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Discovery and development of radium at Great Bear Lake
DISCOVERY
A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F R A D I U M AT G R E A T BEAR LAKE.* BY CHARLES
CAMSELL, L L . D . , C . M . G . ,
Deputy Minister of Mines and Resources, Canada, and Commissioner of the Northwest Territories.
M a y I e x p r e s s a t the o u t s e t m y a p p r e c i a t i o n of the h o n o u r you h a v e d o n e m e in i n v i t i n g m e t o a d d r e s s the m e m b e r s and f r i e n d s of T h e F r a n k l i n I n s t i t u t e , an i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h has h a d a long a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d a m o n g the scientific i n s t i t u t i o n s of the w o r l d . W h e n Dr. A l l e n i n v i t e d m e t o a d d r e s s T h e F r a n k l i n Ins t i t u t e I f o u n d m y s e l f in a q u a n d a r y b e c a u s e a n y C a n a d i a n is t o d a y v e r y m u c h r e s t r i c t e d in the s u b j e c t s he m a y d i s c u s s , a n d very r i g h t l y so, b e c a u s e of the d a n g e r s of g i v i n g aid a n d c o m f o r t t o the e n e m y . W a r m a k e s a g r e a t di f f e r ~ n e e q n this respect. H o w e v e r , a s m o r e t h a n half of m y life h a s b e e n dev o t e d t o the P u b l i c S e r v i c e of C a n a d a a n d all Of t h a t h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h the m i n e r a l i n d u s t r y , I t h o u g h t t h a t a p a g e out of C a n a d a ' s m i n i n g h i s t o r y , d e a l i n g w i t h w h a t I c o n s i d e r a m o s t interesting and r o m a n t i c p h a s e , w o u l d be of interest to you. W e have h a d in C a n a d a a n u m b e r of i n t e r e s t i n g e v e n t s in o u r m i n i n g h i s t o r y ; for e x a m p l e , the C a r i b o o gold r u s h of 186o f o l l o w i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r the d i s c o v e r y of gold in C a l i f o r n i a ; t h e n , thirty-five or f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r , the g r e a t K l o n d y k e s t a m p e d e , a n e v e n t w h i c h was h e r a l d e d a s one of o u t s t a n d i n g r o m a n c e , b u t w h i c h , in m y own experience, had far more of t r a g e d y in it than r o m a n c e ; the C o b a l t s i l v e r d i s c o v e r i e s in 19o2, w h i c h g a v e a t r e m e n d o u s fillip t o C a n a d i a n m i n i n g , a n d the i n f l u e n c e of w h i c h s t i l l r e m a i n s ; and l a t e r still, the o p e n i n g up of the g r e a t gold b e l t e x t e n d i n g a c r o s s n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o a n d Q u e b e c , w h i c h is now p r o v i d i n g more than 75 per c e n t . of C a n a d a ' s gold o u t p u t . T h e s e w e r e all m i l e s t o n e s in C a n a d a ' s m i n i n g h i s t o r y ; b u t * Presented at the Stated Meeting held Wednesday, October 15, I94 I. 545
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C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
the l a s t m a j o r e v e n t , t h a t of w h i c h I a m g o i n g t o s p e a k tonight, n a m e l y , the d i s c o v e r y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of r a d i u m m i n i n g t o an i n d u s t r y w h i c h now o c c u p i e s the f i r s t p l a c e in the w o r l d , h a s a r o m a n c e a n d i n t e r e s t a t t a c h e d t o it n o t s u r p a s s e d by a n y of the o t h e r s . T h e i n t e r e s t in this e v e n t is a c c e n t u a t e d by r e a s o n of two f a c t s ; first, t h a t the ore d e p o s i t is s i t u a t e d on the edge of the A r c t i c C i r c l e on the b l e a k a n d i n h o s p i t a b l e s h o r e s of G r e a t B e a r L a k e I,OOO m i l e s in a n a i r l i n e n o r t h of
Radium Refinery, Eldorado G o l d M i n e s Ltd., Port Hope, O n t .
the n e a r e s t r a i l w a y p o i n t a r i d , s e c o n d , b e c a u s e r a d i u m is the m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y of all the e l e m e n t s t h a t m a k e up the earth's crust. T h e e l e m e n t r a d i u m , w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d with u r a n i u m in the m i n e r a l p i t c h b l e n d e , has, as you k n o w , the p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t y of b e i n g radio-active. T h e p r i n c i p l e of r a d i o - a c t i v i t y was d i s c o v e r e d in the y e a r I896 by B e c q u e r e l , o n l y , h o w e v e r , a f t e r 5o y e a r s of e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k by his f a t h e r a n d his g r a n d f a t h e r on the s a l t s of u r a n i u m . Two y e a r s l a t e r , in
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
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1898, Madame Curie and her husband isolated the radioactive element, polonium, and l a t e r in the same year discovered radium chloride, though the element itself was not prepared u n t i l n e a r l y 12 y e a r s later. The radium industry started in F r a n c e in 19o4. L a t e r , plants were b u i l t in G e r m a n y , Austria, Portugal, France, England, and the U n i t e d States. F r a n c e was the most i m p o r t a n t producer up to 1914, when the U n i t e d States took the lead, based upon the carnotite ores of Colorado. The United S t a t e s was displaced in the lead by Belgium in 1922, when the pitchblende ores of the Belgian Congo came into prominence as a source of radium. Today, by reason of the discovery in 193o of rich pitchblende-silver ores on the r e m o t e shores of Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories and the building of a t r e a t m e n t p l a n t on the shore of Lake Ontario, C a n a d a occupies the most prominent place in the world production of radium. The mine, although temporarily closed down because of the dislocation of the market by the war, is in good shape, with substantial reserves of ore broken or blocked out and with a well-equipped mill capable of handling over IOO tons of ore a day. The refinery., situated on Lake Ontario, 4,000 miles away from the mine, is operating efficiently and has a capacity to turn out about IOO grams of radium a year in the form of radium bromide and sulphate, as well as polonium, silver, and the t h r e e salts of uranium, yellow, orange, and black. All this has come about in the last IO years, but the m a n n e r in which it has come about constitutes one of the romances of mining in Canada. This is the story w h i c h I would like to relate to you and to follow the story by some m o t i o n pictures illustrative of the mining, transportation, and t r e a t m e n t of the ore. Great Bear Lake is situated in northwestern C a n a d a on the rim of the Arctic Circle and is the most northerly of the g r e a t lakes of the Continent. The country surrounding the lake is in g r e a t part still unknown, unexplored, and unmapped. The lake itself, though one of the g r e a t freshwater l a k e s of the world, has not been fully delineated. The northwestern arm is still indicated on Canadian maps in broken lines. The first reference to the area dates back to the time of
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CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
Alexander Mackenzie. A f t e r that explorer's remarkable journey in I789 to the Arctic Coast, down the river that has since borne his name, he decided to extend the interests of the North-West Company to the lower Mackenzie, and it is presumed he was instrumental in establishing in I799 a small trading post at the western end of Great Bear Lake, the first establishment in that region. We next hear of this area when C a p t a i n John Franklin, u n d e r instructions from the British Admiralty, made his
Mill, adlt, and radium concentrate, sacked for shipment, Eldorado Gold Mines.
second expedition to the Arctic. He spent the winter of I825-26 near the site of this post of Mackenzie's, which by that time had long been abandoned. Dr. John" Richardson, who accompanied Franklin as surgeon and naturalist, explored 500 miles of the shores of Great Bear Lake during the fall of I825 and April, I826, establishing many points by astronomical observations. These must have been made with extreme care, for his results in the main differ only slightly from those that have since been recorded there by the far superior instruments and methods of today.
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Twelve years later, W a r r e n Dease, a Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, who ably assisted Franklin at his winter quarters in I825-26, and T h o m a s Simpson, also an officer of the company, were commissioned to explore the Arctic coast east of the Coppermine, and they spent the winters of I837-38 and 1838-39 at the northeast end of G r e a t Bear Lake in buildings that were still standing when I visited the lake in I9OO. T h o m a s Simpson, who was a cousin of George Simpson, the famous Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, was one of the most energetic explorers the company ever had. In I848-49, Sir John Richardson again wintered at G r e a t Bear L a k e . This melancholy sojourn was on his return from the Arctic expedition which the British Admiralty requested him to undertake in search of Her M a j e s t y ' s ships, " E r e b u s " and "Terror." These vessels, with their combined crews of 129 men, had left England in May, I845, to complete the "northwest passage" and the survey of the n o r t h coast. They were u n d e r the command of Sir John Franklin, from whom no official word had been received since his letter d a t e d July I2, 1845, Whalefish Islands. His ships were last seen by a whaling captain on July 26th of that year, moored to an iceberg, waiting for an opening in the ice so as to cross to Lancaster Sound. Between I85O and the period a b o u t which I am going to speak, the district was almost entirely neglected, except by that courageous missionary, F a t h e r E m i l e Petitot, who made as many as eight journeys t h e r e during the years I866 to I879, residing on each occasion three to six months. Desolate though it is, G r e a t Bear Lake is unquestionably impressive, especially when seen in its proper setting from the air. On a bright s u m m e r day features of topography appear far more clear-cut than they do here, the colour of trees, water, rock, hills, and flowers stand out in beautiful and striking contrasts. The air is wonderfully c l e a r and the colour of the w a t e r a pale blue. The aspect in winter is very different. By the old Athabaska R i v e r route, G r e a t Bear Lake is distant 1,55° surveyed miles from Edmonton. It is the largest lake lying wholly in Canada; its area is one-quarter that of England, but when accurately defined, will probably
55 °
C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
be f o u n d t o be s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r t h a n a q u a r t e r of t h a t country. T h e e a s t e r l y half c o n s t i t u t e s p a r t of the w e s t e r n b o u n d a r y of the C a n a d i a n S h i e l d . T h e s o u t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n s h o r e s are f a i r l y well w o o d e d w h e n c o m p a r e d with the s p a r s e g r o w t h a l o n g m o s t of the s h o r e in the n o r t h e r n h a l f , w h i c h lies w i t h i n the A r c t i c C i r c l e a n d b o r d e r s on the treeless, or b a r r e n l a n d s .
Mill and oil storage tanks. T h e w a t e r is the c l e a r e s t in the w o r l d , but, is a l w a y s c o l d . On the s u r f a c e the t e m p e r a t u r e in A u g u s t is a b o u t 43 ° F. a n d 33 ° F. a s h o r t d i s t a n c e u n d e r n e a t h . Ice in the lake s e l d o m b r e a k s up b e f o r e A u g u s t I, r e m a i n ing one m o n t h or more l o n g e r than a t G r e a t S l a v e L a k e , a n d d r i f t i n g u s u a l l y till A u g u s t I5. I t f o r m s a g a i n e a r l y in S e p t e m b e r a n d c o v e r s the e n t i r e s h e e t of w a t e r by the end of t h a t m o n t h or the f i r s t w e e k in O c t o b e r . N a v i g a t i o n of t h e l a k e , for its e n t i r e extent, is c o n s e q u e n t l y l i m i t e d t o a b o u t 5o d a y s in the y e a r . C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s are s e v e r e and one h a s t o be y o u n g a n d v i g o r o u s t o e n d u r e t h e m the y e a r r o u n d . T h e r e is, how-
June, 1942.]
DISCOVERY AND
DEVELOPMENT
OF RADIUM.
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e v e r , a f a s c i n a t i o n a b o u t the c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y in the s u m m e r a n d even in the so-called b a r r e n l a n d s , w h i c h b o r d e r G r e a t B e a r L a k e on the n o r t h a n d e a s t . T h e a p p e a l of the c o u n t r y c a n b e s t be e x p r e s s e d in the w o r d s of a n old I n d i a n t h a t I k n e w who, in t a l k i n g t o the p r i e s t w h o was a t t e m p t i n g t o t e a c h h i m the p r i n c i p l e s of C h r i s t i a n i t y , s a i d : " M y F a t h e r , you have told m e of the b e a u t i e s of h e a v e n . Tell m e one t h i n g m o r e . Is i t more b e a u t i f u l than the c o u n t r y of the m u s k o x in the s u m m e r t i m e ,
~
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Surface plant and camp, Eldorado Gold Mines. Looking southerly; cookhouse and staff quarters in foreground, mill in right distance.
w h e r e the m i s t s roll over the h i l l s and the w a t e r s are v e r y b l u e , and the l o o n s c r y very o f t e n ? T h a t is b e a u t i f u l , a n d if h e a v e n is s t i l l m o r e b e a u t i f u l , I will be c o n t e n t t o rest t h e r e until I am very old." I f i r s t b e c a m e a c q u a i n t e d with G r e a t B e a r L a k e d u r i n g the w i n t e r I s p e n t a t F o r t N o r m a n in I 8 9 5 - 9 6 . T h e r e was a s c a r c i t y of food a t the s e t t l e m e n t - - n o t a n u n u s u a l o c c u r r e n c e in t h o s e d a y s - - a n d t o g e t food for the d o g s I m a d e a s n o w s h o e trip t o the l a k e . T h i s was in F e b r u a r y , a l w a y s a very d i f f i c u l t
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CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
and cold m o n t h in which to travel these parts, for the days are short and w i n t e r temperature at its lowest. We spent ten days with a band of Indians at the southwest end of the lake near the site of Old Fort Franklin, but it was an interesting ten days with little to do except sleep, eat, and sit and w a t c h the primitive gambling g a m e s that went on continuously in one of the tepees. My next v i s i t to Great Bear Lake was in I9oo with a geological survey p a r t y designed to explore and map the shores of the lake and perhaps locate the source of native copper, which for generations, the Esquimo had been known to use for implements. The region was then entirely uninhabited and had up to that time been visited by not more than half a dozen explorers. We had two canoes for a p a r t y of five and as I look back at it now I realize that it was a foolhardy expedition that had no business to survive, for it was poorly equipped both in supplies and personnel. However, a f t e r some 1,5oo miles of travel by canoe from Fort Norman on Mackenzie r i v e r and some 600 miles on snowshoes, we accomplished our object and reached the railway at E d m o n t o n just before Christmas, a journey which took some seven m o n t h s and which I now do in two days by aeroplane. I do not intend to discuss the incidents of this journey except to mention some things that have a bearing upon the discovery of radium-bearing ores and the present situation with regard to radium. The season of I9oo was not an unusual one and it was the beginning of August before the main body of the lake was free of ice. By following the s t r i p of open w a t e r along the shore, however, we were able to make considerable progress. The middle of August found us traversing the r o c k y and deeply indented eastern shore of the lake. On the 24th of August we were in Echo bay. The weather was stormy, snow fell occasionally, and in the mornings the temperature was below freezing. The short Arctic summer was almost over. On the cliff at the entrance to Echo bay, where we were stormbound, the rocks were stained by oxidation of the minerals with red, • green, yellow, and pink colours. This outcrop was carefully examined and the evidences of iron, copper, uranium, and
June, ~942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
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cobalt noted, but no particular significance was attached to the occurrence in such a remote and inaccessible part of the country. In the official report of this expedition published by the Geological Survey of Canada, the following year, appeared this sentence:
From left at edge of bay; bunkhouse, powerhouse. Left foreground; dry and shop. Right foreground; adit portal.
"In the greenstones east of McTavish bay occur numerous interrupted stringers of calc-spar containing chalcopyrite, and the steep rocky shores which here present themselves to the lake are often stained with cobalt-bloom and copper-green." This statement, like so many others in government documents, lay buried in the reports of the GeologicalS u r v e yuntil, 3o years later, it c a u g h t the eye of an experienced Cobalt mining man who knew the significance of cobalt-bloom. Gilbert L a B i n e knew the relationship of cobalt-bloom to native silver and set out in the winter of I93o by aeroplane to
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CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. t.
l o c a t e a n d e x a m i n e the o c c u r r e n c e r e f e r r e d t o by the G e o logical Survey. W i t h one c o m p a n i o n he was l a n d e d from the p l a n e s o m e m i l e s s o u t h of G r e a t B e a r L a k e a n d p r o c e e d e d n o r t h w a r d from t h a t p o i n t on f o o t , d r a w i n g his o u t f i t on a t o b o g g a n . T h e p a r t y r e a c h e d E c h o B a y in the e a r l y s p r i n g w h i l e t h e s u r f a c e of the lake was s t i l l f o z e n , but t h e r e was n o difficulty in locat-
Office at extreme left; centre building contains cookhouse, dining room and staff quarters.
ing the o c c u r r e n c e of c o b a l t - b l o o m r e f e r r e d t o in the g e o l o g i c a l r e p o r t . A n u m b e r of c l a i m s w e r e s t a k e d . R e t u r n i n g t o civilization in the fall, M r . L a B i n e h a d his s a m p l e s e x a m i n e d by officers of the M i n e s D e p a r t m e n t , a n d his o p i n i o n of the p r e s e n c e of p i t c h b l e n d e was c o n f i r m e d . In the s u m m e r of 193 I, w i t h o u t a d v e r t i s i n g his d i s c o v e r i e s , he r e t u r n e d t o G r e a t B e a r L a k e t o do s o m e f u r t h e r p r o s p e c t i n g . T h e e x a m i n a t i o n s of t h a t s e a s o n led h i m t o the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the d e p o s i t s of s i l v e r a n d p i t c h b l e n d e w e r e well w o r t h d e v e l o p i n g a n d a s o u r c e of r a d i u m was i n d i c a t e d . H a v i n g
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
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satisfied himself and the D e p a r t m e n t on this score, it was necessary for him to explore and develop the deposit and for us to find a process for the reduction of the ores and the recovery of the radium. Efforts were first made by the D e p a r t m e n t to secure information from the operating companies as to the method of reduction used. These efforts were entirely unsuccessful and it became incumbent upon the Mines Department to develop a process. This was not an easy undertaking because of the complexity of the ore and because of the risks involved to the health of the workers. For example, the ore contains 4° different minerals, of which 35 are metallic minerals, and the contained m e t a l s include, besides radium and uranium, silver, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron, arsenic, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, barium, magnesium, calcium, silica, and sulphur. However, engineers were assigned to the job and a f t e r a complete search of the literature on radium and radium-bearing ores, a method was selected which appeared applicable to the Great Bear Lake ores, and tried out on a testtube scale. L a t e r , as developments proceeded and conditions warranted, a small pilot p l a n t was b u i l t in the laboratories of the M i n e s D e p a r t m e n t and the process tried out on that scale. The results were entirely satisfactory and a small quantity of radium bromide was actually produced. A f t e r these research operations had been in progress for some time and the results appeared to be satisfactory, Mr. Pochon, present m a n a g e r of the Port Hope plant, who is one of the outstanding radium technologists of the world, was engaged by the Mining C o m p a n y and some time was spent by him in our laboratories collaborating with our officers. The final result was a completed process which was shortly a f t e r put into use when the radium p l a n t on Lake O n t a r i o was built. Production of radium began at the p l a n t in 1933 and has continued up to the present. This p l a n t is now not only the principal source of radium in the world, but it has been able to reduce the price of radium from a b o u t $5o,ooo or $6o,ooo a gram to about $25,ooo a gram. The importance of that accomplishment can only be fully appreciated by those in medical and scientific fields, who had been restricted in the
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C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J" [~'' 1"
u s e of r a d i u m by r e a s o n of its h i g h p r i c e . T h e r e are a m p l e s u p p l i e s of ore a t the m i n e . In a d d i t i o n t o the difficulties of w o r k i n g out a p r o c e s s of e x t r a c t i o n t h e r e w e r e very s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s of m i n i n g a n d of transportation to overcome. C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a t the mine are s e v e r e . W i n t e r temp e r a t u r e s are low a n d the s u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e f a i r l y h i g h . T h e r a n g e is from a b o u t 60 F. d e g r e e s b e l o w zero t o 85 a b o v e .
Mill in foreground.
T i m b e r is s p a r s e a n d a s the g r o u n d is p e r m a n e n t l y f r o z e n w i t h i n 2 or 3 i n c h e s of the s u r f a c e , no g a r d e n s t u f f c a n be g r o w n . In a geological s e n s e , one m a y say t h a t the r e g i o n h a s only j u s t e m e r g e d from the g l a c i a l p e r i o d , a n d p e r m a n e n t frost, r e s u l t i n g from the c o n t i n e n t a l ice c a p w h i c h c o v e r e d the s u r f a c e for t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s , was f o u n d in the m i n e t o a d e p t h of 350 feet. I n d e e d it w o u l d r e q u i r e only a s m a l l d r o p in the a n n u a l a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e t o b r i n g a b o u t a r e t u r n of g l a c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . All food s u p p l i e s e x c e p t fish a n d c a r i b o o m e a t h a v e t o be t a k e n i n t o the c o u n t r y .
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
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Although some of the concentrates have been transported by aeroplane from the mine to the railhead I,OOO miles away, most of this material is now handled by lake and r i v e r boat 1,5oo miles to the railway and thence 2,500 miles to the reduction works. Navigation, however, on Great Bear Lake is only open for one and a half m o n t h s of the year, though on the Mackenzie and Athabaska rivers the season of open w a t e r is four months. T h e r e is only a very s h o r t period, therefore, when sdpplies may be t a k e n in or out. Altogether, the whole operation of mining, transportation, and t r e a t m e n t required the exercise of a great deal of initiative, courage, and resourcefulness, and that all the difficulties have been overcome is to the lasting credit of Mr. Gilbert LaBine, who has been actuated as much by the laudable m o t i v e of providing a service to h u m a n i t y as by the m o t i v e of making a profit. T o d a y radium can be bought at less than one-half the price prevailing eight years ago. As a consequence, the uses of radium have expanded and instead of being supplied only to hospitals and medical men, I am told that 85 per cent of our output goes t o d a y into industries in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States concerned with the production of various k i n d s of steel.
A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F R A D I U M AT G R E A T BEAR LAKE.* BY CHARLES
CAMSELL, L L . D . , C . M . G . ,
Deputy Minister of Mines and Resources, Canada, and Commissioner of the Northwest Territories.
M a y I e x p r e s s a t the o u t s e t m y a p p r e c i a t i o n of the h o n o u r you h a v e d o n e m e in i n v i t i n g m e t o a d d r e s s the m e m b e r s and f r i e n d s of T h e F r a n k l i n I n s t i t u t e , an i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h has h a d a long a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d a m o n g the scientific i n s t i t u t i o n s of the w o r l d . W h e n Dr. A l l e n i n v i t e d m e t o a d d r e s s T h e F r a n k l i n Ins t i t u t e I f o u n d m y s e l f in a q u a n d a r y b e c a u s e a n y C a n a d i a n is t o d a y v e r y m u c h r e s t r i c t e d in the s u b j e c t s he m a y d i s c u s s , a n d very r i g h t l y so, b e c a u s e of the d a n g e r s of g i v i n g aid a n d c o m f o r t t o the e n e m y . W a r m a k e s a g r e a t di f f e r ~ n e e q n this respect. H o w e v e r , a s m o r e t h a n half of m y life h a s b e e n dev o t e d t o the P u b l i c S e r v i c e of C a n a d a a n d all Of t h a t h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h the m i n e r a l i n d u s t r y , I t h o u g h t t h a t a p a g e out of C a n a d a ' s m i n i n g h i s t o r y , d e a l i n g w i t h w h a t I c o n s i d e r a m o s t interesting and r o m a n t i c p h a s e , w o u l d be of interest to you. W e have h a d in C a n a d a a n u m b e r of i n t e r e s t i n g e v e n t s in o u r m i n i n g h i s t o r y ; for e x a m p l e , the C a r i b o o gold r u s h of 186o f o l l o w i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r the d i s c o v e r y of gold in C a l i f o r n i a ; t h e n , thirty-five or f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r , the g r e a t K l o n d y k e s t a m p e d e , a n e v e n t w h i c h was h e r a l d e d a s one of o u t s t a n d i n g r o m a n c e , b u t w h i c h , in m y own experience, had far more of t r a g e d y in it than r o m a n c e ; the C o b a l t s i l v e r d i s c o v e r i e s in 19o2, w h i c h g a v e a t r e m e n d o u s fillip t o C a n a d i a n m i n i n g , a n d the i n f l u e n c e of w h i c h s t i l l r e m a i n s ; and l a t e r still, the o p e n i n g up of the g r e a t gold b e l t e x t e n d i n g a c r o s s n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o a n d Q u e b e c , w h i c h is now p r o v i d i n g more than 75 per c e n t . of C a n a d a ' s gold o u t p u t . T h e s e w e r e all m i l e s t o n e s in C a n a d a ' s m i n i n g h i s t o r y ; b u t * Presented at the Stated Meeting held Wednesday, October 15, I94 I. 545
546
C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
the l a s t m a j o r e v e n t , t h a t of w h i c h I a m g o i n g t o s p e a k tonight, n a m e l y , the d i s c o v e r y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of r a d i u m m i n i n g t o an i n d u s t r y w h i c h now o c c u p i e s the f i r s t p l a c e in the w o r l d , h a s a r o m a n c e a n d i n t e r e s t a t t a c h e d t o it n o t s u r p a s s e d by a n y of the o t h e r s . T h e i n t e r e s t in this e v e n t is a c c e n t u a t e d by r e a s o n of two f a c t s ; first, t h a t the ore d e p o s i t is s i t u a t e d on the edge of the A r c t i c C i r c l e on the b l e a k a n d i n h o s p i t a b l e s h o r e s of G r e a t B e a r L a k e I,OOO m i l e s in a n a i r l i n e n o r t h of
Radium Refinery, Eldorado G o l d M i n e s Ltd., Port Hope, O n t .
the n e a r e s t r a i l w a y p o i n t a r i d , s e c o n d , b e c a u s e r a d i u m is the m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y of all the e l e m e n t s t h a t m a k e up the earth's crust. T h e e l e m e n t r a d i u m , w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d with u r a n i u m in the m i n e r a l p i t c h b l e n d e , has, as you k n o w , the p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t y of b e i n g radio-active. T h e p r i n c i p l e of r a d i o - a c t i v i t y was d i s c o v e r e d in the y e a r I896 by B e c q u e r e l , o n l y , h o w e v e r , a f t e r 5o y e a r s of e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k by his f a t h e r a n d his g r a n d f a t h e r on the s a l t s of u r a n i u m . Two y e a r s l a t e r , in
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
547
1898, Madame Curie and her husband isolated the radioactive element, polonium, and l a t e r in the same year discovered radium chloride, though the element itself was not prepared u n t i l n e a r l y 12 y e a r s later. The radium industry started in F r a n c e in 19o4. L a t e r , plants were b u i l t in G e r m a n y , Austria, Portugal, France, England, and the U n i t e d States. F r a n c e was the most i m p o r t a n t producer up to 1914, when the U n i t e d States took the lead, based upon the carnotite ores of Colorado. The United S t a t e s was displaced in the lead by Belgium in 1922, when the pitchblende ores of the Belgian Congo came into prominence as a source of radium. Today, by reason of the discovery in 193o of rich pitchblende-silver ores on the r e m o t e shores of Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories and the building of a t r e a t m e n t p l a n t on the shore of Lake Ontario, C a n a d a occupies the most prominent place in the world production of radium. The mine, although temporarily closed down because of the dislocation of the market by the war, is in good shape, with substantial reserves of ore broken or blocked out and with a well-equipped mill capable of handling over IOO tons of ore a day. The refinery., situated on Lake Ontario, 4,000 miles away from the mine, is operating efficiently and has a capacity to turn out about IOO grams of radium a year in the form of radium bromide and sulphate, as well as polonium, silver, and the t h r e e salts of uranium, yellow, orange, and black. All this has come about in the last IO years, but the m a n n e r in which it has come about constitutes one of the romances of mining in Canada. This is the story w h i c h I would like to relate to you and to follow the story by some m o t i o n pictures illustrative of the mining, transportation, and t r e a t m e n t of the ore. Great Bear Lake is situated in northwestern C a n a d a on the rim of the Arctic Circle and is the most northerly of the g r e a t lakes of the Continent. The country surrounding the lake is in g r e a t part still unknown, unexplored, and unmapped. The lake itself, though one of the g r e a t freshwater l a k e s of the world, has not been fully delineated. The northwestern arm is still indicated on Canadian maps in broken lines. The first reference to the area dates back to the time of
548
CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
Alexander Mackenzie. A f t e r that explorer's remarkable journey in I789 to the Arctic Coast, down the river that has since borne his name, he decided to extend the interests of the North-West Company to the lower Mackenzie, and it is presumed he was instrumental in establishing in I799 a small trading post at the western end of Great Bear Lake, the first establishment in that region. We next hear of this area when C a p t a i n John Franklin, u n d e r instructions from the British Admiralty, made his
Mill, adlt, and radium concentrate, sacked for shipment, Eldorado Gold Mines.
second expedition to the Arctic. He spent the winter of I825-26 near the site of this post of Mackenzie's, which by that time had long been abandoned. Dr. John" Richardson, who accompanied Franklin as surgeon and naturalist, explored 500 miles of the shores of Great Bear Lake during the fall of I825 and April, I826, establishing many points by astronomical observations. These must have been made with extreme care, for his results in the main differ only slightly from those that have since been recorded there by the far superior instruments and methods of today.
June, 1942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
549
Twelve years later, W a r r e n Dease, a Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, who ably assisted Franklin at his winter quarters in I825-26, and T h o m a s Simpson, also an officer of the company, were commissioned to explore the Arctic coast east of the Coppermine, and they spent the winters of I837-38 and 1838-39 at the northeast end of G r e a t Bear Lake in buildings that were still standing when I visited the lake in I9OO. T h o m a s Simpson, who was a cousin of George Simpson, the famous Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, was one of the most energetic explorers the company ever had. In I848-49, Sir John Richardson again wintered at G r e a t Bear L a k e . This melancholy sojourn was on his return from the Arctic expedition which the British Admiralty requested him to undertake in search of Her M a j e s t y ' s ships, " E r e b u s " and "Terror." These vessels, with their combined crews of 129 men, had left England in May, I845, to complete the "northwest passage" and the survey of the n o r t h coast. They were u n d e r the command of Sir John Franklin, from whom no official word had been received since his letter d a t e d July I2, 1845, Whalefish Islands. His ships were last seen by a whaling captain on July 26th of that year, moored to an iceberg, waiting for an opening in the ice so as to cross to Lancaster Sound. Between I85O and the period a b o u t which I am going to speak, the district was almost entirely neglected, except by that courageous missionary, F a t h e r E m i l e Petitot, who made as many as eight journeys t h e r e during the years I866 to I879, residing on each occasion three to six months. Desolate though it is, G r e a t Bear Lake is unquestionably impressive, especially when seen in its proper setting from the air. On a bright s u m m e r day features of topography appear far more clear-cut than they do here, the colour of trees, water, rock, hills, and flowers stand out in beautiful and striking contrasts. The air is wonderfully c l e a r and the colour of the w a t e r a pale blue. The aspect in winter is very different. By the old Athabaska R i v e r route, G r e a t Bear Lake is distant 1,55° surveyed miles from Edmonton. It is the largest lake lying wholly in Canada; its area is one-quarter that of England, but when accurately defined, will probably
55 °
C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
be f o u n d t o be s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r t h a n a q u a r t e r of t h a t country. T h e e a s t e r l y half c o n s t i t u t e s p a r t of the w e s t e r n b o u n d a r y of the C a n a d i a n S h i e l d . T h e s o u t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n s h o r e s are f a i r l y well w o o d e d w h e n c o m p a r e d with the s p a r s e g r o w t h a l o n g m o s t of the s h o r e in the n o r t h e r n h a l f , w h i c h lies w i t h i n the A r c t i c C i r c l e a n d b o r d e r s on the treeless, or b a r r e n l a n d s .
Mill and oil storage tanks. T h e w a t e r is the c l e a r e s t in the w o r l d , but, is a l w a y s c o l d . On the s u r f a c e the t e m p e r a t u r e in A u g u s t is a b o u t 43 ° F. a n d 33 ° F. a s h o r t d i s t a n c e u n d e r n e a t h . Ice in the lake s e l d o m b r e a k s up b e f o r e A u g u s t I, r e m a i n ing one m o n t h or more l o n g e r than a t G r e a t S l a v e L a k e , a n d d r i f t i n g u s u a l l y till A u g u s t I5. I t f o r m s a g a i n e a r l y in S e p t e m b e r a n d c o v e r s the e n t i r e s h e e t of w a t e r by the end of t h a t m o n t h or the f i r s t w e e k in O c t o b e r . N a v i g a t i o n of t h e l a k e , for its e n t i r e extent, is c o n s e q u e n t l y l i m i t e d t o a b o u t 5o d a y s in the y e a r . C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s are s e v e r e and one h a s t o be y o u n g a n d v i g o r o u s t o e n d u r e t h e m the y e a r r o u n d . T h e r e is, how-
June, 1942.]
DISCOVERY AND
DEVELOPMENT
OF RADIUM.
55I
e v e r , a f a s c i n a t i o n a b o u t the c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y in the s u m m e r a n d even in the so-called b a r r e n l a n d s , w h i c h b o r d e r G r e a t B e a r L a k e on the n o r t h a n d e a s t . T h e a p p e a l of the c o u n t r y c a n b e s t be e x p r e s s e d in the w o r d s of a n old I n d i a n t h a t I k n e w who, in t a l k i n g t o the p r i e s t w h o was a t t e m p t i n g t o t e a c h h i m the p r i n c i p l e s of C h r i s t i a n i t y , s a i d : " M y F a t h e r , you have told m e of the b e a u t i e s of h e a v e n . Tell m e one t h i n g m o r e . Is i t more b e a u t i f u l than the c o u n t r y of the m u s k o x in the s u m m e r t i m e ,
~
~ii !~!! i~i~i!~!~i~ ~'~~
i
~
Surface plant and camp, Eldorado Gold Mines. Looking southerly; cookhouse and staff quarters in foreground, mill in right distance.
w h e r e the m i s t s roll over the h i l l s and the w a t e r s are v e r y b l u e , and the l o o n s c r y very o f t e n ? T h a t is b e a u t i f u l , a n d if h e a v e n is s t i l l m o r e b e a u t i f u l , I will be c o n t e n t t o rest t h e r e until I am very old." I f i r s t b e c a m e a c q u a i n t e d with G r e a t B e a r L a k e d u r i n g the w i n t e r I s p e n t a t F o r t N o r m a n in I 8 9 5 - 9 6 . T h e r e was a s c a r c i t y of food a t the s e t t l e m e n t - - n o t a n u n u s u a l o c c u r r e n c e in t h o s e d a y s - - a n d t o g e t food for the d o g s I m a d e a s n o w s h o e trip t o the l a k e . T h i s was in F e b r u a r y , a l w a y s a very d i f f i c u l t
552
CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. I.
and cold m o n t h in which to travel these parts, for the days are short and w i n t e r temperature at its lowest. We spent ten days with a band of Indians at the southwest end of the lake near the site of Old Fort Franklin, but it was an interesting ten days with little to do except sleep, eat, and sit and w a t c h the primitive gambling g a m e s that went on continuously in one of the tepees. My next v i s i t to Great Bear Lake was in I9oo with a geological survey p a r t y designed to explore and map the shores of the lake and perhaps locate the source of native copper, which for generations, the Esquimo had been known to use for implements. The region was then entirely uninhabited and had up to that time been visited by not more than half a dozen explorers. We had two canoes for a p a r t y of five and as I look back at it now I realize that it was a foolhardy expedition that had no business to survive, for it was poorly equipped both in supplies and personnel. However, a f t e r some 1,5oo miles of travel by canoe from Fort Norman on Mackenzie r i v e r and some 600 miles on snowshoes, we accomplished our object and reached the railway at E d m o n t o n just before Christmas, a journey which took some seven m o n t h s and which I now do in two days by aeroplane. I do not intend to discuss the incidents of this journey except to mention some things that have a bearing upon the discovery of radium-bearing ores and the present situation with regard to radium. The season of I9oo was not an unusual one and it was the beginning of August before the main body of the lake was free of ice. By following the s t r i p of open w a t e r along the shore, however, we were able to make considerable progress. The middle of August found us traversing the r o c k y and deeply indented eastern shore of the lake. On the 24th of August we were in Echo bay. The weather was stormy, snow fell occasionally, and in the mornings the temperature was below freezing. The short Arctic summer was almost over. On the cliff at the entrance to Echo bay, where we were stormbound, the rocks were stained by oxidation of the minerals with red, • green, yellow, and pink colours. This outcrop was carefully examined and the evidences of iron, copper, uranium, and
June, ~942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
553
cobalt noted, but no particular significance was attached to the occurrence in such a remote and inaccessible part of the country. In the official report of this expedition published by the Geological Survey of Canada, the following year, appeared this sentence:
From left at edge of bay; bunkhouse, powerhouse. Left foreground; dry and shop. Right foreground; adit portal.
"In the greenstones east of McTavish bay occur numerous interrupted stringers of calc-spar containing chalcopyrite, and the steep rocky shores which here present themselves to the lake are often stained with cobalt-bloom and copper-green." This statement, like so many others in government documents, lay buried in the reports of the GeologicalS u r v e yuntil, 3o years later, it c a u g h t the eye of an experienced Cobalt mining man who knew the significance of cobalt-bloom. Gilbert L a B i n e knew the relationship of cobalt-bloom to native silver and set out in the winter of I93o by aeroplane to
554
CHARLES CAMSELL.
[J. F. t.
l o c a t e a n d e x a m i n e the o c c u r r e n c e r e f e r r e d t o by the G e o logical Survey. W i t h one c o m p a n i o n he was l a n d e d from the p l a n e s o m e m i l e s s o u t h of G r e a t B e a r L a k e a n d p r o c e e d e d n o r t h w a r d from t h a t p o i n t on f o o t , d r a w i n g his o u t f i t on a t o b o g g a n . T h e p a r t y r e a c h e d E c h o B a y in the e a r l y s p r i n g w h i l e t h e s u r f a c e of the lake was s t i l l f o z e n , but t h e r e was n o difficulty in locat-
Office at extreme left; centre building contains cookhouse, dining room and staff quarters.
ing the o c c u r r e n c e of c o b a l t - b l o o m r e f e r r e d t o in the g e o l o g i c a l r e p o r t . A n u m b e r of c l a i m s w e r e s t a k e d . R e t u r n i n g t o civilization in the fall, M r . L a B i n e h a d his s a m p l e s e x a m i n e d by officers of the M i n e s D e p a r t m e n t , a n d his o p i n i o n of the p r e s e n c e of p i t c h b l e n d e was c o n f i r m e d . In the s u m m e r of 193 I, w i t h o u t a d v e r t i s i n g his d i s c o v e r i e s , he r e t u r n e d t o G r e a t B e a r L a k e t o do s o m e f u r t h e r p r o s p e c t i n g . T h e e x a m i n a t i o n s of t h a t s e a s o n led h i m t o the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the d e p o s i t s of s i l v e r a n d p i t c h b l e n d e w e r e well w o r t h d e v e l o p i n g a n d a s o u r c e of r a d i u m was i n d i c a t e d . H a v i n g
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
555
satisfied himself and the D e p a r t m e n t on this score, it was necessary for him to explore and develop the deposit and for us to find a process for the reduction of the ores and the recovery of the radium. Efforts were first made by the D e p a r t m e n t to secure information from the operating companies as to the method of reduction used. These efforts were entirely unsuccessful and it became incumbent upon the Mines Department to develop a process. This was not an easy undertaking because of the complexity of the ore and because of the risks involved to the health of the workers. For example, the ore contains 4° different minerals, of which 35 are metallic minerals, and the contained m e t a l s include, besides radium and uranium, silver, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron, arsenic, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, barium, magnesium, calcium, silica, and sulphur. However, engineers were assigned to the job and a f t e r a complete search of the literature on radium and radium-bearing ores, a method was selected which appeared applicable to the Great Bear Lake ores, and tried out on a testtube scale. L a t e r , as developments proceeded and conditions warranted, a small pilot p l a n t was b u i l t in the laboratories of the M i n e s D e p a r t m e n t and the process tried out on that scale. The results were entirely satisfactory and a small quantity of radium bromide was actually produced. A f t e r these research operations had been in progress for some time and the results appeared to be satisfactory, Mr. Pochon, present m a n a g e r of the Port Hope plant, who is one of the outstanding radium technologists of the world, was engaged by the Mining C o m p a n y and some time was spent by him in our laboratories collaborating with our officers. The final result was a completed process which was shortly a f t e r put into use when the radium p l a n t on Lake O n t a r i o was built. Production of radium began at the p l a n t in 1933 and has continued up to the present. This p l a n t is now not only the principal source of radium in the world, but it has been able to reduce the price of radium from a b o u t $5o,ooo or $6o,ooo a gram to about $25,ooo a gram. The importance of that accomplishment can only be fully appreciated by those in medical and scientific fields, who had been restricted in the
556
C H A R L E S CAMSELL.
[J" [~'' 1"
u s e of r a d i u m by r e a s o n of its h i g h p r i c e . T h e r e are a m p l e s u p p l i e s of ore a t the m i n e . In a d d i t i o n t o the difficulties of w o r k i n g out a p r o c e s s of e x t r a c t i o n t h e r e w e r e very s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s of m i n i n g a n d of transportation to overcome. C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a t the mine are s e v e r e . W i n t e r temp e r a t u r e s are low a n d the s u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e f a i r l y h i g h . T h e r a n g e is from a b o u t 60 F. d e g r e e s b e l o w zero t o 85 a b o v e .
Mill in foreground.
T i m b e r is s p a r s e a n d a s the g r o u n d is p e r m a n e n t l y f r o z e n w i t h i n 2 or 3 i n c h e s of the s u r f a c e , no g a r d e n s t u f f c a n be g r o w n . In a geological s e n s e , one m a y say t h a t the r e g i o n h a s only j u s t e m e r g e d from the g l a c i a l p e r i o d , a n d p e r m a n e n t frost, r e s u l t i n g from the c o n t i n e n t a l ice c a p w h i c h c o v e r e d the s u r f a c e for t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s , was f o u n d in the m i n e t o a d e p t h of 350 feet. I n d e e d it w o u l d r e q u i r e only a s m a l l d r o p in the a n n u a l a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e t o b r i n g a b o u t a r e t u r n of g l a c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . All food s u p p l i e s e x c e p t fish a n d c a r i b o o m e a t h a v e t o be t a k e n i n t o the c o u n t r y .
June, I942.] DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIUM.
557
Although some of the concentrates have been transported by aeroplane from the mine to the railhead I,OOO miles away, most of this material is now handled by lake and r i v e r boat 1,5oo miles to the railway and thence 2,500 miles to the reduction works. Navigation, however, on Great Bear Lake is only open for one and a half m o n t h s of the year, though on the Mackenzie and Athabaska rivers the season of open w a t e r is four months. T h e r e is only a very s h o r t period, therefore, when sdpplies may be t a k e n in or out. Altogether, the whole operation of mining, transportation, and t r e a t m e n t required the exercise of a great deal of initiative, courage, and resourcefulness, and that all the difficulties have been overcome is to the lasting credit of Mr. Gilbert LaBine, who has been actuated as much by the laudable m o t i v e of providing a service to h u m a n i t y as by the m o t i v e of making a profit. T o d a y radium can be bought at less than one-half the price prevailing eight years ago. As a consequence, the uses of radium have expanded and instead of being supplied only to hospitals and medical men, I am told that 85 per cent of our output goes t o d a y into industries in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States concerned with the production of various k i n d s of steel.