Do problematic and non-problematic video game players differ in extraversion, trait empathy, social capital and prosocial tendencies?

Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

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Do problematic and non-problematic video game players differ in extraversion, trait empathy, social capital and prosocial tendencies? Emily Collins ⇑, Jonathan Freeman Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK

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Article history: Available online 28 April 2013 Keywords: Social capital Extraversion Empathy Prosocial tendencies Video games Problematic video game use

a b s t r a c t The increasing popularity of online and multiplayer games has meant that for many, social interaction and cooperation are vital components of the gaming experience. Previous research has suggested that not only has this made gaming more attractive to socially oriented people but also that it may be socially beneficial in terms of social capital and prosocial behaviors. However, for problematic video game players (those showing signs of compulsive or detrimental video game use), this may not be the case, and a number of theories hold deficiencies in socializing in real life as central to the development of this issue. In the present study, an online questionnaire completed by 416 participants assessed problematic video game use, extraversion, trait empathy, online and offline social capital and prosocial tendencies. Contrary to hypotheses, non-problematic, problematic and non-gamers did not differ in empathy, extraversion or prosocial tendencies. Problematic video game play was, however, associated with significantly higher online social capital and lower offline social capital whereas non-problematic players demonstrated only higher online capital than non-players. This highlights the importance of social support but suggests personality is not an influential factor. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Video games have traditionally been seen as a solitary activity and as such have been seen as detrimental to interpersonal relationships and real life contact (e.g. Roberts, Foehr, Rideout, & Brodie, 1999). However, the move towards online environments has revolutionized the gaming experience and has vastly increased the opportunities for in-game social interaction (Bowman, Schultheiss, & Schumann, 2008). For many, gaming is now an intrinsically social activity (Kaye & Bryce, 2012) and consequently, the connection between video game play and social behavior has become much more complex. This is especially the case for massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs), online persistent games allowing for thousands of individuals to play simultaneously and interact with one another. The relationship between video game use and social interaction becomes even more complex in the case of problematic video game players (PVGPs). These are players who demonstrate what some researches have deemed as addiction-like behaviors in relation to video games (e.g. Griffiths & Meredith, 2009). PVGP has been defined in the same way as established addictions, namely involving a loss of control, preoccupation with video games, uncontrollable

urges to play and continued use despite negative consequences (Griffiths & Hunt, 1998). Prevalence rates vary dramatically but a recent meta-analysis suggests that the average percentage of those likely to be effected is 6% (Ferguson, Coulson, & Barnett, 2011), indicating this to be a significant and widespread concern. Although the notion of PVGP remains controversial, an increasing number of studies have reported quantitative and qualitative differences between problematic and non-problematic gamers (e.g. van Rooij, Schoenmakers, van de Eijnden, & van de Mheen, 2010). Many have also argued that whatever the conceptualization of PVGP, more research into the associations and consequences of this phenomenon is sorely needed to identify the nature of PVP, the risk factors and the antecedents (Collins, Freeman, & ChamarroPremuzic, 2012; Griffiths, 2000). Prevailing theories regarding the development and maintenance of PVGP hold social inadequacies as especially influential, and yet little is known about the differential associations between PVGP and non-problematic video game play (NPVGP) and social factors such as personality, social capital and prosocial tendencies. This is therefore the focus of the present research.

1.1. Social personality traits and video game use ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: University of London, Department of Psychology, Whitehead Building, Lewisham Way, New Cross, London SE14 6NW, UK. Tel.: +44 020 7919 7374. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Collins). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.002

One aspect that may influence a player’s interest in social gaming is personality. Some personality traits have been found to be central to enjoyment of social experiences and the desire to devel-

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E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

op relationships, the most notable of which being extraversion and empathy. Extraversion predicts a variety of positive social behaviors (Eaton & Funder, 2003) and extraverts report greater levels of social support and larger social networks (Swickert, Rosentreter, Hittner, & Mushrush, 2002). It is possible that this extends into online social behaviors as well, as online game players have been found to be higher in extraversion than those who do not play video games (Teng, 2008; Yee, 2001), potentially due to these games attracting those who wish to incorporate social interaction into their gaming experience. However, the negative correlation between extraversion and problematic World of Warcraft players uncovered by Peters and Malesky (2008) suggests that PVGPs may not have the preference for social contact that is associated with higher extraversion. It is, however, worth noting that a connection between extraversion and problematic or non-problematic video game play has not been supported by all studies (e.g. Collins et al., 2012). It is therefore possible that the relationship between extraversion and game use is not entirely straightforward. Another construct linked to social behavior is empathy, which is a vital component of social cognition. Empathy has been defined as the drive to identify emotions and thoughts in other people and to respond appropriately (Baron-Cohen, 2003). This trait has many relevant links to social behaviors as empathic responses play an important role in relationships (Anderson & Keltner, 2002), prosocial behaviors (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987) and other socially orientated concepts, such as morality and altruistic acts (Batson, 1991). As would be expected, links have also been uncovered between low levels of this trait and antisocial behaviors (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; Lovett & Sheffield, 2007; Miller & Eisenberg, 1988). Previous research concerning the relationship between empathy and video game play has focused on the effects of violent media use, finding this to be associated with lower empathy (e.g. Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005; Funk, Buchman, Jenks, & Bechtoldt, 2003; Uhlmann & Swanson, 2004). However, with modern games requiring cooperation and group play, it is plausible that players high in empathy may be more likely to succeed and enjoy this kind of game. Despite this, very little research has been conducted on this topic. Empathy has also not received much attention in relation to PVGP and it is therefore unclear how this personality trait may differ in PVGP and NPVGP populations. 1.2. Social capital Although socially orientated personality traits may influence enjoyment of video games geared towards inter-player communications, it is also possible for these games to directly influence the individuals playing them. Due to the high levels of social interaction available and the resultant friendships, one logical way this could manifest is in social capital. Social capital is a term that has evaded a solid definition (Williams, 2006) although is usually seen as a positive construct (Adler & Kwon, 2002) and in this area of research is defined as the beneficial consequence of social interactions and behaviors (Portes, 1998; Williams, 2006). As with previous investigations into the effects of video games, the focus of the present study is social capital on an individual rather than community level, which can be separated into two subtypes: bonding and bridging (Putnam, 2000). Bonding social capital refers to strong, emotional ties such as those between close friends and family and homogenous groups, with high levels of emotional support (Granovetter, 1983; Putnam, 1995). Bridging capital on the other hand refers to weaker ties between less similar or compatible groups, who while not offering emotional support, do benefit the individual by providing different perspectives and creating opportunities for new experiences (Granovetter, 1983; Putnam, 1995). The significance of high levels of social capital extends to domains beyond social situations, for example psychological well-

being, happiness, life satisfaction and physical health (Helliwell & Putnam, 2004). Therefore, activities found to encourage greater social capital would be beneficial in a wide range of contexts, from mental to physical well-being. 1.3. Social capital and video games The movement towards online forms of communication has led researchers to acknowledge the existence of online relationships that may also contribute to social capital. The differing social context of communication and relationships occurring online have necessitated parallel but functionally separate measures of online and offline social capital to be developed (Williams, 2006). Because of the nature of the online communities created as a result of online (or indeed offline) video games, it has been claimed that online social capital may be positively influenced by video game involvement. Zhong (2011) suggests that both bridging and bonding social capital are present in MMORPG and other online gaming communities through participation in guilds, quests and less formal inter-player interactions. In line with these claims, social capital has been found to be accrued in the same way in MMORPG and offline environments (Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006) and frequent play increases online social capital and social networks (Zhong, 2011). These games are particularly effective at generating weak ties in the form of bridging capital (Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006) but also demonstrate the capability to generate bonding capital in the form of strong friendships and romantic relationships (Cole & Griffiths, 2007). Moreover, contrary to previous claims, Zhong (2011) found that MMORPG play did not negatively affect offline relationships, suggesting that MMORPGs do not necessarily displace offline interactions, but in fact supplement them. There may, however, be restrictions to how universal these benefits are, as some have found no association with social support, a factor that previous research would have suggested MMORPGs would encourage (Dupuis & Ramsey, 2011). Tajima, Matsuo, Uryu, and Sakamoto (2012) also found in a longitudinal study that playing an MMORPG did not increase social network size, suggesting that for some, simply playing did not encourage the development of relationships. While this may be attributable to the short, two week period covered, these findings signify that not all players may report positive social experiences. 1.4. Social capital and PVGP It is not only the absence of positive social outcomes that have been discovered as there may also be negative aspects of playing video games. The associations between computer mediated communication in the form of MMORPGs, other online games or internet applications and decreased real life socializing has been widely reported (e.g. Bergmark, Bergmark, & Findahl, 2011; Smyth, 2007). It has also been argued that while beneficial for some, internet based interactions may actually worsen the situation for those with few offline relationships, as the reliance on online communication reduces offline contact (Shen & Williams, 2011). Existing offline relationships have been reported to be of poorer quality in highly engaged players compared to occasional or non-players, with social anxiety being positively correlated with the time spent playing online games (Lo, Wang, & Fang, 2005). Griffiths, Davies, and Chappell (2004) report that 20.8% of adult MMORPG players admitted to having to sacrifice real life relationships in order to play the desired amount. Although these studies did not address the issue of PVGP directly, these connections indicate that it may be particularly relevant to online and offline social capital. Studies that have focused on problematic game use have found it to be associated with increased loneliness and lower social

E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

competence or greater social problems (Block, 2008; Ferguson et al., 2011; Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2011; Liu & Peng, 2009). It has been suggested that this relationship is underpinned by lonely individuals preferring online over offline interactions due to the relative safety of this medium (Kim, LaRose, & Peng, 2009) or because of lower levels of social skill in PVGP populations (Kheradmand, Zamani, Hedayati, Cheshomi, & Abedi, 2012; Zamani, Kheradmand, Chesmi, Abedi, & Hedayati, 2010). This is alongside the discovery that motivations for playing involving the desire to forge relationships have also been implicated, suggesting that problematic use of games or the internet may arise out of deficient social support external to the game (Beranuy, Oberst, Carbonell, & Chamarro, 2009; Caplan, Williams, & Yee, 2009; Hsu, Wen, & Wu, 2009; King & Delfabbro, 2009; Ng & Wiemer-Hastings, 2005; Xu, Turel, & Yuan, 2012). Indeed, in adolescents, the quality of existing relationships is negatively correlated with PVGP (Gentile et al., 2011) and PVGPs have also been reported to be more socially inhibited (Porter, Starcevic, Berle, & Fenech, 2010). It is therefore logical that a difference may emerge between PVGPs and NPVGPs in online and offline social capital.

1.5. Video games and prosocial tendencies The potential social benefits of video games are not restricted to individual relationships, as there has been an increased appreciation that cooperative video games may produce prosocial outcomes. Zhong (2011) found a positive relationship between MMORPG play and civic engagement as measured by involvement in online and offline communities, a relationship that appears to be dependent on the performance of civic in-game behaviors (Lenhart, Kahne, Middaugh, Macgill, Evans, & Vitak, 2008). In relation to prosocial outcomes, Sestir and Bartholow (2010) found that while violent games increased aggression, non-violent games increased prosocial thoughts, despite these games not incorporating prosocial goals. Other games that involve some form of in-game helping behavior have yielded similar results, demonstrating a capability for producing prosocial outcomes outside of the gaming context (e.g. Greitemeyer, 2011; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011), as well as for reducing aggression (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2009). Much of the evidence for this relationship has involved the use of single player games with prosocial goals, for example the game ‘Lemmings’, the objective of which is to guide a group of computer controlled characters to safety by ensuring they avoid obstacles (e.g. Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011). While undoubtedly helpful in nature, this does not resemble more modern cooperative games, despite multiplayer environments involving even more salient cooperative aspects. Very little work has addressed this possibility or the potential influence of PVGP, despite the potential importance of social factors.

1.6. Hypotheses This study therefore aimed to consolidate the research base and incorporate further investigation of how PVGP may be differentially related to social personality traits, social capital and prosocial behaviors. In light of previous findings, it was hypothesized that: 1. MMORPG play will be associated with higher empathy, extraversion and higher online social capital as well as greater prosocial tendencies. 2. PVGP will be associated with lower empathy, extraversion, offline social capital and prosocial tendencies.

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2. Methods 2.1. Participants A total of 416 participants were recruited (37.5% female), aged between 18 and 68 (M = 27.23, S.D. = 8.48). The greatest proportion were students (42.1%) with the remaining working full time (34.1%), part time (9.4%), unemployed (8.4%), self employed (4.1%) or none of these options (1.8%). The majority of participants were white, and a total of 38.7% were British, with the rest mostly being American (20.4%) or Australian (13.7%) or Spanish (9.3%). The remaining 17.9% were a wide variety of nationalities. A total of 364 (87.5%) reported to play video games, 271 of whom reported to play MMORPGs. 2.2. Instruments 2.2.1. Personality Empathy was assessed by the short version of the Empathy Quotient (EQ; Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004), which comprises of 22 items (a = .89), six of which were reverse scored. Participants were required to indicate to what extent they agreed or disagreed with the items, with one point for slightly agreeing or disagreeing (whichever indicates a greater degree of empathy), and two points for strong empathizing response. The extraversion subscale of the short form revised Eysenck Personality Question (EPQR-S; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) measured extraversion, using 12 items (a = .73). Participants were required to answer on a five point scale. 2.2.2. Social capital Social capital was measured by the Internet Social Capital Scales (ISCSs; Williams, 2006). This consists of a total of 40 items, with 20 assessing online social capital (a = .94) and 20 assessing offline social capital (a = .93). These items were identical, except for the words ‘‘offline’’ and ‘‘online’’ in the question. The 20 items measured two subscales, bridging and bonding, with 10 items in each. The bridging subscale had good reliability in both the offline (a = .92) and online (a = .94) measures, as did the bonding subscale (a = .89 and .92, respectively). 2.2.3. Prosocial tendencies Prosocial behavior was measured by the prosocial tendencies measure (PTM; Carlo & Randall, 2002). The PTM has been used successfully with adults in the context of video games (Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile, 2012) and has been shown to have suitable reliability and validity (Carlo, Hausmann, Christiansen, & Randall, 2003; Carlo & Randall, 2002). This scale comprises of 23 items (a = .85), answerable on a five point likert scale ranking from 1 (‘‘Does not describe me at all’’) to 5 (‘‘Describes me greatly’’). This scale is not intended to measure the frequency or extent of past prosocial behaviors directly, but instead provides an indication as to the individual’s tendency towards such acts and has been found to correlate with the frequency (Carlo & Randall, 2002). It was felt that measuring the tendency may be more useful and less susceptible to memory effects or distortions due to exceptional circumstances occurring in the specified timeframe (for example, being on holiday or stressed at work). 2.2.4. Problematic video game play Video game use was assessed by asking participants to report how many hours per week they played different genres of games, namely first person shooters, action and adventure, sports, role playing, fighting, strategy or simulation, casual or flash and most importantly for the current experiment, MMORPGs.

0.027 0.027 0.011 .090* 0.006 0.018 .089* 0.072 0.007 0.064 .177** .096* .162** .281** .350** 0.054 0.036 0.021 .126** .240** 0.064 .125** .216** .216** 0.001 .223** .128** 0.038 .146** .171** 0.077 0.035 0.062 0.013 .100* 0.013 0.034 0.076 .103** 0.036 .111** .224** .183** .267** .237** .097** 0.046 .110** .102** 0.051 .114** .102** .082* 0.053 .256** .311** .173** .369** 0.044 0.053 0.065 0.043 0.074 0.029 0.03 0.053 0.072 .236** .367** .272** 0.075 0.042 0.032 0.041 0.07 0.024 0.029 0.049 0.047 .116** .156** .082* 0.049 .093* 0.036 .075* .079* 0.012 0.058 0.045 .296** 0.012 0.07 0.031 .160** 0.02 0.049 .138** .154** 0.002 .193** .146** .120** 0.031 .086* .108** 0.013 0.064 .129** 0.06 .086* .713** .119** 0.057 .446** 0.04 0.044 0.06 .751** 0.02 .089** .259** .272** .761** 0.023 .335**

Note: EQ = Empathy Quotient, EPQE = Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire-Extraversion, ISCS = Internet Social Capital Scale, PSTs = prosocial tendencies. All game play variables are measured in hours spent playing per week, with acronyms relating to first person shooters, Action/Adventure, Sports Games, Fighting Games, Strategy/Simulation Games, Social/Party Games, massively multiplayer online role playing games, and Casual/Flash Games. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

ISCS online ISCS offline

PVGPs (n = 73), NPVGPs (n = 263) and NVGPs (n = 71) were also directly compared. PVGPs were identified as those answering three or above on the GA scale to at least half of the questions. The means and standard deviations are summarized in Table 2. Mann Whitney comparisons (see Fig. 1 for mean rankings) with Bonferonni corrections indicated that although not differing in empathy or extraversion, PVGPs were significantly higher in online social capital (U = 7256.5, p < 0.01), online bridging capital (U = 7427.5, p < 0.01) and online bonding capital (U = 7718, p < 0.05) than NPVGPs. They were also and lower in offline social capital (U = 7021, p < 0.01) and the offline bonding (U = 7080.5, p < 0.01) and bridging subscales (U = 7510.5, p < 0.01) than the other experimental groups, mirroring the correlational findings. A similar pattern emerged when comparing PVGPs to NVGPs, with PVGPs showing higher online social capital (U = 1418.5, p < 0.01) including online bridging (U = 1540.5, p < 0.01) and bonding (U = 1587, p < 0.01) and significantly lower in offline social capital (U = 1706, p < 0.01), offline bonding (U = 1974, p < 0.05) and offline bridging (U = 1731.5, p < 0.01). The only significant differences between NPVGPs and NVGPs were that NPVGPs were higher in online social capital (U = 7141, p < 0.05) and in both the online bonding (U = 7346, p < 0.01) and bridging (U = 7325, p < 0.01).

Table 1 Correlations between personality, social capital and video game use measures.

3.2. Comparisons

ISCS offline bonding

ISCS offline bridging

ISCS online bonding

ISCS online bridging

PSTs

In order to assess the overall associations between the variables, the data were entered into a Kendall’s Tau correlational analysis, the results of which are summarized in Table 1. Due to nonplayers automatically scoring zero in the PVGP measure (and thus potentially skewing the results concerning this variable), the correlations were repeated for gamers only. For this analysis, PVGP was found to correlate negatively with the offline capital total score (s = .173, p < 0.01) and the offline bonding (s = .142, p < 0.01) and bridging subscales (s = .154, p < 0.01). It also correlated positively with the online capital total score (s = .131, p < 0.01) and the bonding (s=.114, p < 0.01) and bridging subscales (s=.116, p < 0.01).

.282** .166** .601** .075*

3.1. Correlations

.090** 0.056 0.008

FPS

3. Results

.313** .261**

AA

SG

FG

SSG

Measures were presented on an online questionnaire, hosted by EFS Survey software (http://www.unipark.de). Incomplete data sets were excluded. All complete data sets were used in the analysis and it took an average of 26 min to complete. Participants were recruited through social networks, online forums (mostly those relating to gaming), survey websites and by posters and e-mails distributed by the university. A combination of correlational and between subjects analyses were employed.

.243**

SPG

2.3. Procedure

EQ EPQE total ISCS offline ISCS online ISCS offline bonding ISCS offline bridging ISCS online bonding ISCS online bridging PSTs FPS AA SG FG SSG SPG MMO CFG

MMO

CFG

Game total

PVGP was measured by the short version of the Game Addiction scale (GA; Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009), comprising of seven items, answerable on a five point scale indicating how often during the last six months the respondents had experienced the situation described, choosing from never, rarely, sometimes, often and very often. This scale demonstrated good reliability (a = .85) and each item is directly based on one of the seven vital criteria for addiction, namely salience, tolerance, mood modification, relapse, withdrawal, conflict and problems.

0.03 0.005 .119** .242** 0.05 .126** .216** .227** 0 .497** .362** .162** .259** .379** .230** .541** .263**

E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940

EPQE

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E. Collins, J. Freeman / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1933–1940 Table 2 Mean scores across experimental groups (with standard deviations in parentheses).

PVGP NPVGP NVGP

EQ

EPQE

ISCS offline total

ISCS offline bonding

ISCS offline bridging

ISCS online total

ISCS online bonding

ISCS online bridging

PSTs

22.86 (7.88) 22.92 (8.84) 24.62 (9.21)

17.38 (2.56) 17.41 (2.83) 16.96 (3.23)

71.34 (15.77) 79.31 (13.50) 77.74 (20.90)

39.31 (8.68) 43.21 (6.96) 41.54 (9.78)

32.03 (9.37) 36.10 (8.69) 36.20 (12.45)

68.18 (16.16) 60.87 (18.72) 52.57 (21.11)

29.21 (9.30) 25.85 (10.61) 22.77 (10.09)

38.97 (9.18) 35.02 (10.53) 29.80 (13.42)

58.91 (14.73) 59.14 (11.06) 61.01 (14.19)

Note: EQ = Empathy Quotient, EPQE = Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire-Extraversion, ISCS = Internet Social Capital Scale and PSTs = prosocial tendencies.

Fig. 1. Mean rankings across the measures for problematic, non-problematic and non-gamers.

3.3. MMORPG use MMORPG players were also selected for separate analysis (n = 166). A Kendall’s Tau correlational analysis demonstrated no significant correlations with PVGP in this sample, although a negative correlation with offline bonding capital (s = .107, p = 0.052) and the offline capital total (s = .105, p = 0.054) approached significance. When compared with Mann Whitney tests, PVGPs were

found to be significantly higher in online social capital (U = 2106, p = 0.03) and online bridging capital (U = 2116, p = .032).

4. Discussion This study aimed to investigate the relationship between problematic and non-problematic video game use, in particular

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MMORPG play and social personality traits, social capital and prosocial tendencies. Overall, it was found that neither empathy nor extraversion were significantly associated with general video game play, MMORPG play or PVGP, although significant relationships emerged with online and offline social capital. Throughout the various analyses, it was found that PVGP was associated with significantly higher online social capital and lower offline social capital whereas NPVGPs appeared to demonstrate only higher online capital than non-players. Whilst this aspect was in line with the hypotheses, contrary to predictions, prosocial tendencies were not found to be in any way associated with MMORPG use or problematic or non-problematic video game play. 4.1. Personality Extraversion has previously been found to be positively associated with online game play (Teng, 2008), although some studies have also reported no differences between MMORPG players and non-players (e.g. Collins et al., 2012) so this may not be a straightforward relationship. A similar result occurred in relation to PVGP, as extraversion was not found to differ between PVGPs, NPVGPs and NVGPs, despite some studies suggesting that PVGPs are lower in this trait (e.g. Peters & Malesky, 2008). Once again, however, Collins et al. (2012) also reported a null result, suggesting that this relationship may be specific to certain samples, for example only highly engaged World of Warcraft players, as in Peters & Malesky (2008) study. These findings therefore contribute to the field’s understanding of the role of extraversion in the development of online relationships, video game play and PVGP. Trait empathy similarly did not differ between MMORPG players and non-players. This could be because MMORPGs, while requiring social interactions to succeed, do not rely on empathetic reactions or the ability to identify and respond to others’ emotions. As PVGPs and NVGPs also demonstrated similar levels of trait empathy, this would suggest that a lack of empathy is not a contributing factor to PVGP. This is the first study to directly address this, and it is therefore difficult to assess how well this corresponds with previous literature. However, as social deficits have been blamed for the development of PVGP (Lemmens et al., 2009) and considering the integral role of empathy in social competence (Baron-Cohen, 2003), it may run counter to established literature. Conversely, it may be that while deficits in real life interactions do predispose individuals to PVGP, this is not due to low levels of socially orientated personality traits but perhaps external factors such as the accruement of social skills. 4.2. Online and offline social capital The discovery that PVGP was associated with lower offline and higher online social capital is suggestive of a reliance on online social support networks and the absence of offline equivalents. It also offers some support for theories that suggest reduced levels of offline social interaction either encourage the development of PVGP or occur as a result (Wan & Chiou, 2006), although the present study is unable to inform as to the direction of this relationship. It does however indicate that strong emotional bonds with fellow players may compensate for a lack of support offline and motivate further use (Cole & Griffiths, 2007), supporting research suggesting this to be a main motivation for developing online relationships (Mesch & Talmud, 2006). An alternative explanation for these findings is that those experiencing PVGP may become so absorbed with gaming that offline relationships deteriorate and that only friendships and interactions that occur online can be maintained. Further research may wish to try to establish causation and investigate which scenario most accurately describes the situation.

The number of hours spent playing video games, and more specifically MMORPGs were once again negatively correlated with offline social capital and positively with online social capital, although interestingly neither measure was correlated with the subscale of offline bonding social capital. This is indicative of even high levels of video game use only affecting weaker relationships (if this association is causal), leaving the individual able to maintain the stronger offline relationships. The weaker ties may be more prone to erosion due to the notion that these relationships are normally forged through organized activities such as employment or sports teams and therefore may not be maintained if these activities are ceased. Griffiths et al. (2004) report that as many as 20.8% of the MMORPG players interviewed admitted to sacrificing relationships in order to play the desired amount, and this may therefore explain the deterioration of bridging capital, if this relationship is indeed causal. As bonding capital is the most valuable in terms of positive psychological health (Poortinga, 2006), video games may not be as much of a threat to offline relationships as has been previously argued. The significantly higher online capital is also indicative of meaningful and emotionally supportive online community, which may contribute to players’ continued involvement. 4.3. Prosocial tendencies Unexpected null findings were also generated for the prosocial tendencies measure, as this score was not related positively to MMORPG use or negatively to PVGP as was predicted. Previous research has linked cooperative video games to increases in prosocial behaviors, cognitions and accessibility of prosocial thoughts (Greitemeyer, 2011; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2009, 2011) and it was hypothesized that the level of cooperation and in-game helping behaviors characteristic of MMORPGs would produce a similar effect. This was especially in light of findings showing greater engagement in civic activities in MMORPG players (Zhong, 2011). Although civic engagement and prosocial behaviors are related, they are still quite distinct, as an individual can score highly on measures of civic engagement by taking part in activities that are not prosocially motivated, such as casting a vote in an online poll. These novel findings suggest that it is possible that while involvement in MMORPGs may encourage participation in community based events or activities, this might not necessarily translate into tendencies towards prosocial acts. It is also worth noting that the cooperative games normally studied in terms of prosocial outcomes are not multiplayer and consequently, cooperation occurs in a very different way to MMORPGS. MMORPGs rely on interactions with real players and therefore may produce different outcomes than those featuring cooperation with computerized characters (for instance, in ‘‘Lemmings’’; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2011). The present study also wished to measure the tendency towards prosocial acts rather than specific retrospective instances or accessibility to prosocial thoughts due to the cross-sectional nature of the investigation, and this may have further contributed to the discrepant findings. Furthermore, due to the level of autonomy in some online games and MMORPGs, players have the option to not take part in the cooperative and helpful behaviors that are most likely to elicit prosocial outcomes, or can at least minimize them in favor of alternative activities. The content may therefore be an influential factor and as such, if social interactions are avoided by players, this may have a direct effect on the resultant behaviors. Future research should consider collecting data on the number of in-game interactions and the prevalence of prosocial events when investigating social outcomes. That said, Ducheneaut, Yee, Nickell, and Moore (2006) argue that even when not directly participating in any of the social elements of MMORPGs, simply being present is a social

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experience. Along this reasoning, it could be claimed that irrespective of in-game activities, the fact that you are playing alongside other individuals may be sufficient to produce outcomes relating to social experiences. Direct investigation into the differing effects of in-game activities is therefore needed. 4.4. Limitations This study does have several other limitations that also need addressing. Although the usual issues with self report measures apply to a lot of studies in the field, one particular problem may arise from relying on self perceptions of social support. Impression management may encourage some to exaggerate social capital, for example or conversely, factors such as depression or low self esteem may lead to underestimations. Depression has been linked to PVGP and problematic internet use (e.g. Gentile et al., 2011), making this limitation particularly relevant to these analyses. Including a clinical diagnosis in the questionnaire would have been problematic, although this is something that should be considered when interpreting the results. Future research may also wish to assess the external social contexts of the games played. Participants were asked how many hours they spent playing various genres of games but this did not provide data regarding whether this was a social experience or not (for instance, if they were playing alone or with friends). Detailed information on game-play, such as whether the games in question were multiplayer, online or offline or played alone would be beneficial. Moreover, investigation into how familiar participants were with the games they played and the influence of different aspects of game design would have further informed the interpretation of the findings. This would have allowed more specific conclusions to be drawn and for the elements responsible for improving social capital and prosocial tendencies to be identified. It has also been noted that offline and online relationships (and consequently social capital) are not mutually exclusive and it can therefore be difficult for the two to be separated out (Haythornthwaite, 2002). For example, regular face-to-face offline interaction may have occurred as a result of initially online contact, making it difficult to know how to best categorize that relationship. Therefore, a more qualitative or interview based approach may be best suited to collecting additional information, so that relationships and online and offline social capital can be estimated in a more accurate way. Furthermore, there is little existing evidence that this reduction in offline social capital in PVGPs is in fact detrimental or if it is something that needs to be corrected, especially as it occurs alongside increased online social capital. A substantial amount of research has linked high social capital or social support with superior mental and physical health and lower levels with the reverse (Poortinga, 2006; Rose, 2000) so it is evident that if negative correlations existed for social capital across modalities, this could be a concern. However, it may be that the high levels of online support counter any negative impact from a lack of offline support. More research is needed for this to be clear. 4.5. Implications and conclusions These findings do, however, have important implications in terms of understanding the potential effects of video games on interpersonal relationships online and offline, as well as providing an insight into associations with PVGP. As online games are increasing in popularity, it is important that research attempts to keep up with these changes in gaming preferences. This is to ensure the field has an accurate and current understanding of media effects and how games can be used to benefit individuals. As game time in itself irrespective of genre was not related to prosocial

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tendencies, this may suggest that encouraging individuals to play games may not be sufficient to encourage more helpful behavior. That said, these outcomes may still arise if the games contain a large number of cooperative and prosocial tasks, something that can be written into to the game design or promoted to a greater degree within existing games. The finding concerning high levels of online social capital in MMORPG users has implications for individuals that lack the emotional support needed in offline environments, as these games may be able to operate as a relatively stress-free way to develop important and significant relationships with other players. These results also suggest that video games may not be as detrimental to existing offline relationships as has been previously proposed. The lower offline bridging capital may, however, result in fewer employment opportunities and so this may need to be investigated as a potential negative outcome of MMORPG use. Moreover, focusing on encouraging offline social capital in PVGPs may be an effective way to treat or prevent this issue, making this a particularly interesting focus for future work. It is currently unclear whether this is a cause or effect of PVGP, but previous research has suggested that the social deficits associated with PVGP are in fact both, as they can precede PVGP but then be exacerbated by the preoccupation with online forms of communication (van Rooij et al., 2010). Consequently, this may be an indication that PVGP is encouraged by a lack of offline social support, but then continues to contribute to this by removing opportunities for this to be remedied. However, research directly investigating the cause and effects of PVGP will be needed to ascertain whether this is the case for social capital. More broadly, these findings contribute to the ongoing debate concerning whether video games are a positive or negative influence, suggesting that both beneficial and detrimental outcomes may be possible, at least in terms of social capital. The present study suggests that this may be dependent on the presence of PVGP; those playing video games or MMORPGs without experiencing PVGP stand to accrue online social capital while seemingly remaining able to maintain strong offline bonds, whereas this is not the case for those with PVGP. This positive outcome may be best utilized by those for whom socializing in real life is difficult or stressful, for instance those low in extraversion or empathy which stand to impede the development of offline relationships but do not negatively impact on online ones. Online opportunities to socialize and form friendships may be particularly useful in allowing these individuals to meet their social needs. Future work may wish to directly address how the increased online social capital encouraged by MMORPG use may be best exploited. References Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S.-W. (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of Management Review, 27, 17–40. Anderson, C., & Keltner, D. (2002). The role of empathy in the formation and maintenance of social bonds. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 21–22. Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: Men, women and the extreme male brain. London: Penguin. Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient (EQ): An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome and high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175. Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A., & Davis, E. (2005). Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: Hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1573–1586. Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Beranuy, M., Oberst, U., Carbonell, X., & Chamarro, A. (2009). Problematic Internet and mobile phone use and clinical symptoms in college students: The role of emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 1182–1187. Bergmark, K. H., Bergmark, A., & Findahl, O. (2011). Extensive internet involvement—Addiction or emerging lifestyle? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8, 4488–4501. Block, J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 306–307.

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