
(OB),
the same neurocranial
bosses (FB), midfrontal (L), pterion
embryologic
(PT),
asterion
(F), (AS)
origin and are farther
removed from the osteotrophic effect of muscle pull. The bone thickness data in Table 1 are listed by skull population
means for each of
these 9 standard
(FB,
.4S, CF),
points.
In the case of symmetrically
right and left sides are averaged,
skulls with 4 or more standard for thickness.
points
or the figure for the available
points only are included.
in all, with sizes varying from a single specimen measured
bilateral There
PB, OB, PT,
side is entered;
are 36 skull populations
to 400, for a total number of 762 braincases
Part A of the table contains
all the suitable
data from Europe,
the Near East and North Africa that I was able to recover from the literature: 29 skull populations,
with the Brussels-Paris
as their baseline
(Twiesselmann,
were
by
measured
Oberkassel 1934)]
(Weidenreich,
by workers
technique CF;
(Vallois,
[Suard
1958)]
(M23),
by French
[Shanidar
(Steward, no standard
Table
series (N =
excavated
terminal
Romano, locations China.
(Romano,
The
site in
baseline
of Mexico.
mann’s
original method.
Under
for this section
casts at the American I have divided
populations-skulls from layers
1975).
ecologies
In the absence
by Weidenreich
(1943)
In the intergroup cumbersome
Under
of the
Part B of
I measured
myself,
adult crania from a recently (Mirambell,
et al., 1975; and Romano,
and early Holocene
skull thicknesses Museum
(1941)
1967;
1974) and
crania
modern
I measured
of Natural
Pleistocene
differences
Chinese
that
Tlapacoya
is Twiesselmann’s
and a considerable
of a modern
by authors
from other
Part C I have listed 3 skull populations
the middle
reported
1939)]
for this group is the Tlatelolco
History,
between
females baseline,
from males
myself on WeidenTwiessel-
material
1, Choukoutien;
in the associated
time interval
Chinese
following
Sinanthropus
2, 10 and 12, from layers 8-9 of locality
10-l l-because
suggest different
City.
1960; Oakley
series (N = 49), and the Sinanthropus reich’s
skull populations
Mexico
1
and fewer still
The many missing entries in
The baseline
1974) are late Pleistocene
in the Valley
& Keith,
of much of the fossil material.
directions.
(Genovts,
and Ferrassie
method;
data may give an indication
15 1) : these are the racked decapitated
Postclassic
1974), Tepexpan
Astahuacan
(McCown
(Matiegka, osteometric
at FB, F, B, PB, L, AS and
Chapelle-aux-Saints
to Twiesselmann’s.
condition
printed
and Predmost
Twiesselmann’s
and Skhul
in Part A
Neandertal,
of the less satisfactory
using Twiesselmann’s
the 4 Mesoamerican
Twiesselmann’s
[Ehringsdorf,
et al., 1970);
a version
there are
series (N = 400) serving of skulls entered
a few
but whose detailed
which are then related
tzompantli
(Susuki
anthropologists
technique
1 I have placed
himself;
1970) ; Fontechevade,
Part A reflect the fragmentary following
Amud following
1963) ; Tabun
cemetery
The great majority
(1941)
which approximates
(Piveteau,
following
points measured
1928);
presumably
of Martin
fewer
1941).
Twiesselmann
modern
into two
and skull 3,
mammalian them
(Oakley
Sinanthropus
faunas
et al.,
11, classified
as a female, was set aside.
comparison
of cranial
thicknesses,
a point-by-point
: I developed the skull vault thickness index (SVTI)
appoach
proves
to obviate this problem.
For a given skull population, the mean thickness measured at each standard point is compared to the corresponding mean thickness of the pertinent sexed baseline population; the difference between the two is expressed as a percentage relative to the baseline, plus or minus : the SVTI
is the arithmetic
mean of these individual
standard
point percentage
thickness differences. In Table 1, I have set the Brussels-Paris Caucasoid baseline at 00: relative to this, the Chinese males baseline SVTI equals 03 and the Tlatelolco tzompantli
CORRELATION
21.
Chapelle-aux-Saints,
the highest,
at -02,
Dating
given first priority metry.
In
the
(Ackerman, Wernick,
1973;
with
of more
1974).
lasted between
obtained
If the
than
43-70,000
50,000
best
of Combe
Capelle
specimen, the early
I have assigned
360,000
(1964a) Oakley
et al.,
hemisphere
(Chapel& glaciation 400,000
(1960).
culture
I continue
and his Columbia
ended around
(Szabo errors
BP (Oakley,
BP;
similarly,
& Collins,
(19646)
to adhere
to the late
earlier c. 34,000 BP.
better
other crucial According
to 100,000
et al., 1970; Ku & Broecker,
1966),
units (DMU Listed DMU
=
the 1960;
reported
by
events in the northern
(Erickson
favored
et al., 1964; Ku
lines of paleoclimatic
evidence
to this formulation,
the Giinz
et al., 1964)) the Mindel lasted between
BP (Dansgaard and the Wiirm intensity
Oakley’s
& Vasari,
to the long chronology
et al., 1957 ; Ku & Broecker,
1 also carries the geomagnetic
ice age-
l/2 interstadial:
type of pollen
colleagues
1975) :
Assigned. date
is halfway in the Mindel in the Mindel
The
+ 99,000 _ 54 ooo),
(326,000 19643).
in
(1960)
date from
BP corresponding
boundary
University
1,050,OOO BP (Erickson
BP (Evernden
brief Riss from 130,000
and Cox (1969).
be situated
1 cold phase.
in layers 8-l 1 (Kurt&
forest/steppe
1965; a broad
in Wolstedt’s
in the Wiirm
As regards dating of the main geological
1966), since this matches
in dipole moment
cannot
which
of 28,000
1974) than rival short chronologies. and 320,000
Table
c. 250,000
fauna identified
1975) ; and the taiga
et al. (1971)
& Broecker,
preferred
is actually
date here is 56,000
by my reckoning
during the Pleistocene,
by Wollin
for example, Wurm,
are
Mellaart,
is based on the Thorium-230
estimate
of the Choukoutienian
type of mammalian
Kurt&n & Vasari
date
et al., 1971), rather than Oakley’s
BP-which
counts 1974;
skulls on the basis of results from three lines of research:
placement
interglacial
year Gelb,
end of the published
less well substantiated
to the Sinanthropus
I have
below the skull horizon”
is the more recent
2/Wiirm 3 (Oakley
to each
available
BP-assigned
chosen the younger
rather than Oakley’s
In assigning
historical
BP, which is halfway
“a few centimeters
I have accordingly
to 61 for Skhul.
the best date obtainable,
1977a,b;
years BP I have assigned to Swanscombe
material
Wiirm
material,
Britannia,
exactitude
Spy 1 and 2 are assigned 270,000
recent
is used: the Neandertal
any greater
classification
what I consider
3
of 65; but the neandertals
and Oakley et al. (197 1, 1975) and to isotopic chrono-
Encyclopaedia
and Wright,
in the table and Sinanthropus
for Chapelle-aux-Saints
(19646)
437
THICKNESS
1, in years BP (before the present).
skull population
case
1974;
range, its midpoint time
from -02
to Oakley
VAULT
is quite thick with an SVTI
is also listed in Table
fossil and prehistoric
SKULL
has the lowest SVTI
at 104; Swanscombe
vary widely in this respect,
OF HUMAN
et al., 1969; from 70,000
corresponding
1O25 gauss cm3) as employed
1966), Emiliani,
the relatively 1961;
Epstein
to 10,000 years ago. to each skull population, by Bucha
varies from 6.1 for the Byblos eneolithic
et al. (1970)
series to 16.0 for
Sinanthropus, and is in the 8.0-9.0 range for the three skull baselines. Figure 1 shows the changes that have taken place in the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field since the Giinz glaciation over a million years ago. The tracing is meant to be identical to that published by Wollin et al. (1971) for a deep sea sediment core taken at 45” N in the Pacific Ocean, except
that the latter
authors’
arbitrary
electromagnetic
units have been converted
to
DMU, in the cgs system. (The first two peaks of the curve are at 13,000 and 23,000 BP; the first three troughs at 7,000, 18,000 and 28,000 BP). Since the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, DMU is seen to have varied by a factor of 20, from 0.8 during the Jaramillo event to 19.4 during the Mindel l/2 interstadial. I have used the DMU data of Figure
1 for skull populations
10,000 BP and older; for skull populations
8,500 BP and
438
F. IVANHOE
Figure 1. Variations in geomagnetic intensity during the Pleistocene. After Wollin et al. (1971), with permission of authors and pubfisher. Ice Ages: G = Giinz, M = Mindel, R = Riss, W = Wiirm. DMU = dipole moment units.
1200
1100
IOfXl
J
J
600
Ei
800
500
400
300
200
Time x IO3 years BP Ice ages*
100 12
LL 123
&&&j G
younger,
I have referred
by Bucha Astahuacan, curves.
to the fired clay based archeomagnetic
et al. (1970) ; for the Mesolithic which
fall between
The present
day average
to around 500 mOe of measured
populations
8,500-10,000 DMU
intensity
BP,
Sauveterre
I have extrapolated
of 8.0 for the northern
geomagnetic
curve published
Cheix, Rochereil,
field strength
from
hemisphere
and
the two
corresponds
on the ground.
3. Results In relating the other
the two independent osteometric-SVTI
plotted on the Y axis.
variables is clearly
As computed
with DMU,
as shown in Figure
populations
means
DMU
and SVTI-the
the dependent
by least squares,
2a.
is Y = 5*8577X
-
SVTI
The regression 26.7025 with
one geophysical
parameter
and
and
so should
is found to correlate
be
directly
equation formula for the 36 skull correlation coefficient T = 0.6207
CP
this result is interpreted
employed
in its derivation
obvious possible errors. increase
as the number
as in full support
can be improved
As far as SVTI of standard
is concerned, thickness
of my hypothesis,
somewhat
estimate
points
uncertainty
measured
points should be present for valid comparative
so have set aside Shanidar
4, Tabun
1 and Predmost
in the case of fossil man is often the midpoint bound
10 on this basis.
values, the fact that these are read off a curve entered to introduce
a substantial
error.
will inevitably I submit
and Fonttchevade
1971), whose assigned date is 85,000 f 15,000 BP, with a possible DMU of 7-O + i are the most extreme skull populations of the Upper Pleistocene and so are removed from the roster until more accurately dated. carded Chapelle-aux-Saints from further consideration because
that
purposes, and Regarding
at a specified
of a range many thousands
Ehringsdorf
base
of the more
decreases:
at least 5 of the 9 standard DMU
the data
by the exclusion
the
date, which
of years wide, is (Oakley
et al.,
range therefore in this regard,
Finally, of this
I have disindividual’s
advanced age and degenerative skeletal diseases (Straus & Cave, 1957) : Twiesselmann’s ( 1941) Paris-Brussels baseline data excludes old adults, and this author has demonstrated
CORRELATION
OF
HUMAN
SKULL
Figure 2%. Linear regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) against geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for all data listed in Tabie 1; N = 36, all
VAULT
THICKNESS
439
/
80 -
/
60 -
means. Y = %3577X -26.7025. r = 0.6207, P
60 40 20 I
I
2 4
6 8 IO 12 14 16 I8 DMU
the osteophthisic
effect of old age on the measured
nical exclusions
reduce
the number
skulls measured,
by 7. The regression
means is Y = 607452X
-
shown
Because
in Figure
improved
31.
34.7880,
of some skulls.
These
tech-
by 5, and the total number
of
formula of this smaller sample of 3 1 skull population
with correlation
of the higher
coefficient
correlation
r = 0.7207
coefficient,
(P d,O*Ol), as
I have
used this
sample in all further calculations.
A troubling number
2b.
thickness
of skull populations
aspect
of the data
of skull populations
In an attempt
to obviate
superpopulations-Sinanthropus, tals, fossil sapies, prehistoric
base summarized
in Table
1 is the relatively
large
made up of a single specimen : these come to 14 in all, out of this difficulty
I have pooled
preneandertals, (mesolithic)
the data into 8 taxonomic
classic neandertals,
sapiens,
proto- and historic
Near East neander(neolithic
through
Roman Empire) sapiens and the sapiens baseline series-each represented by not less than 2 of the original skull populations listed in Table 1 and so by at least 2 measured skulls.
I have plotted
Figure
3.
coefficient
The
r = 0.9426
exists between
the means and standard
regression
equation
(P
neighboring
here
deviations
is Y = 8*7707X
It is appreciated
(u) for each taxonomic -
54.5731,
with
class in
correlation
at a glance that considerable
overlap
taxonomin ti clusters-sapiens with neandertals, neandertals with Sinanthropus-but none significant between the two superpopulations farthest apart, namely sapiens of the last five centuries and Peking Man. Indeed, a skull vault as thick as the Sinanthropus 3 young male’s lies outside the range of normal for present day Caucasoids and Mongoloids. Figure 3 also agrees with the long held dictum (Coon et al.,
F. IVANHOE
440
Figure 3. Linear regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) against geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for 31 populations pooled taxonomically. HEs = Sinanthropus, pN = preneandertals, Nne = Near East neandertals, NC = classic neandertals, HSf = fossil sapiens, HSm = prehistoric (mesolithic) sapiens, HSph = proto- and historic (neolithic through Roman Empire) sapiens, HSb = baseline (present day) sapiens. Y = 8.7707X -54.5731, r = 0.9426, P go.01.
;1 2
DMU
1950; Weidenreich, to the culturally Sinanthropus, Analysis intervals
1946) that a thick skull is a primitive most advanced
sapiens,
with the neandertals of variance
intermediate
was undertaken
of 2.0, beginning
the highest
at 6.0 DMU.
skull: the lowest SVTI’s to the culturally
belong
unsophisticated
in both respects.
next.
The
SVTI
data were grouped
The appropriate
statistical
by DMU
calculations
lead to
F = 9.45, at 4 between and 30 within degrees of freedom, highly significant
(P
On plotting
DMU
intervals, curve
the 5 grouped
SVTI
means at the midpoint
the outline of a sigmoid
(Montemayor,
curve
1973) that closely matches
Y=
1 +
1.7410
In Figure 4b is plotted the corresponding -36.5870,
with a correlation
in slope and intercept
coefficient
osteologic
and human
mechanisms
80 x lO-@zl%x-“)
is
+10. equation
Y = 6-8924X
(P
Discussion
which
and Conclusions
make the association
(Bassett
1974; Bassett,
at the College of Physicians
bone stimulates bone formation
class
4 shows a logistic
its formula
least squares regression r = 0.9728
Bassett and collaborators 1974-1977)
clinic that the external
Figure
these 5 points:
bone mass a valid one have only recently
sity have demonstrated
of their respective
apparent.
with that shown in Figure 2b. 4.
The
becomes
& Hermann,
under controlled application
between
geomagnetic
been under close scientific
intensity scrutiny.
1968 ; Bassett et al., 1973 ; Bassett and Surgeons of Columbia
experimental
of low intensity,
conditions
low frequency
and practically magnetic
to note that the field strengths
by these non-invasive
being applied therapeutically
than the present day average for the northern
hemisphere:
techniques.
in the
fields to living
osteogenesis: specifically, these workers have been able to augment in fractures and to halt and reverse bone loss in disuse osteoporosis
in the oral cavity after dental extractions,
et al.,
Univer-
new and
It is important
are only 2 to 20 times higher thus making them physiologic,
CORRELATION
HUMAN
SKULL
Figure 4. Regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) againt geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for 31 populations pooled by 2.0 DMU classes. a: logistic,
8.
Y=
1+1.7410
OF
VAULT
441
THICKNESS
60
40
80 x lOV=iG
20
10.
+
b: linear. Y = 6.8924X-36.5870, 0.9728,P
r =
F ??I
r
Top: logistic. Bottom: linear.
- (b’ 80 :,,,:; 60 40 0
20
0
2
4
6
8
IO 12
14
16
18
DMU
because this is of the same order of magnitude which man has been exposed since the Middle of 5-75
as the natural geomagnetic intensities to Pleistocene. Likewise for the frequencies
Hz being used, which do not exceed everyday
field, weather
alterations
known to operate Mascarenhas, Other
at the cellular
biomagnetic
The
magnetic
level (Bassett
1974), but its ultimate
molecular
processes may be invoked
although
their importance
exercise,
through
seems minor
fluctuations trophic
& Hermann, to explain
compared
field by virtue of streaming
of the ferrohemoglobin
molecule
(Pauling
of the earth’s magnetic
stimulus 1968;
to the osteoblast Bassett,
is
19741977;
basis has so far escaped definition. bone mass variability,
and hyperemia
potentials
& Coryell,
human
to the geomagnetic
a local rise in bone piezoelectricity
induces a magnetic formation, measurable
included.
factor.
Physical
(the blood stream
and of the 16 unpaired
electrons
1936)) leads to a local increase in bone
by a small but and vice versa. Living nervous tissue is also surrounded magnetic field (Becker, 1961; Cohen, 1972) that contributes to the general
electromagnetic Twiesselmann’s
I have been able to confirm oesteotrophic milieu of bones. Incidentally, finding that the left side of the skull vault is slightly thicker than the right,
in keeping
with the subjacent position of the electromagnetically more active dominant hemisphere (Brenner et al., 1975) and its greater circulation (Le May & Culebras, 1972). And since the hypothalamus, which rules pituitary growth hormone secretion, is stimulated by modest experimental increases of ambient magnetic field intensity (Kholodov, 1964))
a biomagnetic mass : certainly supported
neuroendocrine the existence
process may also be involved in the determination of such a brain centered
by the finding of large hypophyseal
oesteotrophic
mechanism
fossas in some neandertals
of bone in man is
(Weidenreich,
195 1) , and their acromegaloid features. Evidence of geomagnetic oesteotrophism in other vertebrates has not been searched for by paleontologists, and to my knowledge no method comparable to Twiesselmann’s
442
F. IVANHOE
for cranial theless,
wall thickness
has been developed
the fact that the largest
magnetic
megafaunas
coincide
temporally
peaks of the Mindel and Wiirm ice ages is compatible with my thesis. regarding Ursus speleus, Kurt& (1976) h as remarked on the very large size cave bear, from the Mindel glaciation; by comparison, the subsequent races
of the Mindel/Riss estimated Wiirm.
from Such
namely
interglacial,
canine
the Riss and the Riss/Wiirm
tooth
a sequence
by the absence
completely
dimensions-increased
contradicts
again
Bergmann’s
were small; markedly
of large cave bears in Europe
with what would have been predicted
cave hyena,
Parenthetically, Kurt&
recurs in Europe
the wolverine the huge
bear
from Mindel2,
onwards for the brown bear, the
(Kurt&,
1968;
Kurt&
& Vasari,
reached
a shoulder height of 4.5 m (Kurt&,
the Win-m itself, Heintz & Garrutt
(1965)
together,
geomagnetic
lineage:
oesteotrophism
cranial
1975).
Suffice
Museum Wollin,
Professor
History;
rather
A. Roman0
material
have
mentioned
paper
observed
variations
in total bone and body
variations
Professor
to study the Paleoindian
de Antropologia Professor
M. T. Jaen,
of American
in to
in nature.
to study the Peking Man original
over many years.
fellowship from the Organization
in my earlier
the main
for permission
to Dr C. A. L. Bassett,
F. Montemayor,
and encouragement
that
since the advent of Homo erectus appear
than genetic,
and Dr A. Boyde for expert advice and assistance; criticism
been
now that
at the Museo National
for permission
of Natural
theory
morphology)
plastic,
to Professor
to Dr I. Tattersall
here lead me to the conclusion
beyond reasonable doubt for man in the The more important implications of Pleistocene.
it to emphasize
mass, and in gross craniofacial
tzompantli
and reviewed
(along with the accompanying
have been predominantly I am indebted
to Bergmann’s
is a fact established
since the Middle
vault thickness
Tlatelolco
exception
from front leg size, body weight of
forms is twice that for the much colder early and late Wiirm.
this thesis to paleoanthropological (Ivanhoe,
have detected another
as reconstructed
the data presented
hemisphere
1960).
1968), or roughly And within
successors from the middle Wiirm ice age.
the Paudorf interstadial
agrees intensity,
Wiirm but drops sharply the same general pattern
twice that of their largestprimigenius rule in the woolly mammoth
early
event-
skull found at Choukoutien locality 1 is believed by Among the elephants, the biggest of them all, Mammuthus
(1976) to be Ursus arctos.
trogontherii
from the Mindel
and some rodents
the
during the Riss ice age-but
on the basis of geomagnetic
which rises steadily to high levels during the Mindel and early 1). Neither is this an isolated finding:
of body size changes
then body sizeduring
rule in at least one major
during the Riss (Figure
northern
with geo-
intensity
For example, of Deninger’s
Taken
Never-
for animal species, fossil or modern.
Pleistocene
Howell,
E. Watts,
and to Dr F. H. Meyers
This research
and City;
casts at the American
F. Clark
Professor
in Mexico
was supported
Dr G.
Dr M. Hills for valuable in part by a
States.
References 1. Ackerman, P. (1974). Susa: Encyclopedia International, Vol. 17. New York: Grolier, p. 402. 2. Bassett, C. A. L. & Hermann, I. (1968). The effect of electrostatic fields on macromolecular synthesis by fibroblasts in vitro. Journal of Cell Biology 39, 9a. 3. Bassett, C. A. L., Pawluk, R. J. & Pilla, A. A. (1973). Acceleration of fracture repair by electromagnetic fields. A surgically noninvasive method. Annals of the New York Academy of Seienees 238, 242-262. 4. Bassett, Cl. A. L., Pawluk, R. J. & Pilla, A. A. (1974). Augmentation of bone repair by inductively applied coupled electromagnetic fields. Science 184, 575-577. 5. Bassett, C. A. L. (1974-1977). Personal communications.
CORRELATION
OF HUMAN
SKULL
VAULT
THICKNESS
443
6. Becker, R. 0. (1961). Search for evidence of axial current flow in peripheral nerves of Salamander. Science 190,480-482. 7. Brenner, D., Williamson, S. J. & Kaufman, L. (1975). Visually evoked magnetic fields of the human brain. Science 190,480-482. 8. Bucha, V., Taylor, R. E., Berger, R. & Haury, E. W. (1970). Geomagnetic intensity: changes during the past 3000 years in the Western Hemisphere. Science 168,11 l-l 14. 9. Chapell, J. (1974). Relationships between sealevels, ‘so variations and orbital perturbations, during the past 250,000 years. Nature, London 252, 199-202. 10. Cohen, D. (1972). Magnetoencephalography: detection of the brain’s electrical activity with a superconducting magnetometer. Science 175, 664-666. 11. Coon, C. S., Garn, S. M. & Birdsell, J. B. (1950). Races; a Study of the Problems ofRace Formation in Man. Illinois: C. C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 91-94. 12. Cox, A. (1969). Geomagnetic reversals. Science 163, 237-245. 13. Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S. J., Moller, J. & Langway, C. C. (1969). 0 ne thousand centuries of climatic record from Camp Century on the Greenland ice sheet. Science 166,377-381. 14. Emiliani, C. (1961). Cenozoic climatic changes as indicated by the stratigraphy and chronology of deep sea cores of Globigerina-ooze facies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 95,52 l-536. 15. Encyclopaedia Britannica (1977a). Hyksos domination. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Macropaedia), Vol. 6, p. 471. 16. Encyclopaedia Britannica (19776). History of Iran I. The Elamites, Medians, and Archaemenids. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Macropaedia), Vol. 9, pp. 830-832. 17. Epstein, S., Sharp, R. P. & Gow, A. J. (1970). Antarctic ice sheet: stable isotope analyses of Byrd Station cores and interhemispheric climatic implications. Science 168, 1570-1572. 18. Ericson, D. B., Ewing, M. & Wollin, G. (1964). The Pleistocene epoch in deep-sea sediments. Science 146,723-732. 19. Evernden, J. F., Curtis, G. H. & Kistler, R. (1957). Potassium-Argon dating of Pleistocene volcanics. Quaternaria 4, 13-17. Vol. 2. New York: 20. Gelb, I. J. (1974). Assyria. History. The Mari Period. Encyclopedia International, Grolier, p. 124. 21. Genovts, S. (1960). Revaluation of age, stature and sex of the Tepexpan remains, Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 18, 205-2 17. 22. Heintz, A. & Garrutt, V. E. (1965). Determination of the absolute age of the fossil remains of Mammoth and Woolly Rhinoceros from the permafrost of Siberia by the help of radiocarbon (C,,). Norsk geologisk tidsskrift 45, 73-79. Cited in Kurttn (1968), p. 245, Figure 103. 23. Ivanhoe, F. (1975). Geomagnetic intensity and fossil man hyperostosis. Actas XLI International America& Congress (Mexico City) 1,7 l-75. 24. Kholodov, Y. A. (1964). Effects on the central nervous system. In (M. F. Barnothy, Ed.) Biological Eficts of Magnetic Fields, Vol. 1, pp. 196-200. New York: Plenum Press. 25. Ku, T. L. & Broecker, W. S. (1966). Atlantic deep-sea stratigraphy: extension of absolute chronology to 320,000 years. Science 151, 448-450. 26. Kurt&n, B. (1968). Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. Chicago: Aldine, pp. 136, 240-248. 27. Kurt&, B. (1976). The Cave Bear Story. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 24-25, 69-71,80-81, 128, 130-132, 145. 28. Kurt&, B. & Vasari, Y. (1960). On the date of Peking man. Commentationes biologicae 23, l-l 0. 29. LeMay, M. I%,Culebras, A. (1972). Human brain: morphological differences in the hemispheres demonNew England Journal of A4edicine 287, 168-170. strated by carotid arteriography. 30. McCown, T. D. & Keith, A. (1939). The Stone Age of Mount Carmel, Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 254, 268, 279. 31. Martin, R. (1923). Lehrbuch der Anthropologic, Vol. 2. Jena: G. Fischer, pp. 1189-l 190. 32. Mascarenhas, S. (1974). The electret effect in bone and biopolymers and the bound-water problem. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 238, 36-52. 33. Matiegka, J. (1934). Homo Predmostensis. L’homme fossile de Predmosti en Morauie c&es. Prague: Acadtmie Tcheque des Sciences et des Arts, pp. 68.
( Tchecoslovakie).
I.
Les
34. Mellaart, J. (1965). Earliest Civilizations of the Near East. London: Thames & Hudson, p, 12. 35. Mirambell, L. (1967). Excavaciones en un sitio pleistocCnico de Tlapacoya, M&co. Boletin de1 Institufo national de Antrojologia
e Historin 29, 37-41.
F. (1973). Fdrmulas de Estadisticapara Znvestigadores, Vol. 1. Mexico City: Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia, SEP, pp. 68-75. 37. Oakley, K. P. (1964a). Man the Tool Maker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 150-151. 38. Oakley, K. P. (19646). Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man. London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 39. Oakley, K. P., Campbell, B. G. & Molleson, T. I. (Eds) (1971). Catulogue of Fossil Hominids. Parr II: Europe. London: British Museum (Natural History).
36. Montemayor,
444
F.
IVANHOE
48. Oakley, K. P., Campbell, B. G. & Molleson, T. I. (Eds) (1975). Catalogue of Fossil Hominids. Part ZZZ: Americas, Asia, Australasia. London: British Museum (Natural History), pp. 18, 52-75. 41. Pauling, L. & Coryell, C. D. (1936). Th e magnetic properties and structure of hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin and carbonmonoxyhemoglobin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 22, 210-2 16. 42. Piveteau, J. (1970). L’homme de l’abri Suard. Annales de Pale’ontologie 56, 173-225. Paris: Vert. 43. Romano, A. (1974). Restos 6seos humanos preceramicos de Mexico. In (J. Romero, Ed.) AntropoZogia Fisica, Epoca Prehispdnica. Mexico City: Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia, SEP, pp. 29-81. 44. Stewart, T. D. (1963). Shanidar skeletons IV and VI. Sumer 19,8-26. 45. Straus, W. L. Jr. & Cave, A. J. E. (1957). Pathology and the posture of Neanderthal man. Quarterly Review of Biology 32, 348-363. 46. Susuki, H. & Takai, F. (Eds) (1970). The Amud Man and his Cave Site. Tokyo: Academic Press of Japan, pp. 126, 201. 47. Szabo, B. J. & Collins, D. (1975). Ages of fossil bones from British interglacial sites. Nature, London 254, 680-682. 48. Twiesselmann, F. (1941). MCthodes pour l’evaluation de I’epaisseur des parois craniennes. Bulletin du M&e Y. BHistoire naturelle de Belgique 17(48), l-33. 49. Vallois, H. V. (1958). La Grotte de Fonttchevade, deuxieme partie. Arch. Institut PalPontologie Hum&e, M&wire 29, 29. 50. Weidenreich, F. (1928). Der Schiidefind von Weimar-Ehringsdorf. Jena: G. Fischer, pp. 90-91. 51. Weidenreich, F. (1943). The skull of Sinanthropus pekinensis; a comparative study on a primitive hominid skull. Palaeontologia sinica N.S. D (lo), 5, 162-163. 52. Weidenreich, F. (1946). Apes, Giants, and Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 56. 53. Weidenreich, F. (1951). Morphology of Solo Man. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural Histosy 43, 285. 54. Wernick, R. (1973). The Monument Builders. New York: Time-Life Books, pp. 33, 62. 55. Wollin, G., Ericson, D. B. & Ryan, W. B. F. (1971). Variationsinmagnetic intensityandclimaticchanges. Nature, London 232, 549-55 1. 56. Wolstedt, P. (1960). Die letzte Eiszeit in Nordamerika und Europa. Eiszeitalter und Gegenzoart 11, 148-165. Cited in Oakley (19646), p. 21, Figure 3. 57. Wright, G. E. (1974). Palmyra. Encyclopedia International, Vol. 14. New York: Grolier, p. 28.
Direct Correlation of Human Skull Vault Thickness with Geomagnetic Intensity in some Northern Hemisphere Populations
Department of PharmacoloD, Uniuersity of San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143 and Sonoma State Hospital, Elridge, Calzfornia 95431, U.S. A.
The purpose of this investigation was to test to what extent the recently discovered preferential occurrence of thick fossil human bone during eras of high geomagnetic intensity corresponds to actual skull vault thickness (SVT) measurements. A modification of Twiesselmann’s direct osteometric method was followed, employing nine of his standard points: frontal bosses, midfrontal, bregma, parietal bosses, obelion, pterion, asterion, lambda and cerebral fossas. An average SVT index, computed relative to the baseline modern values, was used in intergroup comparisons. Ambient geomagnetic intensities during lifetime were taken from data published by Wollin et al. (1971) and Bucha et al. (1970), in dipole moment units (DMU). Altogether 36 such SVT-DMU northern hemisphere populations of the last 360,000 years were studied, including 4 from Mesoamerica. SVT index is a direct function of DMU for these data. Depending on taxonomic and other pooling arrangements, the correlation coefficient (T) of the least-squares regression equation varies between 0.62 and 0.97, and is highly significant. Review of the medical literature leads to the advancement of a plurifactorial biomagnetic mechanism to account for this osteotrophic phenomenon.
Received 20 September 1978 and accepted 1 February 1979
1. Introduction The
worldwide
preferential
periods of high geomagnetic isms have Briefly,
advanced
my hypothesis
intensity 1970;
been
making
1969;
Wollin
cells (Bassett
of thick
to explain
this non-random
1971),
et al., 1968,
1973,
correlation measured
a first successful
1974;
regions because a straightforward vault is thought human skeleton.
Bassett,
hemisphere.
varies accordingly.
based on the highly intensity
of 36 Caucasoid,
abundance
measurement
technique
to be representative
on the bone In this paper
significant
direct
values and the corresponding Mongoloid
of comparative
and fossil populations than other anatomical
material
(Twiesselmann,
of bone thickness
2. Materials
1975).
of geomagnetic
and the total amount
The skull vault was used rather
of the greater
mechan-
(Ivanhoe,
influence
19741977),
organism
geomagnetic
human skull vault thicknesses
from the northern
geological
field strength varies in time (Bucha et al.,
test of this hypothesis,
found to hold between
during
physiologic
distribution
so does its positive trophic
of osseous tissue laid down by the developing I report
bone
bone mass is a direct function
as the earth’s magnetic et al.,
fossil human
has been noted, and plausible
states that human
during growth:
Cox,
occurrence intensity
and the availability
1941) : thickness
of
of the skull
and bone mass elsewhere
in the
and Methods
Twiesselmann (1941) has developed a practical method for the measurement of cranial wall thickness : the datum is obtained directly with osteometric calipers at twelve standard anatomical reference points of the braincase. In adapting Twiesselmann’s method to my purposes, I have excluded his three lowest placed points-temporal squamas, cerebellar fossas and zygomatic arches-which, along with the base, are often missing from poorly Journal of Human Evolution (1979) 8, 433-444 0047-2484/79/040433+
12 $02.00/O
@
1979 Academic
Press Inc. (London)
Limited
and
Paris
38.48 38.48 38.48 34.48 16.48 48.54 48.54 20.48 15.48
39.50
39.49 39.49 46 39.48 33.38
30.38 30.38
48 males females 47.48 42 39.50 39.49 39.50 38.44 39.48
and references
SPY 1 SPY 2 Tabun 1 Skhul4 skhu19 Chapelle-aux-Saints Ferrassie 1 Amud Combe Capelle Predmost 3 Predmost 4 Predmost 9 Predmost 10 Oberkassel 1 Oberkassel 2 Rochereil Cheix Sauveterre Byblos eneolithic Sialk Copper Age Hastitre neolithic French eneolithic Mari Assyrians Hyksos Egyptians
Swanscombe Suard Ehringsdorf Fonttchevade Neanderthal Shanidar 4
Brussels
Populations
Table 1
5.41 5.97 4.86 6 9 no standard 7.2 7 10 6 7 9 8.5 4.5 6 3 3 7 5.8 5 5.76 5.87 6.27 6.56 5.38 6.30
y------FB
Summary
4.50 4.89 4.10 7 4.0 -7 7 point i 5.7 5 8 6 8.2 5.0 9.0 5 4 5 5.53 4.89 5.65 5.64 4.88 5.95
F Near
OB East,
__ _ ~____
A. Europe,
PB
6.1 5.5 6 5 5 6.0 5.0 5.3 6.1 5.5 5.89 5.46 5.64 5.25 4.86 5.50
6 -
4.1 3.2 3-8 4.04 4.25 3.73 3.90 3.40 3.70
-
_-
-
__~ ___ _-. ._
a
7.0 7 > > 6 4 4 3.5 4 3 t 4.6 3 4.2 4.78 5.74 3.97 4.00 4.92 5.75
7.1 8.5 6 8 5.5 5 4
5.5 5.1 -
3.56 3.99 3.14 5 -.
CF
3.90 4.34 3.46 9.2 8 6.5 8 8.0
AS
3.14 3.52 2.76 6.2 -
Africa
~._~_
North
thickness (mm) n --------------PT L
16 05 11 16 30 23 23 10 23
.___._ -. -___.-__
9000 8750 8500 7500 5000 5000 4250 3800 3600
43
27,000
06 (09)
15,000
34,000 34,000 34,000 30,000 28,000
-02 09 49 39
8.5 a.2 8.0 6.1 6.4 6.4 7.4 7.8 8.1
9.0
7.0
11.7 11.7 12.0 10.0
11.7
11.4
41,000 27 61 (54)
10.3
50,000
12.1 8.0 7.0 7.0 9.6 9.8
270,000 105,000 85,000 85,000 56,000 55,000 65 30 16 37 55 49 44
8.3
DMU
100-300
Dating: assigned years BP
hemisphere
00
SVTI
data: fossil and recent man, northern
5.70 5.87 6.13 6.18 6.37 6.55 5.18 5.37 5.71 10.5 11.2 11.0 9 6 8 8.0 7.5 8 7 8 8 10.5 8.8 data: skull vault average only 10 lo.I0 8.2 8.7 8.7 8 I 6 5 10 10 11 11 6 5 6 6 G 7.5 7 7 8 9 8 6 11 6 9.5 G.5 6 6 7.5 6 4.5 5 5.0 12.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 5.9 8.5 7 7 6 7.5 8 7.2 4.8 8 8 8 7.37 6.88 7.07 7.22 7.10 6.43 7.58 8.85 6.40 6.68 6.90 7.78 6.82 6.65 6.72 7.65 5.60 5.24 6.14 7.10 6.00 6.25 7.11 7.35
5.29 5.65 4.92 7.2 7 6.0
B
Skull vault
of adult skull vault thickness
_
?z= 13* n= 101 ,t= 24* n= 15* n=5f n=9*
F
F
F
cast
n=400* n=200 n=200 cast
Remarks
Chinese males Sinanthropus 3 Sinanthropus 2 Sinanthropus 10 Sinanthropus 12
48 28,37,40
males females 35.43 21,40,43 43
39.48 16.48 1.48 48.57
and references
Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlatelolco tzompantli Tlapacoya Tepexpan Astahuacan 1 Astahuacan 2
Galley Hill Sialk Iron Age Susa Palmyra
Populations
6.69 7.15 6.23 IO.7 8.2 5.9 7.7
6.42 10.5 8.2 11-o 10.0
4.62 8.0 8.0 6.0 8.2
10 5.67 6.48 6.38
B
6.26 6.58 5.94 IO-9 5.6 6.3 6.1
5 4.57 5.19 5.55
F
6.02 12.5 11.0 9.6 10-O
6.22 6.42 6.01 6.3 6.0 7.0 6.8
a 5.30 6.62 7.20
L
PT
4.5 3.54 3.78 3.73
3.28 3.21 3.34 4.3 4.0 4.9 5.8
3.30 9.0 8.1 7.0 7.8
B. Mesoamerica 6.24 7.14 6.40 7.36 6.07 6.92 5.2 10.4 6.1 8.0 7.6 8.6 9.0 C. China 6.42 7.06 10.9 15.0 7.8 10.0 8.5 9.0 6.8 8-7
9 5.59 7.94 6.96
Near East, North Africa
OB
(mm)
9 7.17 8.14 7.73
A. Europe,
PB
Skull vault thickness L
12.8 10-2
6.52 17.8 -
6.14 6.58 5.71 8.4 9.9 8.0 7.9
7 5.46 6.55 5.12
AS
4.70 9.8 6.2 6.5 7.6
5.02 5.21 4.83 > 5.9 4.2 5.7 4.3 >
4.1 4.11 546 5.23
-------, CF
360,000
61
9700
20
50-100 360,000
23,000 11,000
24 11
03 104
500
3300 2900 2400 1700
21
40 09 30 26
SVTI
Dating: assigned yearsBP
16.0
8.1 16.0
8.8
9.4 10.0
9.0
8.8 a.7 11.0 11.5
DMU
casts
cast
n=49
F
F
n= 151* n=74 n=77
cast n=20* ?z= 14* n== 191
Remarks
Notes: FB = frontal bosses; F = midfrontal; B = bregma; PB = parietal bosses; OB = obelion; L = lambda; PT = pterion; AS = asterion; CF = cerebral fossas; see text. SVTI = skull vault thickness index. DMU = geomagnetic field strength in dipole moment units. (SVTI) = population SVTI excluding individuals measured at fewer than fivestandard points. Sex of skull population is male unless otherwise noted; F = female; * indicates a skull population made up of males and females.
5.72 9.0 12.2 8.0 9.6
5.04 5.04 5.05 5.4 3.8 7.0 5.7
10 5.48 5.70 6.54
Y-------FB
2
5
$
E
3
; fi
s
F.
436 preserved bregma
skulls.
The remaining
(B), parietal
and cerebral
IVANHOE
9 standard
bosses (PB),
fossas (CF)-share
obelion
points-frontal 1ambda
(OB),
the same neurocranial
bosses (FB), midfrontal (L), pterion
embryologic
(PT),
asterion
(F), (AS)
origin and are farther
removed from the osteotrophic effect of muscle pull. The bone thickness data in Table 1 are listed by skull population
means for each of
these 9 standard
(FB,
.4S, CF),
points.
In the case of symmetrically
right and left sides are averaged,
skulls with 4 or more standard for thickness.
points
or the figure for the available
points only are included.
in all, with sizes varying from a single specimen measured
bilateral There
PB, OB, PT,
side is entered;
are 36 skull populations
to 400, for a total number of 762 braincases
Part A of the table contains
all the suitable
data from Europe,
the Near East and North Africa that I was able to recover from the literature: 29 skull populations,
with the Brussels-Paris
as their baseline
(Twiesselmann,
were
by
measured
Oberkassel 1934)]
(Weidenreich,
by workers
technique CF;
(Vallois,
[Suard
1958)]
(M23),
by French
[Shanidar
(Steward, no standard
Table
series (N =
excavated
terminal
Romano, locations China.
(Romano,
The
site in
baseline
of Mexico.
mann’s
original method.
Under
for this section
casts at the American I have divided
populations-skulls from layers
1975).
ecologies
In the absence
by Weidenreich
(1943)
In the intergroup cumbersome
Under
of the
Part B of
I measured
myself,
adult crania from a recently (Mirambell,
et al., 1975; and Romano,
and early Holocene
skull thicknesses Museum
(1941)
1967;
1974) and
crania
modern
I measured
of Natural
Pleistocene
differences
Chinese
that
Tlapacoya
is Twiesselmann’s
and a considerable
of a modern
by authors
from other
Part C I have listed 3 skull populations
the middle
reported
1939)]
for this group is the Tlatelolco
History,
between
females baseline,
from males
myself on WeidenTwiessel-
material
1, Choukoutien;
in the associated
time interval
Chinese
following
Sinanthropus
2, 10 and 12, from layers 8-9 of locality
10-l l-because
suggest different
City.
1960; Oakley
series (N = 49), and the Sinanthropus reich’s
skull populations
Mexico
1
and fewer still
The many missing entries in
The baseline
1974) are late Pleistocene
in the Valley
& Keith,
of much of the fossil material.
directions.
(Genovts,
and Ferrassie
method;
data may give an indication
15 1) : these are the racked decapitated
Postclassic
1974), Tepexpan
Astahuacan
(McCown
(Matiegka, osteometric
at FB, F, B, PB, L, AS and
Chapelle-aux-Saints
to Twiesselmann’s.
condition
printed
and Predmost
Twiesselmann’s
and Skhul
in Part A
Neandertal,
of the less satisfactory
using Twiesselmann’s
the 4 Mesoamerican
Twiesselmann’s
[Ehringsdorf,
et al., 1970);
a version
there are
series (N = 400) serving of skulls entered
a few
but whose detailed
which are then related
tzompantli
(Susuki
anthropologists
technique
1 I have placed
himself;
1970) ; Fontechevade,
Part A reflect the fragmentary following
Amud following
1963) ; Tabun
cemetery
The great majority
(1941)
which approximates
(Piveteau,
following
points measured
1928);
presumably
of Martin
fewer
1941).
Twiesselmann
modern
into two
and skull 3,
mammalian them
(Oakley
Sinanthropus
faunas
et al.,
11, classified
as a female, was set aside.
comparison
of cranial
thicknesses,
a point-by-point
: I developed the skull vault thickness index (SVTI)
appoach
proves
to obviate this problem.
For a given skull population, the mean thickness measured at each standard point is compared to the corresponding mean thickness of the pertinent sexed baseline population; the difference between the two is expressed as a percentage relative to the baseline, plus or minus : the SVTI
is the arithmetic
mean of these individual
standard
point percentage
thickness differences. In Table 1, I have set the Brussels-Paris Caucasoid baseline at 00: relative to this, the Chinese males baseline SVTI equals 03 and the Tlatelolco tzompantli
CORRELATION
21.
Chapelle-aux-Saints,
the highest,
at -02,
Dating
given first priority metry.
In
the
(Ackerman, Wernick,
1973;
with
of more
1974).
lasted between
obtained
If the
than
43-70,000
50,000
best
of Combe
Capelle
specimen, the early
I have assigned
360,000
(1964a) Oakley
et al.,
hemisphere
(Chapel& glaciation 400,000
(1960).
culture
I continue
and his Columbia
ended around
(Szabo errors
BP (Oakley,
BP;
similarly,
& Collins,
(19646)
to adhere
to the late
earlier c. 34,000 BP.
better
other crucial According
to 100,000
et al., 1970; Ku & Broecker,
1966),
units (DMU Listed DMU
=
the 1960;
reported
by
events in the northern
(Erickson
favored
et al., 1964; Ku
lines of paleoclimatic
evidence
to this formulation,
the Giinz
et al., 1964)) the Mindel lasted between
BP (Dansgaard and the Wiirm intensity
Oakley’s
& Vasari,
to the long chronology
et al., 1957 ; Ku & Broecker,
1 also carries the geomagnetic
ice age-
l/2 interstadial:
type of pollen
colleagues
1975) :
Assigned. date
is halfway in the Mindel in the Mindel
The
+ 99,000 _ 54 ooo),
(326,000 19643).
in
(1960)
date from
BP corresponding
boundary
University
1,050,OOO BP (Erickson
BP (Evernden
brief Riss from 130,000
and Cox (1969).
be situated
1 cold phase.
in layers 8-l 1 (Kurt&
forest/steppe
1965; a broad
in Wolstedt’s
in the Wiirm
As regards dating of the main geological
1966), since this matches
in dipole moment
cannot
which
of 28,000
1974) than rival short chronologies. and 320,000
Table
c. 250,000
fauna identified
1975) ; and the taiga
et al. (1971)
& Broecker,
preferred
is actually
date here is 56,000
by my reckoning
during the Pleistocene,
by Wollin
for example, Wurm,
are
Mellaart,
is based on the Thorium-230
estimate
of the Choukoutienian
type of mammalian
Kurt&n & Vasari
date
et al., 1971), rather than Oakley’s
BP-which
counts 1974;
skulls on the basis of results from three lines of research:
placement
interglacial
year Gelb,
end of the published
less well substantiated
to the Sinanthropus
I have
below the skull horizon”
is the more recent
2/Wiirm 3 (Oakley
to each
available
BP-assigned
chosen the younger
rather than Oakley’s
In assigning
historical
BP, which is halfway
“a few centimeters
I have accordingly
to 61 for Skhul.
the best date obtainable,
1977a,b;
years BP I have assigned to Swanscombe
material
Wiirm
material,
Britannia,
exactitude
Spy 1 and 2 are assigned 270,000
recent
is used: the Neandertal
any greater
classification
what I consider
3
of 65; but the neandertals
and Oakley et al. (197 1, 1975) and to isotopic chrono-
Encyclopaedia
and Wright,
in the table and Sinanthropus
for Chapelle-aux-Saints
(19646)
437
THICKNESS
1, in years BP (before the present).
skull population
case
1974;
range, its midpoint time
from -02
to Oakley
VAULT
is quite thick with an SVTI
is also listed in Table
fossil and prehistoric
SKULL
has the lowest SVTI
at 104; Swanscombe
vary widely in this respect,
OF HUMAN
et al., 1969; from 70,000
corresponding
1O25 gauss cm3) as employed
1966), Emiliani,
the relatively 1961;
Epstein
to 10,000 years ago. to each skull population, by Bucha
varies from 6.1 for the Byblos eneolithic
et al. (1970)
series to 16.0 for
Sinanthropus, and is in the 8.0-9.0 range for the three skull baselines. Figure 1 shows the changes that have taken place in the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field since the Giinz glaciation over a million years ago. The tracing is meant to be identical to that published by Wollin et al. (1971) for a deep sea sediment core taken at 45” N in the Pacific Ocean, except
that the latter
authors’
arbitrary
electromagnetic
units have been converted
to
DMU, in the cgs system. (The first two peaks of the curve are at 13,000 and 23,000 BP; the first three troughs at 7,000, 18,000 and 28,000 BP). Since the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, DMU is seen to have varied by a factor of 20, from 0.8 during the Jaramillo event to 19.4 during the Mindel l/2 interstadial. I have used the DMU data of Figure
1 for skull populations
10,000 BP and older; for skull populations
8,500 BP and
438
F. IVANHOE
Figure 1. Variations in geomagnetic intensity during the Pleistocene. After Wollin et al. (1971), with permission of authors and pubfisher. Ice Ages: G = Giinz, M = Mindel, R = Riss, W = Wiirm. DMU = dipole moment units.
1200
1100
IOfXl
J
J
600
Ei
800
500
400
300
200
Time x IO3 years BP Ice ages*
100 12
LL 123
&&&j G
younger,
I have referred
by Bucha Astahuacan, curves.
to the fired clay based archeomagnetic
et al. (1970) ; for the Mesolithic which
fall between
The present
day average
to around 500 mOe of measured
populations
8,500-10,000 DMU
intensity
BP,
Sauveterre
I have extrapolated
of 8.0 for the northern
geomagnetic
curve published
Cheix, Rochereil,
field strength
from
hemisphere
and
the two
corresponds
on the ground.
3. Results In relating the other
the two independent osteometric-SVTI
plotted on the Y axis.
variables is clearly
As computed
with DMU,
as shown in Figure
populations
means
DMU
and SVTI-the
the dependent
by least squares,
2a.
is Y = 5*8577X
-
SVTI
The regression 26.7025 with
one geophysical
parameter
and
and
so should
is found to correlate
be
directly
equation formula for the 36 skull correlation coefficient T = 0.6207
CP
this result is interpreted
employed
in its derivation
obvious possible errors. increase
as the number
as in full support
can be improved
As far as SVTI of standard
is concerned, thickness
of my hypothesis,
somewhat
estimate
points
uncertainty
measured
points should be present for valid comparative
so have set aside Shanidar
4, Tabun
1 and Predmost
in the case of fossil man is often the midpoint bound
10 on this basis.
values, the fact that these are read off a curve entered to introduce
a substantial
error.
will inevitably I submit
and Fonttchevade
1971), whose assigned date is 85,000 f 15,000 BP, with a possible DMU of 7-O + i are the most extreme skull populations of the Upper Pleistocene and so are removed from the roster until more accurately dated. carded Chapelle-aux-Saints from further consideration because
that
purposes, and Regarding
at a specified
of a range many thousands
Ehringsdorf
base
of the more
decreases:
at least 5 of the 9 standard DMU
the data
by the exclusion
the
date, which
of years wide, is (Oakley
et al.,
range therefore in this regard,
Finally, of this
I have disindividual’s
advanced age and degenerative skeletal diseases (Straus & Cave, 1957) : Twiesselmann’s ( 1941) Paris-Brussels baseline data excludes old adults, and this author has demonstrated
CORRELATION
OF
HUMAN
SKULL
Figure 2%. Linear regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) against geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for all data listed in Tabie 1; N = 36, all
VAULT
THICKNESS
439
/
80 -
/
60 -
means. Y = %3577X -26.7025. r = 0.6207, P
60 40 20 I
I
2 4
6 8 IO 12 14 16 I8 DMU
the osteophthisic
effect of old age on the measured
nical exclusions
reduce
the number
skulls measured,
by 7. The regression
means is Y = 607452X
-
shown
Because
in Figure
improved
31.
34.7880,
of some skulls.
These
tech-
by 5, and the total number
of
formula of this smaller sample of 3 1 skull population
with correlation
of the higher
coefficient
correlation
r = 0.7207
coefficient,
(P d,O*Ol), as
I have
used this
sample in all further calculations.
A troubling number
2b.
thickness
of skull populations
aspect
of the data
of skull populations
In an attempt
to obviate
superpopulations-Sinanthropus, tals, fossil sapies, prehistoric
base summarized
in Table
1 is the relatively
large
made up of a single specimen : these come to 14 in all, out of this difficulty
I have pooled
preneandertals, (mesolithic)
the data into 8 taxonomic
classic neandertals,
sapiens,
proto- and historic
Near East neander(neolithic
through
Roman Empire) sapiens and the sapiens baseline series-each represented by not less than 2 of the original skull populations listed in Table 1 and so by at least 2 measured skulls.
I have plotted
Figure
3.
coefficient
The
r = 0.9426
exists between
the means and standard
regression
equation
(P
neighboring
here
deviations
is Y = 8*7707X
It is appreciated
(u) for each taxonomic -
54.5731,
with
class in
correlation
at a glance that considerable
overlap
taxonomin ti clusters-sapiens with neandertals, neandertals with Sinanthropus-but none significant between the two superpopulations farthest apart, namely sapiens of the last five centuries and Peking Man. Indeed, a skull vault as thick as the Sinanthropus 3 young male’s lies outside the range of normal for present day Caucasoids and Mongoloids. Figure 3 also agrees with the long held dictum (Coon et al.,
F. IVANHOE
440
Figure 3. Linear regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) against geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for 31 populations pooled taxonomically. HEs = Sinanthropus, pN = preneandertals, Nne = Near East neandertals, NC = classic neandertals, HSf = fossil sapiens, HSm = prehistoric (mesolithic) sapiens, HSph = proto- and historic (neolithic through Roman Empire) sapiens, HSb = baseline (present day) sapiens. Y = 8.7707X -54.5731, r = 0.9426, P go.01.
;1 2
DMU
1950; Weidenreich, to the culturally Sinanthropus, Analysis intervals
1946) that a thick skull is a primitive most advanced
sapiens,
with the neandertals of variance
intermediate
was undertaken
of 2.0, beginning
the highest
at 6.0 DMU.
skull: the lowest SVTI’s to the culturally
belong
unsophisticated
in both respects.
next.
The
SVTI
data were grouped
The appropriate
statistical
by DMU
calculations
lead to
F = 9.45, at 4 between and 30 within degrees of freedom, highly significant
(P
On plotting
DMU
intervals, curve
the 5 grouped
SVTI
means at the midpoint
the outline of a sigmoid
(Montemayor,
curve
1973) that closely matches
Y=
1 +
1.7410
In Figure 4b is plotted the corresponding -36.5870,
with a correlation
in slope and intercept
coefficient
osteologic
and human
mechanisms
80 x lO-@zl%x-“)
is
+10. equation
Y = 6-8924X
(P
Discussion
which
and Conclusions
make the association
(Bassett
1974; Bassett,
at the College of Physicians
bone stimulates bone formation
class
4 shows a logistic
its formula
least squares regression r = 0.9728
Bassett and collaborators 1974-1977)
clinic that the external
Figure
these 5 points:
bone mass a valid one have only recently
sity have demonstrated
of their respective
apparent.
with that shown in Figure 2b. 4.
The
becomes
& Hermann,
under controlled application
between
geomagnetic
been under close scientific
intensity scrutiny.
1968 ; Bassett et al., 1973 ; Bassett and Surgeons of Columbia
experimental
of low intensity,
conditions
low frequency
and practically magnetic
to note that the field strengths
by these non-invasive
being applied therapeutically
than the present day average for the northern
hemisphere:
techniques.
in the
fields to living
osteogenesis: specifically, these workers have been able to augment in fractures and to halt and reverse bone loss in disuse osteoporosis
in the oral cavity after dental extractions,
et al.,
Univer-
new and
It is important
are only 2 to 20 times higher thus making them physiologic,
CORRELATION
HUMAN
SKULL
Figure 4. Regression and correlation of human skull vault thickness index (SVTI) againt geomagnetic intensity in dipole moment units (DMU) for 31 populations pooled by 2.0 DMU classes. a: logistic,
8.
Y=
1+1.7410
OF
VAULT
441
THICKNESS
60
40
80 x lOV=iG
20
10.
+
b: linear. Y = 6.8924X-36.5870, 0.9728,P
r =
F ??I
r
Top: logistic. Bottom: linear.
- (b’ 80 :,,,:; 60 40 0
20
0
2
4
6
8
IO 12
14
16
18
DMU
because this is of the same order of magnitude which man has been exposed since the Middle of 5-75
as the natural geomagnetic intensities to Pleistocene. Likewise for the frequencies
Hz being used, which do not exceed everyday
field, weather
alterations
known to operate Mascarenhas, Other
at the cellular
biomagnetic
The
magnetic
level (Bassett
1974), but its ultimate
molecular
processes may be invoked
although
their importance
exercise,
through
seems minor
fluctuations trophic
& Hermann, to explain
compared
field by virtue of streaming
of the ferrohemoglobin
molecule
(Pauling
of the earth’s magnetic
stimulus 1968;
to the osteoblast Bassett,
is
19741977;
basis has so far escaped definition. bone mass variability,
and hyperemia
potentials
& Coryell,
human
to the geomagnetic
a local rise in bone piezoelectricity
induces a magnetic formation, measurable
included.
factor.
Physical
(the blood stream
and of the 16 unpaired
electrons
1936)) leads to a local increase in bone
by a small but and vice versa. Living nervous tissue is also surrounded magnetic field (Becker, 1961; Cohen, 1972) that contributes to the general
electromagnetic Twiesselmann’s
I have been able to confirm oesteotrophic milieu of bones. Incidentally, finding that the left side of the skull vault is slightly thicker than the right,
in keeping
with the subjacent position of the electromagnetically more active dominant hemisphere (Brenner et al., 1975) and its greater circulation (Le May & Culebras, 1972). And since the hypothalamus, which rules pituitary growth hormone secretion, is stimulated by modest experimental increases of ambient magnetic field intensity (Kholodov, 1964))
a biomagnetic mass : certainly supported
neuroendocrine the existence
process may also be involved in the determination of such a brain centered
by the finding of large hypophyseal
oesteotrophic
mechanism
fossas in some neandertals
of bone in man is
(Weidenreich,
195 1) , and their acromegaloid features. Evidence of geomagnetic oesteotrophism in other vertebrates has not been searched for by paleontologists, and to my knowledge no method comparable to Twiesselmann’s
442
F. IVANHOE
for cranial theless,
wall thickness
has been developed
the fact that the largest
magnetic
megafaunas
coincide
temporally
peaks of the Mindel and Wiirm ice ages is compatible with my thesis. regarding Ursus speleus, Kurt& (1976) h as remarked on the very large size cave bear, from the Mindel glaciation; by comparison, the subsequent races
of the Mindel/Riss estimated Wiirm.
from Such
namely
interglacial,
canine
the Riss and the Riss/Wiirm
tooth
a sequence
by the absence
completely
dimensions-increased
contradicts
again
Bergmann’s
were small; markedly
of large cave bears in Europe
with what would have been predicted
cave hyena,
Parenthetically, Kurt&
recurs in Europe
the wolverine the huge
bear
from Mindel2,
onwards for the brown bear, the
(Kurt&,
1968;
Kurt&
& Vasari,
reached
a shoulder height of 4.5 m (Kurt&,
the Win-m itself, Heintz & Garrutt
(1965)
together,
geomagnetic
lineage:
oesteotrophism
cranial
1975).
Suffice
Museum Wollin,
Professor
History;
rather
A. Roman0
material
have
mentioned
paper
observed
variations
in total bone and body
variations
Professor
to study the Paleoindian
de Antropologia Professor
M. T. Jaen,
of American
in to
in nature.
to study the Peking Man original
over many years.
fellowship from the Organization
in my earlier
the main
for permission
to Dr C. A. L. Bassett,
F. Montemayor,
and encouragement
that
since the advent of Homo erectus appear
than genetic,
and Dr A. Boyde for expert advice and assistance; criticism
been
now that
at the Museo National
for permission
of Natural
theory
morphology)
plastic,
to Professor
to Dr I. Tattersall
here lead me to the conclusion
beyond reasonable doubt for man in the The more important implications of Pleistocene.
it to emphasize
mass, and in gross craniofacial
tzompantli
and reviewed
(along with the accompanying
have been predominantly I am indebted
to Bergmann’s
is a fact established
since the Middle
vault thickness
Tlatelolco
exception
from front leg size, body weight of
forms is twice that for the much colder early and late Wiirm.
this thesis to paleoanthropological (Ivanhoe,
have detected another
as reconstructed
the data presented
hemisphere
1960).
1968), or roughly And within
successors from the middle Wiirm ice age.
the Paudorf interstadial
agrees intensity,
Wiirm but drops sharply the same general pattern
twice that of their largestprimigenius rule in the woolly mammoth
early
event-
skull found at Choukoutien locality 1 is believed by Among the elephants, the biggest of them all, Mammuthus
(1976) to be Ursus arctos.
trogontherii
from the Mindel
and some rodents
the
during the Riss ice age-but
on the basis of geomagnetic
which rises steadily to high levels during the Mindel and early 1). Neither is this an isolated finding:
of body size changes
then body sizeduring
rule in at least one major
during the Riss (Figure
northern
with geo-
intensity
For example, of Deninger’s
Taken
Never-
for animal species, fossil or modern.
Pleistocene
Howell,
E. Watts,
and to Dr F. H. Meyers
This research
and City;
casts at the American
F. Clark
Professor
in Mexico
was supported
Dr G.
Dr M. Hills for valuable in part by a
States.
References 1. Ackerman, P. (1974). Susa: Encyclopedia International, Vol. 17. New York: Grolier, p. 402. 2. Bassett, C. A. L. & Hermann, I. (1968). The effect of electrostatic fields on macromolecular synthesis by fibroblasts in vitro. Journal of Cell Biology 39, 9a. 3. Bassett, C. A. L., Pawluk, R. J. & Pilla, A. A. (1973). Acceleration of fracture repair by electromagnetic fields. A surgically noninvasive method. Annals of the New York Academy of Seienees 238, 242-262. 4. Bassett, Cl. A. L., Pawluk, R. J. & Pilla, A. A. (1974). Augmentation of bone repair by inductively applied coupled electromagnetic fields. Science 184, 575-577. 5. Bassett, C. A. L. (1974-1977). Personal communications.
CORRELATION
OF HUMAN
SKULL
VAULT
THICKNESS
443
6. Becker, R. 0. (1961). Search for evidence of axial current flow in peripheral nerves of Salamander. Science 190,480-482. 7. Brenner, D., Williamson, S. J. & Kaufman, L. (1975). Visually evoked magnetic fields of the human brain. Science 190,480-482. 8. Bucha, V., Taylor, R. E., Berger, R. & Haury, E. W. (1970). Geomagnetic intensity: changes during the past 3000 years in the Western Hemisphere. Science 168,11 l-l 14. 9. Chapell, J. (1974). Relationships between sealevels, ‘so variations and orbital perturbations, during the past 250,000 years. Nature, London 252, 199-202. 10. Cohen, D. (1972). Magnetoencephalography: detection of the brain’s electrical activity with a superconducting magnetometer. Science 175, 664-666. 11. Coon, C. S., Garn, S. M. & Birdsell, J. B. (1950). Races; a Study of the Problems ofRace Formation in Man. Illinois: C. C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 91-94. 12. Cox, A. (1969). Geomagnetic reversals. Science 163, 237-245. 13. Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S. J., Moller, J. & Langway, C. C. (1969). 0 ne thousand centuries of climatic record from Camp Century on the Greenland ice sheet. Science 166,377-381. 14. Emiliani, C. (1961). Cenozoic climatic changes as indicated by the stratigraphy and chronology of deep sea cores of Globigerina-ooze facies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 95,52 l-536. 15. Encyclopaedia Britannica (1977a). Hyksos domination. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Macropaedia), Vol. 6, p. 471. 16. Encyclopaedia Britannica (19776). History of Iran I. The Elamites, Medians, and Archaemenids. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Macropaedia), Vol. 9, pp. 830-832. 17. Epstein, S., Sharp, R. P. & Gow, A. J. (1970). Antarctic ice sheet: stable isotope analyses of Byrd Station cores and interhemispheric climatic implications. Science 168, 1570-1572. 18. Ericson, D. B., Ewing, M. & Wollin, G. (1964). The Pleistocene epoch in deep-sea sediments. Science 146,723-732. 19. Evernden, J. F., Curtis, G. H. & Kistler, R. (1957). Potassium-Argon dating of Pleistocene volcanics. Quaternaria 4, 13-17. Vol. 2. New York: 20. Gelb, I. J. (1974). Assyria. History. The Mari Period. Encyclopedia International, Grolier, p. 124. 21. Genovts, S. (1960). Revaluation of age, stature and sex of the Tepexpan remains, Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 18, 205-2 17. 22. Heintz, A. & Garrutt, V. E. (1965). Determination of the absolute age of the fossil remains of Mammoth and Woolly Rhinoceros from the permafrost of Siberia by the help of radiocarbon (C,,). Norsk geologisk tidsskrift 45, 73-79. Cited in Kurttn (1968), p. 245, Figure 103. 23. Ivanhoe, F. (1975). Geomagnetic intensity and fossil man hyperostosis. Actas XLI International America& Congress (Mexico City) 1,7 l-75. 24. Kholodov, Y. A. (1964). Effects on the central nervous system. In (M. F. Barnothy, Ed.) Biological Eficts of Magnetic Fields, Vol. 1, pp. 196-200. New York: Plenum Press. 25. Ku, T. L. & Broecker, W. S. (1966). Atlantic deep-sea stratigraphy: extension of absolute chronology to 320,000 years. Science 151, 448-450. 26. Kurt&n, B. (1968). Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. Chicago: Aldine, pp. 136, 240-248. 27. Kurt&, B. (1976). The Cave Bear Story. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 24-25, 69-71,80-81, 128, 130-132, 145. 28. Kurt&, B. & Vasari, Y. (1960). On the date of Peking man. Commentationes biologicae 23, l-l 0. 29. LeMay, M. I%,Culebras, A. (1972). Human brain: morphological differences in the hemispheres demonNew England Journal of A4edicine 287, 168-170. strated by carotid arteriography. 30. McCown, T. D. & Keith, A. (1939). The Stone Age of Mount Carmel, Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 254, 268, 279. 31. Martin, R. (1923). Lehrbuch der Anthropologic, Vol. 2. Jena: G. Fischer, pp. 1189-l 190. 32. Mascarenhas, S. (1974). The electret effect in bone and biopolymers and the bound-water problem. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 238, 36-52. 33. Matiegka, J. (1934). Homo Predmostensis. L’homme fossile de Predmosti en Morauie c&es. Prague: Acadtmie Tcheque des Sciences et des Arts, pp. 68.
( Tchecoslovakie).
I.
Les
34. Mellaart, J. (1965). Earliest Civilizations of the Near East. London: Thames & Hudson, p, 12. 35. Mirambell, L. (1967). Excavaciones en un sitio pleistocCnico de Tlapacoya, M&co. Boletin de1 Institufo national de Antrojologia
e Historin 29, 37-41.
F. (1973). Fdrmulas de Estadisticapara Znvestigadores, Vol. 1. Mexico City: Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia, SEP, pp. 68-75. 37. Oakley, K. P. (1964a). Man the Tool Maker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 150-151. 38. Oakley, K. P. (19646). Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man. London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 39. Oakley, K. P., Campbell, B. G. & Molleson, T. I. (Eds) (1971). Catulogue of Fossil Hominids. Parr II: Europe. London: British Museum (Natural History).
36. Montemayor,
444
F.
IVANHOE
48. Oakley, K. P., Campbell, B. G. & Molleson, T. I. (Eds) (1975). Catalogue of Fossil Hominids. Part ZZZ: Americas, Asia, Australasia. London: British Museum (Natural History), pp. 18, 52-75. 41. Pauling, L. & Coryell, C. D. (1936). Th e magnetic properties and structure of hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin and carbonmonoxyhemoglobin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 22, 210-2 16. 42. Piveteau, J. (1970). L’homme de l’abri Suard. Annales de Pale’ontologie 56, 173-225. Paris: Vert. 43. Romano, A. (1974). Restos 6seos humanos preceramicos de Mexico. In (J. Romero, Ed.) AntropoZogia Fisica, Epoca Prehispdnica. Mexico City: Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia, SEP, pp. 29-81. 44. Stewart, T. D. (1963). Shanidar skeletons IV and VI. Sumer 19,8-26. 45. Straus, W. L. Jr. & Cave, A. J. E. (1957). Pathology and the posture of Neanderthal man. Quarterly Review of Biology 32, 348-363. 46. Susuki, H. & Takai, F. (Eds) (1970). The Amud Man and his Cave Site. Tokyo: Academic Press of Japan, pp. 126, 201. 47. Szabo, B. J. & Collins, D. (1975). Ages of fossil bones from British interglacial sites. Nature, London 254, 680-682. 48. Twiesselmann, F. (1941). MCthodes pour l’evaluation de I’epaisseur des parois craniennes. Bulletin du M&e Y. BHistoire naturelle de Belgique 17(48), l-33. 49. Vallois, H. V. (1958). La Grotte de Fonttchevade, deuxieme partie. Arch. Institut PalPontologie Hum&e, M&wire 29, 29. 50. Weidenreich, F. (1928). Der Schiidefind von Weimar-Ehringsdorf. Jena: G. Fischer, pp. 90-91. 51. Weidenreich, F. (1943). The skull of Sinanthropus pekinensis; a comparative study on a primitive hominid skull. Palaeontologia sinica N.S. D (lo), 5, 162-163. 52. Weidenreich, F. (1946). Apes, Giants, and Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 56. 53. Weidenreich, F. (1951). Morphology of Solo Man. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural Histosy 43, 285. 54. Wernick, R. (1973). The Monument Builders. New York: Time-Life Books, pp. 33, 62. 55. Wollin, G., Ericson, D. B. & Ryan, W. B. F. (1971). Variationsinmagnetic intensityandclimaticchanges. Nature, London 232, 549-55 1. 56. Wolstedt, P. (1960). Die letzte Eiszeit in Nordamerika und Europa. Eiszeitalter und Gegenzoart 11, 148-165. Cited in Oakley (19646), p. 21, Figure 3. 57. Wright, G. E. (1974). Palmyra. Encyclopedia International, Vol. 14. New York: Grolier, p. 28.