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Doctoral programs in biochemistry in the Federal Republic of Germany
94
Doctoral Programs in Biochemistry in the Federal Republic of Germany JOHN G WISE and WOLFGANG E TROMMER Fachbereich Chemie/ Biochemie Universitiit Kaiserslautern Postfach 3049 6750 Kaiserslautern Germany
figures are not as clearly interpretable for Diplom students of biochemistry, because of the large number of these students that finish a doctoral degree in another discipline (such as chemistry) or another country, but one can safely say that a majority do complete their doctorate. Simply put, if one wants a job in the biochemical sciences in either German industry or academia, the doctoral degree is required. Given this requirement, a correspondingly low percentage of the total number of German doctorates in the chemical and biochemical sciences pursue academic careers.
Introduction Doctoral programs in biochemistry differ widely throughout the world both in the emphasis placed on the specialization of the training and in the educational mechanisms that ultimately lead to the awarding of the degree. We attempt here to explain how students in Germany achieve doctorates in biochemistry. We will also attempt to review the general educational paths leading to the degree giving examples of typical program requirements including the prerequisite educational background, course work, laboratory work, and examinations required for the various degrees leading to the doctorate, and the outlook for the future of German biochemical education. We will not attempt any judgmental analysis of the different systems prevalent within or outside the German state. We offer comparative examples of the educational system to enable the reader to get an understanding of the nature of doctoral programs in Germany.
General Aspects The first question we must address and indeed the first question a prospective student should address is, "Why specifically is the doctoral degree important in German biochemistry?" In many parts of the world, students who want to pursue careers in the biochemical sciences have several options in regard to how far up the educational ladder they wish to climb. The top academic careers, industrial positions and even academic careers lower than the rank of professor involving biochemical research may be achieved in many countries by people possessing lesser degrees than the doctorate, but in Germany this is not the case. Historically, the chemical industry in Germany has required all of its research employees (and more recently many of its technical and sales representatives) to possess the doctoral degree. Because the biochemical industry in Germany derives from the pharmaceutical industry (which has always been a part of the chemical industry in Germany), there has been an historical carry-over of the requirement for the doctoral degree in industrial positions in biochemistry. With the exception of basic technical assistants in research laboratories, a doctoral degree is a prerequisite for any person seeking employment in the biochemical sciences and in recent times this requirement has been extended to the biological sciences. Indeed, greater than 90 percent of chemistry Diplom students (roughly equivalent to Master of Science students in the American system) continue to a doctoral program.~ The
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
Preparatory Education A brief discussion of the school system may help the reader understand the requirements necessary for admittance to a German university. There are in fact three different paths a student may pursue in pre-university education. The first two tracts, called Hauptschule and Realschule will not be discussed more because they will not. except in very exceptional cases, qualify an individual for entrance into a German university. The third path, and that which nearly all university students have followed, is called the Gymnasium. This takes 13 years and culminates in a broadly based education and the degree called Abitur. It is much more intensive than the Hauptschule or Realschule taking 3-4 years longer and encompassing the sciences, social sciences, humanities, languages and mathematics. At present, approximately one-third of all primary students enroll in Gymnasium and complete the Abitur. There has been a rise in recent years with only about 10 percent completing Gymnasium thirty years ago. Gymnasium students may also concentrate in their latter years in certain disciplines, which may (or may not) be relevant to their future university studies. For example, a student may wish to major in Chemistry and English in preparation for further university study in biochemistry. Here a difference exists between the German system and many other systems of higher education throughout the world. A German student possessing the Abitur degree is entitled to admittance to any German university by right. There are, except in the case of medical schools, no entrance examinations and no restrictions on the course of study selected. A student whose major subject in Gymnasium was languages or social science has an equal opportunity for admittance to a Biochemistry or Chemistry course as a student whose Gymnasium major was Chemistry. Any Abitur with any major is entitled to admittance to any German university in any field. The only limitations to university admission are the numerus clausus restrictions and these may be either local or national. Local restrictions are essentially practical, such as when a given university or department has more students applying for admission than they have positions and space available. National humerus clausus restrictions are set by a sub-ministry of the national government called the Zentralstelle fiir die Vergabe yon Studienpldtzen (ZVS). The ZVS limits the total number of students
95 studying in a few specialized fields, such as economics, law, medicine and biochemistry. In the case of either local or national numerus clausus, selection of the best students by the university can be based on their grades in Gymnasium. Students not accepted are placed on a waiting list and given credit for the amount of time they have waited in the next round. University admissions credit in these cases is given only to those applicants spending time in the military, social services, and in regular jobs. This is meant to prevent what is referred to as Parkstudium, which is when an unsuccessful applicant for medical school, for example, "parks" himself in another field while awaiting admission to medicine. The policy of open university enrollment to all Abitur students has recently given rise to a debate within the university and educational communities as to whether the universities have the right to select students not only on the basis of whether they possess the Abitur, but also to take into account such things as the Abitur major, and the personality, motivation and communication skills of the applicants. University Education University education in the sciences can be broken up into three constituent programs: the Grundstudium or basic studies, the Hauptstudium or advanced studies, and the Promotionsstudium or doctoral studies. Generally speaking, German universities give very specialized training. Education in the humanities, languages, etc has been covered previously in Gymnasium, and is not repeated or extended at university; for example, biochemistry students take only science and mathematics courses. There are at present ten universities in Germany that have dedicated departments of biochemistry where students can pursue all of their university degrees in biochemistry.* A larger number of other universities award Diplom and doctoral degrees from chemistry or biology departments that may emphasize biochemistry. For comparative purposes, there are at present 55 universities in Germany that award the Diplom degree in chemistry. At the beginning of 1991, there were approximately 155-160 students beginning programs in biochemistry (compared with approximately 6500 students starting chemistry programs). During 1991, 52 students were awarded doctoral degrees, compared with over 1500 doctorates in chemistry. It is readily apparent from these figures that dedicated biochemistry programs and biochemistry students in Germany are a much smaller group than their chemistry (and biology) counterparts. However, many biochemists are trained in departments of chemistry and biology. We will illustrate the remainder of this article with numbers and examples taken from the German university biochemistry departments,
* N u m b e r s from this section taken from reference [I ].
B I O C H E M I C A L EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
The Grundstudium and the Vordiplom Degree The Grundstudium curriculum comprises the basic studies of a student's chosen specialty that lead to the prediploma degree called the Vordiplom. This basic training takes an average of 2~/2 years to complete, ~As mentioned above, a Vordiplom student of biochemistry would concentrate exclusively on science and mathematics courses and would receive a broad eductional foundation within her/his discipline of chemistry and biology. The course work would have extensive lectures and laboratory sessions, but the student would not be affiliated with any particular research laboratory. The curriculum is composed of the course work that covers the basic discipline that all students must complete and a series of examinations. There are in general no 'elective' courses that the students may choose to take. For example, a typical Vordiplom biochemistry student would be required to take a set series of courses in physics, biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry and biochemistry (see Table 1). At the end of this course work a series of comprehensive oral and written examinations are taken, usually on at least four and possibly on as many as seven areas of study (see Table 1). The typical biochemistry student would be required to pass examinations in all of the subject fields studied before advancing and is given at most two chances to pass each exam. Once having completed the examinations, the student is then awarded the Vordiplom in Biochemie degree, or if the student is enrolled in a chemistry or biology department, the Vordiplom in Chemic or Vordiplom in Biologie. It is significant that the Vordiplom, while theoretically the equivalent of the BSc, would not give the student any possibility for immediate employment in Germany. NonGerman students holding a BSc or equivalent degree from outside Germany who want admission to a Diplom program may or may not be given Vordiplom equivalent credit. Such cases depend on the foreign student's previous program of study and are decided on an individual basis. The Hauptstudium and the Diplom Degree After the awarding of the Vordiplom, the student embarks on the advanced studies, the Hauptstudium. These are composed of a two-part program: the initial program including both theoretical and practical courses, lasts a minimum of another two years, and the Diplomarbeit, or diploma work, that requires six months to one year of laboratory research and the writing of a Diplom thesis. The average complete Diplom Biochemiker(in) degree, including examinations and the Diplomarbeit takes an average of 3-3V2 years. 1 This equates to an average total time for both the Vordiplom and Diplom of between 5V_~-6 years. ~ The initial two years of course-work are spent in intensive study of the student's speciality, as well as closely related disciplines, and serve to extend and enhance the broad-based studies of biochemistry and
96
Table 1 The Vordiplom Program A
General Course Subject Areas Required by Most Vordiplom in Biochemie Programs ~
General and Inorganic Chemistry General Physics General Biology Animal Physiology Microbiology, Zoology, Botany, A n a t o m y , Plant Physiology
B
An Example of Specific Course Requirements for the Vordiplom in Biochemie Degree b
Semester
4
C
Physical Chemistry Organic Chemistry Biochemistry Mathematics
Course
Type of Course
General and Inorganic Chemistry Analytical Chemistry Biology (Zoology/Botany) Physics Mathematics C o m p u t e r Science Physical Chemistry Biostatistics Organic Chemistry (General) Organic Chemistry (Mechanisms) Natural Substance Chemistry Animal Physiology Introductory Biochemistry General Genetics Microbiology Ecology/Environmental Animal Physiology
Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture
h/wk/semester 4/12 2 6/6 3/3 2 1/3 4/9 2 5/15 2 3/6 3 4/5 3 4/5 2 5
Examination Requirements for the Vordiplom in Biochemie Degree c
General Physical Organic General
and Inorganic Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry Biology
Biochemistry Physics General Biology
"These required subject areas are summarized from the individual course requirements of six different departments of biochemistry. An average of between 120 and 130 semester hours are required to complete the program. About half of the semester hours are lecture courses and half are laboratory courses. It should be noted that much variability can exist between the details of programs from different departments. ~'These specific course requirements are taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie at the Universitat Leipzig CThese examination requirements are taken from the Fachbereich Biochemie at the Universitat Bayreuth. Not all Biochemistrydepartments require a final comprehensive examination in all of the listed subjects. Some departments give some of the exams after the second semester. As many as seven examinations can be given depending on the university and department
chemistry received in the Grundstudium. The format of this initial part of the Diplom program is similar to that of the Vordiplom program with set courses to be taken and compulsory comprehensive examinations both oral and written to be passed. This is analogous to the Vordiplom work except of course for the content of the courses. Examples of typical biochemistry Diplom program curricula and the required examinations are given in Table 2. U p o n successful completion of the courses and examinations, the student then joins an active research laboratory and begins the second step in the Diplom program, the original research project.
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
The Diplomarbeit, as this laboratory project is called, usually takes between six months and one year to complete. The research topic usually reflects the interests of the professor that becomes the student's mentor. A thesis written by the student is required, but no thesis defense is performed. Once the research project and thesis have been completed to the satisfaction of the student's mentor, the student is then eligible to receive the degree, Diplom Biochemiker(in), or if he/she is from a chemistry or biology department, Diplom Chemiker(in) or Biologe(in). It is important to note that G e r m a n doctoral students in biochemistry normally come from departments of bio-
97
Table 2 The Diplom Program A
General Subject Areas Required for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree a
Biochemistry Organic Chemistry Plant Biochemistry
Molecular Genetics Biochemistry or Organic Chemistry Elective Analytical Chemistry Microbiology
B A Specific Example of Course Requirements for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree h Semester
Course
Type of Course
Enzymology Biochemistry II (Cellular) Radiation Chemistry Cellular Biochemistry Bioenergetics Biophysics and Structural Biochemistry Biochemistry of Microbes Biochemistry III (Function) Organic Chemistry III (Special Topics) Elective Course Immunology Molecular Genetics Biophysical Chemistry Elective Course Biochemistry Analytical Biochemistry Research Project
Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lab Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lab Lecture/Lab Seminar Lab Lab
h/wk/semester 6/12 5 2/5 9
1 7 2 4 2/4 2/5 2 3 2/4 2 6 20
C Examination Requirements for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree c Biochemistry Organic Chemistry or Biophysical Chemistry
A Biological Field A Second Chemical Field
"These requirements are taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemieof the UniversitfitBayreuth and are given as an indication of what a student might find in a particular department. Much variability can exist between different biochemistrydepartments. In some, a research project in the eighth semester is replaced by lecture laboratory courses. ~'Taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie, Universitat Leipzig. Typical examples of advanced elective courses are: Enzymology, Genetics, Immunology, Medical Biochemistry, Pharmaceutical Biochemistry. ~Taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie Universit/it Bayreuth. The number of elective examinations the biochemistry Diplom student must take depends on the particular university and department he/she is enrolled in. Most require at least one, while others will require more than one elective examination be passed. The student has his/her choice and will normally choose that field that best reflects hiUher elective choices in the course curriculum. chemistry, chemistry, biology or physics. Each Diplom Biochemiker(in), Chemiker(in), Biologe(in) or Physiker(in) is considered to be qualified to pursue a doctorate in biochemistry. Given the relative small number of biochemistry departments in G e r m a n y , it is not surprising to find that a majority of the Doktoranden in biochemistry have received their Diplom degree in chemistry or biology. This diversity of student training is in fact highly valued here, and is not something that is likely to change in the near future. While the G e r m a n biology students will have had a strong background in chemistry the average Vordiplom Chemiker(in) will not have been exposed at all to biology. In his/her Diplom program, the student in chemistry may not have taken an elective in a biological science until
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
their sixth or seventh semester, if at all. The end result is that the students enrolled in G e r m a n biochemistry doctorate programs generally have a very strong background in chemistry.
The Promotionsstudium: Doctoral Programs in Biochemistry The degree Doktor rer nat is the G e r m a n equivalent of the Doctor of Philosophy degree given in other parts of the world. The Doktor rer nat degree can be awarded by G e r m a n natural sciences departments. Unlike the Vordiplom and Diplom the student has no guaranteed right to admission into a doctoral program in a given university or department. The doctoral students are therefore chosen by their professorial mentors.
98 The doctoral program is composed of an original research project (coupled with occasional teaching responsibilities). In general the program lasts between 2V2-3 years, with a few notable exceptions taking less time, but most taking longer. The average age of a newly awarded Doktor rer nat Biochemiker is 28 to 29, while that of the Doktor rer nat Biochemikerin is 27 to 28 years, the difference being that the males are required to do one year of military or community service. In common with most doctoral programs throughout the world, the German system requires the student to conceive and execute an original research project, and to write up her/his results in dissertation form. The student is then required in most cases publicly to report their results in an open seminar. Most programs require a final oral examination on the thesis work and on the student's discipline in general, although the details of the latter varies greatly between universities and departments. These final oral examinations may be held either publicly or privately with 2-4 professors participating. At the satisfactory completion of these requirements, the student is rewarded with the Dr rer nat degree.
The Outlook for the Future The most unlikely change in German biochemical science, but perhaps the one that is most desirable, would be a loosening of the strict requirement of German industry that all its biochemistry and chemistry employees must possess a doctoral degree. This puts a heavy strain on the educational system, and requires the expenditure of a great deal of the time and money by biochemistry, biology and chemistry departments. A second area of possible change and one that is more likely to be accomplished in the near future is the expansion of elective course work within the Hauptstudium curricula of chemistry departments in particular, and to a lesser extent biology and biochemistry departments. Less likely, because of the time restraints required for basic course work, but no less desirable, would be the institution of elective courses in the Grundstudium curricula leading to the Vordiplom degree. If either of these possibilities is realized, then perhaps those students that know they want to pursue doctorate degrees in biochemistry but are enrolled in biology or chemistry departments will be able to concentrate more of their efforts on biochemically related subjects from the beginning of their university education. All things considered, the new era of biotechnology has been relatively slow to take hold in Germany. One of the important reasons for this is the restrictive governmental regulations prohibiting or severely restricting most forms of molecular genetic research, development and commercial production in German industries. For this reason, German industry has moved many biochemistry positions outside the borders of the German state. It follows therefore that the market for German biochemistry doctorates is not as great now as it might have been. Until the restrictive regulations are revised, German biochemB I O C H E M I C A L E D U C A T I O N 21(2) 1993
istry will probably not grow as fast or to as great an extent as it deserves.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Prof Dr Mathias Sprinzl, Universit~t Bayreuth, Prof Dr Eberhard Riedel, Freie Universit~it Berlin, and Prof Dr Hans-Dieter Jakubke, Universit~it Leipzig for kindly providing information on their respective departments.
Reference ~Nachr Chem Tech Lab (1991) 39 1422-1426
Structures and Names for Inositol Phosphates and Phosphatidylinositols GABRIELE D'ANDREA and M LUISA SALUCCI
Department of Sciences and Biomedical Technologies and Biometrics University of L'Aquila 67100 L'Aquila, Italy Introduction Cycloalkanes containing one hydroxyl group in each of three or more ring atoms are grouped under the term cyclitols. The 1,2,3,4,5,6-cyclohexanehexols are termed inositols, and are differentiated from each other by the use of an italicized prefix and hyphen, the locants (positional numbers) being assigned according to specific criteria.l From a stereochemical point of view, inositols exist in nine distinct forms, seven of which are achiral, and two pairs of enantiomers, making eleven isomers in all. Interestingly, among the nine forms, only the so-called myo-inositol, formerly meso-inositol, has biological activity although it is an achiral compound (Fig 1). myoInositol is widely distributed in plants and animals and for some of these (eg chickens, guinea pigs, hamsters and pigs), it seems to act as a water-soluble vitamin. Quite often, myo-inositol is found in differently phosphorylated forms and these phospho-derivatives need to be correctly designated for their absolute configuration and stereospecific numbering because the difficulties in applying priority rules has led to much confusion in the current literature and especially in textbooks. In particular, following the international recommendations, 2 the phos2
1
~N 3
H
O
1
~
OH
Figure 1 myo-lnositol in its Haworth projection (top) and chair conformation (bottom)
Doctoral Programs in Biochemistry in the Federal Republic of Germany JOHN G WISE and WOLFGANG E TROMMER Fachbereich Chemie/ Biochemie Universitiit Kaiserslautern Postfach 3049 6750 Kaiserslautern Germany
figures are not as clearly interpretable for Diplom students of biochemistry, because of the large number of these students that finish a doctoral degree in another discipline (such as chemistry) or another country, but one can safely say that a majority do complete their doctorate. Simply put, if one wants a job in the biochemical sciences in either German industry or academia, the doctoral degree is required. Given this requirement, a correspondingly low percentage of the total number of German doctorates in the chemical and biochemical sciences pursue academic careers.
Introduction Doctoral programs in biochemistry differ widely throughout the world both in the emphasis placed on the specialization of the training and in the educational mechanisms that ultimately lead to the awarding of the degree. We attempt here to explain how students in Germany achieve doctorates in biochemistry. We will also attempt to review the general educational paths leading to the degree giving examples of typical program requirements including the prerequisite educational background, course work, laboratory work, and examinations required for the various degrees leading to the doctorate, and the outlook for the future of German biochemical education. We will not attempt any judgmental analysis of the different systems prevalent within or outside the German state. We offer comparative examples of the educational system to enable the reader to get an understanding of the nature of doctoral programs in Germany.
General Aspects The first question we must address and indeed the first question a prospective student should address is, "Why specifically is the doctoral degree important in German biochemistry?" In many parts of the world, students who want to pursue careers in the biochemical sciences have several options in regard to how far up the educational ladder they wish to climb. The top academic careers, industrial positions and even academic careers lower than the rank of professor involving biochemical research may be achieved in many countries by people possessing lesser degrees than the doctorate, but in Germany this is not the case. Historically, the chemical industry in Germany has required all of its research employees (and more recently many of its technical and sales representatives) to possess the doctoral degree. Because the biochemical industry in Germany derives from the pharmaceutical industry (which has always been a part of the chemical industry in Germany), there has been an historical carry-over of the requirement for the doctoral degree in industrial positions in biochemistry. With the exception of basic technical assistants in research laboratories, a doctoral degree is a prerequisite for any person seeking employment in the biochemical sciences and in recent times this requirement has been extended to the biological sciences. Indeed, greater than 90 percent of chemistry Diplom students (roughly equivalent to Master of Science students in the American system) continue to a doctoral program.~ The
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
Preparatory Education A brief discussion of the school system may help the reader understand the requirements necessary for admittance to a German university. There are in fact three different paths a student may pursue in pre-university education. The first two tracts, called Hauptschule and Realschule will not be discussed more because they will not. except in very exceptional cases, qualify an individual for entrance into a German university. The third path, and that which nearly all university students have followed, is called the Gymnasium. This takes 13 years and culminates in a broadly based education and the degree called Abitur. It is much more intensive than the Hauptschule or Realschule taking 3-4 years longer and encompassing the sciences, social sciences, humanities, languages and mathematics. At present, approximately one-third of all primary students enroll in Gymnasium and complete the Abitur. There has been a rise in recent years with only about 10 percent completing Gymnasium thirty years ago. Gymnasium students may also concentrate in their latter years in certain disciplines, which may (or may not) be relevant to their future university studies. For example, a student may wish to major in Chemistry and English in preparation for further university study in biochemistry. Here a difference exists between the German system and many other systems of higher education throughout the world. A German student possessing the Abitur degree is entitled to admittance to any German university by right. There are, except in the case of medical schools, no entrance examinations and no restrictions on the course of study selected. A student whose major subject in Gymnasium was languages or social science has an equal opportunity for admittance to a Biochemistry or Chemistry course as a student whose Gymnasium major was Chemistry. Any Abitur with any major is entitled to admittance to any German university in any field. The only limitations to university admission are the numerus clausus restrictions and these may be either local or national. Local restrictions are essentially practical, such as when a given university or department has more students applying for admission than they have positions and space available. National humerus clausus restrictions are set by a sub-ministry of the national government called the Zentralstelle fiir die Vergabe yon Studienpldtzen (ZVS). The ZVS limits the total number of students
95 studying in a few specialized fields, such as economics, law, medicine and biochemistry. In the case of either local or national numerus clausus, selection of the best students by the university can be based on their grades in Gymnasium. Students not accepted are placed on a waiting list and given credit for the amount of time they have waited in the next round. University admissions credit in these cases is given only to those applicants spending time in the military, social services, and in regular jobs. This is meant to prevent what is referred to as Parkstudium, which is when an unsuccessful applicant for medical school, for example, "parks" himself in another field while awaiting admission to medicine. The policy of open university enrollment to all Abitur students has recently given rise to a debate within the university and educational communities as to whether the universities have the right to select students not only on the basis of whether they possess the Abitur, but also to take into account such things as the Abitur major, and the personality, motivation and communication skills of the applicants. University Education University education in the sciences can be broken up into three constituent programs: the Grundstudium or basic studies, the Hauptstudium or advanced studies, and the Promotionsstudium or doctoral studies. Generally speaking, German universities give very specialized training. Education in the humanities, languages, etc has been covered previously in Gymnasium, and is not repeated or extended at university; for example, biochemistry students take only science and mathematics courses. There are at present ten universities in Germany that have dedicated departments of biochemistry where students can pursue all of their university degrees in biochemistry.* A larger number of other universities award Diplom and doctoral degrees from chemistry or biology departments that may emphasize biochemistry. For comparative purposes, there are at present 55 universities in Germany that award the Diplom degree in chemistry. At the beginning of 1991, there were approximately 155-160 students beginning programs in biochemistry (compared with approximately 6500 students starting chemistry programs). During 1991, 52 students were awarded doctoral degrees, compared with over 1500 doctorates in chemistry. It is readily apparent from these figures that dedicated biochemistry programs and biochemistry students in Germany are a much smaller group than their chemistry (and biology) counterparts. However, many biochemists are trained in departments of chemistry and biology. We will illustrate the remainder of this article with numbers and examples taken from the German university biochemistry departments,
* N u m b e r s from this section taken from reference [I ].
B I O C H E M I C A L EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
The Grundstudium and the Vordiplom Degree The Grundstudium curriculum comprises the basic studies of a student's chosen specialty that lead to the prediploma degree called the Vordiplom. This basic training takes an average of 2~/2 years to complete, ~As mentioned above, a Vordiplom student of biochemistry would concentrate exclusively on science and mathematics courses and would receive a broad eductional foundation within her/his discipline of chemistry and biology. The course work would have extensive lectures and laboratory sessions, but the student would not be affiliated with any particular research laboratory. The curriculum is composed of the course work that covers the basic discipline that all students must complete and a series of examinations. There are in general no 'elective' courses that the students may choose to take. For example, a typical Vordiplom biochemistry student would be required to take a set series of courses in physics, biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry and biochemistry (see Table 1). At the end of this course work a series of comprehensive oral and written examinations are taken, usually on at least four and possibly on as many as seven areas of study (see Table 1). The typical biochemistry student would be required to pass examinations in all of the subject fields studied before advancing and is given at most two chances to pass each exam. Once having completed the examinations, the student is then awarded the Vordiplom in Biochemie degree, or if the student is enrolled in a chemistry or biology department, the Vordiplom in Chemic or Vordiplom in Biologie. It is significant that the Vordiplom, while theoretically the equivalent of the BSc, would not give the student any possibility for immediate employment in Germany. NonGerman students holding a BSc or equivalent degree from outside Germany who want admission to a Diplom program may or may not be given Vordiplom equivalent credit. Such cases depend on the foreign student's previous program of study and are decided on an individual basis. The Hauptstudium and the Diplom Degree After the awarding of the Vordiplom, the student embarks on the advanced studies, the Hauptstudium. These are composed of a two-part program: the initial program including both theoretical and practical courses, lasts a minimum of another two years, and the Diplomarbeit, or diploma work, that requires six months to one year of laboratory research and the writing of a Diplom thesis. The average complete Diplom Biochemiker(in) degree, including examinations and the Diplomarbeit takes an average of 3-3V2 years. 1 This equates to an average total time for both the Vordiplom and Diplom of between 5V_~-6 years. ~ The initial two years of course-work are spent in intensive study of the student's speciality, as well as closely related disciplines, and serve to extend and enhance the broad-based studies of biochemistry and
96
Table 1 The Vordiplom Program A
General Course Subject Areas Required by Most Vordiplom in Biochemie Programs ~
General and Inorganic Chemistry General Physics General Biology Animal Physiology Microbiology, Zoology, Botany, A n a t o m y , Plant Physiology
B
An Example of Specific Course Requirements for the Vordiplom in Biochemie Degree b
Semester
4
C
Physical Chemistry Organic Chemistry Biochemistry Mathematics
Course
Type of Course
General and Inorganic Chemistry Analytical Chemistry Biology (Zoology/Botany) Physics Mathematics C o m p u t e r Science Physical Chemistry Biostatistics Organic Chemistry (General) Organic Chemistry (Mechanisms) Natural Substance Chemistry Animal Physiology Introductory Biochemistry General Genetics Microbiology Ecology/Environmental Animal Physiology
Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture
h/wk/semester 4/12 2 6/6 3/3 2 1/3 4/9 2 5/15 2 3/6 3 4/5 3 4/5 2 5
Examination Requirements for the Vordiplom in Biochemie Degree c
General Physical Organic General
and Inorganic Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry Biology
Biochemistry Physics General Biology
"These required subject areas are summarized from the individual course requirements of six different departments of biochemistry. An average of between 120 and 130 semester hours are required to complete the program. About half of the semester hours are lecture courses and half are laboratory courses. It should be noted that much variability can exist between the details of programs from different departments. ~'These specific course requirements are taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie at the Universitat Leipzig CThese examination requirements are taken from the Fachbereich Biochemie at the Universitat Bayreuth. Not all Biochemistrydepartments require a final comprehensive examination in all of the listed subjects. Some departments give some of the exams after the second semester. As many as seven examinations can be given depending on the university and department
chemistry received in the Grundstudium. The format of this initial part of the Diplom program is similar to that of the Vordiplom program with set courses to be taken and compulsory comprehensive examinations both oral and written to be passed. This is analogous to the Vordiplom work except of course for the content of the courses. Examples of typical biochemistry Diplom program curricula and the required examinations are given in Table 2. U p o n successful completion of the courses and examinations, the student then joins an active research laboratory and begins the second step in the Diplom program, the original research project.
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
The Diplomarbeit, as this laboratory project is called, usually takes between six months and one year to complete. The research topic usually reflects the interests of the professor that becomes the student's mentor. A thesis written by the student is required, but no thesis defense is performed. Once the research project and thesis have been completed to the satisfaction of the student's mentor, the student is then eligible to receive the degree, Diplom Biochemiker(in), or if he/she is from a chemistry or biology department, Diplom Chemiker(in) or Biologe(in). It is important to note that G e r m a n doctoral students in biochemistry normally come from departments of bio-
97
Table 2 The Diplom Program A
General Subject Areas Required for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree a
Biochemistry Organic Chemistry Plant Biochemistry
Molecular Genetics Biochemistry or Organic Chemistry Elective Analytical Chemistry Microbiology
B A Specific Example of Course Requirements for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree h Semester
Course
Type of Course
Enzymology Biochemistry II (Cellular) Radiation Chemistry Cellular Biochemistry Bioenergetics Biophysics and Structural Biochemistry Biochemistry of Microbes Biochemistry III (Function) Organic Chemistry III (Special Topics) Elective Course Immunology Molecular Genetics Biophysical Chemistry Elective Course Biochemistry Analytical Biochemistry Research Project
Lecture/Lab Lecture Lecture/Lab Lab Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture Lecture/Lab Lecture/Lab Lecture Lab Lecture/Lab Seminar Lab Lab
h/wk/semester 6/12 5 2/5 9
1 7 2 4 2/4 2/5 2 3 2/4 2 6 20
C Examination Requirements for the Diplom Biochemiker(in) Degree c Biochemistry Organic Chemistry or Biophysical Chemistry
A Biological Field A Second Chemical Field
"These requirements are taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemieof the UniversitfitBayreuth and are given as an indication of what a student might find in a particular department. Much variability can exist between different biochemistrydepartments. In some, a research project in the eighth semester is replaced by lecture laboratory courses. ~'Taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie, Universitat Leipzig. Typical examples of advanced elective courses are: Enzymology, Genetics, Immunology, Medical Biochemistry, Pharmaceutical Biochemistry. ~Taken from the curriculum of the Fachbereich Biochemie Universit/it Bayreuth. The number of elective examinations the biochemistry Diplom student must take depends on the particular university and department he/she is enrolled in. Most require at least one, while others will require more than one elective examination be passed. The student has his/her choice and will normally choose that field that best reflects hiUher elective choices in the course curriculum. chemistry, chemistry, biology or physics. Each Diplom Biochemiker(in), Chemiker(in), Biologe(in) or Physiker(in) is considered to be qualified to pursue a doctorate in biochemistry. Given the relative small number of biochemistry departments in G e r m a n y , it is not surprising to find that a majority of the Doktoranden in biochemistry have received their Diplom degree in chemistry or biology. This diversity of student training is in fact highly valued here, and is not something that is likely to change in the near future. While the G e r m a n biology students will have had a strong background in chemistry the average Vordiplom Chemiker(in) will not have been exposed at all to biology. In his/her Diplom program, the student in chemistry may not have taken an elective in a biological science until
BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 21(2) 1993
their sixth or seventh semester, if at all. The end result is that the students enrolled in G e r m a n biochemistry doctorate programs generally have a very strong background in chemistry.
The Promotionsstudium: Doctoral Programs in Biochemistry The degree Doktor rer nat is the G e r m a n equivalent of the Doctor of Philosophy degree given in other parts of the world. The Doktor rer nat degree can be awarded by G e r m a n natural sciences departments. Unlike the Vordiplom and Diplom the student has no guaranteed right to admission into a doctoral program in a given university or department. The doctoral students are therefore chosen by their professorial mentors.
98 The doctoral program is composed of an original research project (coupled with occasional teaching responsibilities). In general the program lasts between 2V2-3 years, with a few notable exceptions taking less time, but most taking longer. The average age of a newly awarded Doktor rer nat Biochemiker is 28 to 29, while that of the Doktor rer nat Biochemikerin is 27 to 28 years, the difference being that the males are required to do one year of military or community service. In common with most doctoral programs throughout the world, the German system requires the student to conceive and execute an original research project, and to write up her/his results in dissertation form. The student is then required in most cases publicly to report their results in an open seminar. Most programs require a final oral examination on the thesis work and on the student's discipline in general, although the details of the latter varies greatly between universities and departments. These final oral examinations may be held either publicly or privately with 2-4 professors participating. At the satisfactory completion of these requirements, the student is rewarded with the Dr rer nat degree.
The Outlook for the Future The most unlikely change in German biochemical science, but perhaps the one that is most desirable, would be a loosening of the strict requirement of German industry that all its biochemistry and chemistry employees must possess a doctoral degree. This puts a heavy strain on the educational system, and requires the expenditure of a great deal of the time and money by biochemistry, biology and chemistry departments. A second area of possible change and one that is more likely to be accomplished in the near future is the expansion of elective course work within the Hauptstudium curricula of chemistry departments in particular, and to a lesser extent biology and biochemistry departments. Less likely, because of the time restraints required for basic course work, but no less desirable, would be the institution of elective courses in the Grundstudium curricula leading to the Vordiplom degree. If either of these possibilities is realized, then perhaps those students that know they want to pursue doctorate degrees in biochemistry but are enrolled in biology or chemistry departments will be able to concentrate more of their efforts on biochemically related subjects from the beginning of their university education. All things considered, the new era of biotechnology has been relatively slow to take hold in Germany. One of the important reasons for this is the restrictive governmental regulations prohibiting or severely restricting most forms of molecular genetic research, development and commercial production in German industries. For this reason, German industry has moved many biochemistry positions outside the borders of the German state. It follows therefore that the market for German biochemistry doctorates is not as great now as it might have been. Until the restrictive regulations are revised, German biochemB I O C H E M I C A L E D U C A T I O N 21(2) 1993
istry will probably not grow as fast or to as great an extent as it deserves.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Prof Dr Mathias Sprinzl, Universit~t Bayreuth, Prof Dr Eberhard Riedel, Freie Universit~it Berlin, and Prof Dr Hans-Dieter Jakubke, Universit~it Leipzig for kindly providing information on their respective departments.
Reference ~Nachr Chem Tech Lab (1991) 39 1422-1426
Structures and Names for Inositol Phosphates and Phosphatidylinositols GABRIELE D'ANDREA and M LUISA SALUCCI
Department of Sciences and Biomedical Technologies and Biometrics University of L'Aquila 67100 L'Aquila, Italy Introduction Cycloalkanes containing one hydroxyl group in each of three or more ring atoms are grouped under the term cyclitols. The 1,2,3,4,5,6-cyclohexanehexols are termed inositols, and are differentiated from each other by the use of an italicized prefix and hyphen, the locants (positional numbers) being assigned according to specific criteria.l From a stereochemical point of view, inositols exist in nine distinct forms, seven of which are achiral, and two pairs of enantiomers, making eleven isomers in all. Interestingly, among the nine forms, only the so-called myo-inositol, formerly meso-inositol, has biological activity although it is an achiral compound (Fig 1). myoInositol is widely distributed in plants and animals and for some of these (eg chickens, guinea pigs, hamsters and pigs), it seems to act as a water-soluble vitamin. Quite often, myo-inositol is found in differently phosphorylated forms and these phospho-derivatives need to be correctly designated for their absolute configuration and stereospecific numbering because the difficulties in applying priority rules has led to much confusion in the current literature and especially in textbooks. In particular, following the international recommendations, 2 the phos2
1
~N 3
H
O
1
~
OH
Figure 1 myo-lnositol in its Haworth projection (top) and chair conformation (bottom)