Documentation and quantitative analysis of the local knowledge on medicinal plants in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

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Documentation and quantitative analysis of the local knowledge on medicinal plants in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India S. Prabhu a, S. Vijayakumar a,n, J.E. Morvin Yabesh a, K. Ravichandran b, B. Sakthivel b a b

PG and Research Department of Botany and Microbiology, AVVM Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous) Poondi, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India PG and Research Department of Physics, AVVM Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous) Poondi, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 27 June 2014 Received in revised form 23 August 2014 Accepted 9 September 2014 Available online 18 September 2014

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The aim of the present study was to document the medicinal plants by the traditional medical practitioners from Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, India. Quantitatively analyses of the data were made to acquire some useful leads for further studies. Materials and methods: Successive free listing was the method adopted for the interview. In this study, 54 traditional healer medical practitioners were included and their knowledge on medicinal plants was gathered. The data were assessed with the help of two indices viz., informant consensus factor (Fic) and Informant Agreement on Remedies (IAR). Results: The present survey is in accordance with some of the aspects of our previous surveys. Regarding the demography of the informants, it exhibited unevenness in male–female ratio and majority of the informants were poorly educated. Practicing this system of medicine as part time job by majority of the informants might indicate the reduced social status of this medicinal system. The present study had recorded the usage of 81 species, which in turn yielded 1073 use reports. The major illness category ‘aphrodisiac, hair care and endocrinal disorders’ hold a high Fic values. Among the other illness categories, gastro-intestinal ailments, genito-urinary ailments and dermatological infection ailments have a high percentage of use reports. Eye ailments, general health, kapha ailments, psychological ailments and skeleton muscular system ailments were the other illness categories with high Fic values. Some of the claims viz., Argyrolobium roseum (aphrodisiac ailments), Rosa brunonii (eye ailments) Hibiscus surattensis (dermatological infections ailments), Bauhinia variegata (neurology Ailments), Cotinus coggygria (circulatory system/cardiovascular ailments) and Uvaria narum (gastro-intestinal ailments) which have relatively high consensus can be taken up for further biomedical studies, since no substantial studies have been conducted on them. Conclusion: Based on the results of our present study, we have highlighted some claims which are at high use in the study area but having little scientific support. Studies on such claims will provide scientific base to some extent which in turn will be useful to improve the health of indigenous people. Crown Copyright & 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Traditional healer practitioners Kalrayan hills Villupuram district Tamil Nadu India

1. Introduction According to World Health Organization (WHO) up to 80% of the populations in some developing countries use traditional medicine (WHO, 2008). Traditional herbal medicine is still an important component of healthcare in India. India is the second largest country in the world with over one billion with diverse socio-cultural backgrounds. It accounts for 16% of the world's population and holds 21% of the world's global burden of diseases. The impact of traditional

n

Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 4374293523. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Vijayakumar).

systems of medicine in the public healthcare system of India is substantially high and medicine is intimately interwoven with religiosity and ethnicity (Broom et al., 2009). Traditional medicine in Tamil Nadu was previously called as Thamzhil maruthuvam ( ¼Tamil medicine) and term siddha medicine was coined after 1923 by the British (Sebastia, 2011). The Siddha system of traditional medicine is being practiced majorly in Tamil Nadu and in places where the Tamil people live. Evidence has shown that from around 3rd century BC onwards the ancient Tamils had developed their own literature and had maritime relationships with other parts of the world (Gaur and Sundaresh, 2006). The names of some literature belong to sangam period (300 BC–300 AD). Thrikadugam, sirupanchamoolam and elathi are some

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.014 0378-8741/Crown Copyright & 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

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S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

medicinal formulations that are still in use. Likewise, the 95th chapter of thirukural (a Tamil classic) deals with principles of medicine and food (Pope et al., 1982) purananuru (a Tamil classic) mentions about the antiaging effect of Phyllanthus emblica (Mudaliyar et al., 1983). The literatures used in contemporary Siddha practices started from 4th–5th century AD and become predominant in 16th century; however the elements of healing practices emerged earlier (Zysk, 2008). The traditional Siddha practitioners enhance new formulas, test them and pass the effective formulations to the next generations (Sujatha, 2011). These methods are poorly documented and analyzed. Quantitative measures of ethnobotany are believed to uncover the cultural truth or the generalized knowledge (Vandebroek, 2010). These quantitative approaches measure the degree of consensus on the usage of a particular medicinal plant. The consensus analyses have been used to test the falsifiable hypotheses on the use of plants and also as a tool for selecting medicinal plants for further research program (Canales et al., 2005; Case et al., 2006); thus such quantitative approaches are helpful to abstract the results of a ethnobotanical survey to get an excellent information (Mutheeswaran et al., 2011). The present survey is aimed to document the knowledge of traditionally trained healers in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, India on medicinal plants and to quantitatively analyze it. Quantification of data was done primarily to identify potential plant species for further biomedical studies and also to know the groups of plant species that were highly used, held high IAR and had consensus.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Description of the study area Villupuram district lies between 11 380 25″ N and 12 200 44″ S: 78 150 00″ W and 79 420 55″ E with an area of 7194 sq Km. The Kalrayan hills in the north represents a continuous range of hills covered with some thorny forests and vegetation. It is surrounded on East and South by Cuddalore district. West by Salem and Dharmapuri districts and on the North by Thiruvannamalai and Kanchipuram districts. Villupuram is the largest district in the state. It is divided into 22 blocks. The district has a population density of 482 inhabitants per square kilometer and has a sex-ratio of 987 females for every 1000 males. The literacy rate of Viluppuram district is 72.08. Nearly 38% of the study area is the forests of Eastern Ghats (Fig. 1). 2.2. Data collection The field surveys were conducted between May 2012 and September 2013 in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district. A total of 200 field days was spent to gather the data. Traditional healer medical practitioners were identified by interviewing the elderly people in Villupuram district. The practitioners who had been practicing for more than 2 years were included in the survey. In the first visit, the purpose and nature of the project were explained to each practitioner in a simple language, to get prior informant consent. After establishing a clear consent from them, formal interviews were conducted from the second visit onwards. In this study, 54 traditional healer medical practitioners were included and their knowledge on medicinal plants was gathered. The interviews were conducted in the local language ‘Tamil’ and the documentation of the data in the field was also done in the local language. Successive free listing was the method adopted for the interview (Heinrich et al., 2009). The interview consisted of two parts.

The first part dealt with the demographic profile of the informants which included the name, gender, age, professional experience, educational status and occupation. The second part dealt with their medicinal plant knowledge. The informants were asked to describe the medicines that were given by them with their mode of usage. The details regarding the parts used, dosage, mode of preparing the medicine, duration and the illnesses treated were recorded in this part. Furthermore, the informants were asked to describe the symptomatology of illnesses. 2.3. Herborization All the species cited as medicinal were collected from the field at reproductive stage, with the help of informants in duplicate. A field sheet was recorded with collectors name, vernacular name, local abundance and ecological parameters. The herbarium samples were dried, processed, identified taxonomically and the names were confirmed with the help of regional floras (Nair and Henry, 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1989; Gamble, 1997; Mathew, 1999) and International Plant Names Index (2010). The voucher specimens were deposited in the herbarium of Pushpam Herbarium Cabinet, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College, Poondi, Thanjavur. 2.4. Analysis of data 2.4.1. Conversion of data into use reports (UR) The data gathered in the field were translated into English in the laboratory. Then, the data were converted into a basic structure, UR. UR can be described as informant (i) mention the use of a species (s) for the treatment of a use (illness) category (u). In the present study we have followed the following method to convert the data into use report. If species ‘A’ was recommended for the treatment of illness category ‘x’. It was considered as one UR. If species ‘A’ was recommended for the treatment of illness categories ‘x’ and ‘y’ then it was considered as two reports. If a mixture of species ‘A’ and ‘B’ was used for the treatment of illness category ‘x’, it was considered as two reports (i.e. species ‘A’ for the treatment of ‘x’ and species ‘B’ for the treatment of ‘x’). If a mixture of species ‘A’ and ‘B’ was used for the treatment of illness categories ‘x’ and ‘y’, it was considered as four (2  2) use reports. By this way, all the data were converted into UR. The URs were then abstracted into claims. The definition of ‘claim’ is similar to that of UR, but it does not include the factor ‘informant’ (i). If a species ‘A’ was mentioned for the treatment of an illness category ‘x’ by two informants, it was considered as two UR, but as one claim. The illnesses reported by the informants were grouped on the basis of their emic perceptions. Vadha (musculoskeletel) ailments consist of illnesses such as paralysis, polio myelities and arthritis regardless of their etiology. The illness category, pitha includes ailments such as hypertension, giddiness, vomiting, insomnia, restlessness and burning sensation. The illness category, kapha includes diseases of pulmonary and respiratory origin (Murugesa mudhaliar, 2006). The illness category, Megha includes different kinds of genitourinary diseases mainly of infectious origin. The illness category, ailments of women, included various disorders of female reproductive system. Gastrointestinal ailments included the medicines used for gastrointestinal problems other than that prescribed as appetizers. According to the healer's perceptions, skin allergies were considered to be caused by the presence of toxins due to unknown bites of some insects in childhood. But, in this study we have grouped skin allergies under dermatological ailments, because it seems to be more appropriate. After the conversion of the data into use reports, quantitative analysis was carried out on two indices.

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

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Fig. 1. Location of the study area.

2.4.2. Calculation of informant consensus factor (Fic) This is one of the widely used indices in quantitative ethnobotanical studies. The consistency of the healers knowledge in treating a particular illness category was tested with this index

as proposed originally by Trotter and Logan (1986). This factor can be given as F ic ¼ Nur–Nt=ðNur  1Þ

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S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

where Nur is the number of use reports of informants for particular illness category, and Nt is the number of species used for particular illness by all informants. This factor ranges from zero to one, where increasing values indicate high rate of informant consensus. This index reveals the cultural coherence of the selection of a set of medical agents used in the treatment of a certain illness category nothing about the importance of the single plant species used (Heinrich et al., 2009). 2.4.3. Calculation of informant agreement ratio (IAR) The importance of the individual species was estimated by calculating the IAR (Trotter and Logan. 198) for each species. IAR was calculated using the following formula IAR ¼ nr – nða=nr  1Þ where nr is the total number of citations registered for species s and na is the number of illness categories that are treated with this species. This values ranges between zero (when the number of illness categories equals the number of citations) and one (where by all the participants agree upon the exclusive use of the species for the particular illness) (Thomas et al., 2009). 2.4.4. Analysis of consensus of illness categories Fic values were calculated for each illness category and they were classified into three arbitrary groups. Illness categories having a Fic value which was higher than that of mean plus standard deviation of Fic values of all illness categories were placed under ‘Illness categories with high Fic values’ Illness categories having a Fic value which was less than that of mean plus standard deviation of Fic value of all illness categories, but not zero was placed under ‘illness categories with moderate Fic values’. Other illness categories were placed as ‘illness categories with low Fic values’. In each illness category, plants with a minimum of two citations for the treatment of same illness category were cataloged

Table 1 Demographic profile of the informants included in the survey (N¼ 54). Demographic features Age o 30 31–40 51–60 61–70 71–80 Above-81 Experience o 5 Years 5 to 20 Years 21 to 40 Years 41 to 60 Years Gender Men Women Education Uneducated Primary school Secondary school High school Higher secondary school Degree Occupation Full time Practitioners Part time Practitioners A. Government employs B. Agriculture C. Self employs D. Spiritual healers

Number of people

Percent (%)

4 12 11 13 9 5

7.4 22.2 20.4 24.0 16.7 9.3

4 31 12 7

7.4 57.4 22.2 13.0

48 6

88.9 11.1

10 9 16 8 7 4

18.5 16.7 29.6 14.8 13.0 7.4

6 48 3 20 27 4

11.1 88.9 5.5 37.1 50.0 7.4

status and they are able to read and understand the reports of some basic lab-tests such as blood glucose levels. Some of them are also collecting these reports as a proof efficacy of their treatment. A major portion of the practitioners practice this medicine as a part time job. The consultation charges usually ranged between INR11–51 and in some cases it was free.

3. Results and discussion 3.2. Quantification of the data 3.1. Demographic characteristics of informants Demographic characteristics of respondents were determined and recorded through face-to-face interviews. The number of practitioners between the age groups 61–70 was high when compared to the other groups. The percentage of practitioners with an experience lower than five years was only 7.4%. There was uneven distribution in the male–female ratio. Nearly 35% of the practitioners were uneducated or completed only primary school education. 88% of the practitioners were practicing it only as a part time job (Table 1). Regarding the demography of the informants, the dominance of middle aged practitioners was not only documented in our studies but also by other workers (Albuquerque et al., 2010). Women's were participation as a traditional medical practitioner was very low as indicated by high male–female ratio and it remains almost a male-exclusive domain. The same fact was also documented in some previous works with traditional medical practitioners in India (Mutheeswaran et al., 2011). A study carried out by Mati and De Boer (2011) in Kurdish markets indicated that women occupied major part of consumers while men occupied major portion of sellers of traditional medicine. As for as our study area is concerned, a major portion of women involved in traditional medicine render their service as birth attendants. Though the general figure showed a major portion of the healers were uneducated or poorly educated, many of the young practitioners hold degree/diploma. Some of the practitioners also refer the patients to biomedical doctors/technicians to review their health

In the present survey 91 different symptoms grouped as 19 major illness categories were recorded. Their vernacular names along with bio-medical are provided as Table 2. The local knowledge of the practitioners in Villupuram district on medicinal plants was listed in Table 3. Among all illness categories, dermatological ailments had gained a high percent of citations, which followed by Gastro intestinal ailments had gained a high percent of citations, which was followed by dermatological infection ailments. Generally, one medicine given for a symptom for an illness category can be recommended for another symptom in the same category. Various plants derived compounds such as piperine, quercetin, genistein, naringin, glychyrrhizin, and niaziridin were reported to enhance the activity of various drugs including commonly used antibiotics. Risorine is a marketed combination of rifampicin with piperine, which reduces the dose of rifampicin from 450 mg to 200 mg, and it yields good results with fewer side effects (Chawla, 2010). Of the six plants mentioned in this group, only Piper nigrum and Zingiber officinale are having scientific support (Chellapandiyan et al., 2012), and the other claims can be used as leads for finding some oral or dermal bioavailability enhancers. 3.3. Medicinal plants and associated knowledge The plants used for medicinal purposes in the region are presented in Table 3 with relevant information. As a result of study, 81 medicinal plant species belonging to 34 families were

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

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Table 2 Biomedical terms of the illnesses with their Tamil translation and ailment categories under which the symptoms were grouped. No.

Biomedical terms

Tamil terms

Ailment categories

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76

Aphrodisiac Anemia Heart problem Cardiotonic Blood tonic Burns Itch Wounds Rash Inflammation Skin disease Mouth ulcer Leprosy Chronic skin eruption Vaginal itching Skin lotion Bacterial and fungal diseases Dandruff Bronchitis Nasal bleeding Mouth ache Gums ache Throat ache Hoar senses Eye diseases Ophthalmic Diabetes Fever Heavy fever Child fever Takoon Malaria fever Dysentery Indigestion Vomiting Stomach ache Stomach tumor Stomach ulcer Abdominal pain Bowel diseases Cholera Digestion Gas trouble Gastric ulcer Hernia Intestinal disorders Insecticides Bladder infection Diuretic Increase breast milk Bleeding Urinary disorders Urinary tract infection Ovarian cysts Menstrual cycle Male fertility Gonorrhea Bed wetting Amenorrhea Venereal diseases Breast secretion more milk Nephritis Jaundice Liver diseases Hepatitis Stone formation Piles Hypercholesterolemia Nerves problems Nervous tension Head ache Abscess Cancer Snake bite Scorpion sting

Bogam undaga Raththa soagai Idhaya pirachanai Idhaya valimai Raththa perukki Theekkaayam Namaichaal Kaayam Sori Udal eritchal Thol noikal Vaaippun Thoalu noi Naalpatta thol vedippu Yoani arippu Saruma marunthu Thotru noi Podugu Moochukuzhai alatchi Naasi rathapoakku Vaai vali Eeral vali Thondai vali Kaathu kelamai Kan noikal Kan purai Sakkara/Neerilivu noi Kaaichal Kadumaiyaana kaaichal Kulanthai kaaichal Dry kaaichal Malaeria kaaichal Vayitrupoakku Ajeeranam Vaandhi Vayitru vali Vayitru katti Vayitru pun Adi Vayitru vali Kudal noi Vaandhi baethi Jeeranam Vaaivu thoandharuvu Iraippai pun Kudal irakkam Kudal koalaarugal Poochikolli Siruneerppai thotru Siruneer perukki Thaaipaal perukkam Ratththa poakku Siruneer koalaarugal Siruneer paathai noi thoatru Karuppai kaatigal Maadhavidaai sularchi Anmai sakthi perukkuthal Maegavettai noi Padukkaiyil siruneer kaliththal Madhavilakkinmai Paalvinai noikal Paal perukki Kundikkaai allergy Manjal kaamalai Kalleeral noikal Eeral allergy parai Kal adappu Moolam Kollupu kattupaduthuthal Narambu pirachanaikal Narambu padhatram Thalaivali Seel padintha katti Katti Paambu kadi Pooraan kadi

Aphrodisiac ailments Circulatory system/cardiovascular Circulatory system/cardiovascular Circulatory system/cardiovascular Circulatory system/cardiovascular Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Dermatological ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Eye ailments Eye ailments Endocrinal ailments Fever ailments Fever ailments Fever ailments Fever ailments Fever ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Gastro-intestinal ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Genito-urinary ailments Hemorrhoids ailments Kapha ailments Neurology ailments Neurology ailments Neurology ailments Oncology ailments Oncology ailments Poisonous bites ailments Poisonous bites ailments

ailments ailments ailments ailments

12

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

Table 2 (continued ) No.

Biomedical terms

Tamil terms

Ailment categories

77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Asthma Cold Cough Chest pain Breathing problem Small pox Edema Joint pain Body pain Rheumatism Swelling Muscle pain Gout Mental illness Mental stimulants

Kaasa noi Sali Irumal Nenju vali Moochu thinaral Sitrammai Neer veekkam Mootu vali Udal vali Keel vaadham Veekam Thasai pidippu Keel vaadham Mana noi Puththi maruthal

Respiratory ailments Respiratory ailments Respiratory ailments Respiratory ailments Respiratory ailments Respiratory ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Skeleto-muscular ailments Psychological ailments Psychological ailments

found in the research area. The most presented families are Fabaceae (9 species) followed by Lamiaceae (8 species), Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae (each 5 species), Poaceae (6 Species), Rutaceae and Rosaceae (each 4 species).The high proposal of medicinal species Fabaceae and Lamiaceae families has already reported (Chellaiah et al., 2006; Khalid et al., 2008; Saad ullah et al., 2009; Arshad et al., 2010; Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011; Chellappandian et al., 2012; Revathi et al., 2013; Morvin et al., 2014). The most frequently used plant parts were leaves (32%) were followed by whole plant (25%), bark (13%), fruit and root (each 10%), flower (3%), seed and rhizome (each 2%), bulb, tuber and underground stolen (each 1%) (Fig. 2). All over the world tribal communities, utilized for the preparation of herbal medicine using leaves (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011; Ezekiel et al., 2012; Ullah et al., 2013; Morvin et al., 2014). The reason why leaves were used mostly is that they are collected very easily than underground parts flowers and fruits etc. (Giday et al., 2009) and in scientific point of view leaves are active in photosynthesis and production of metabolites (Ghorbani, 2005). There are various methods of preparation and application for different types of ailments and they have various preparation forms like decoction (28%), powder (24%), paste (22%), infusion (14%), juice (9%) and raw (3%). Among the methods of preparation decoction (28%) and powder (24%) are the methods mostly used for the remedies (Fig. 3). Preparation of decoction for the treatment of ailments is a common practice among the other tribal community in India (Chellappandian et al., 2012; Revathi et al., 2013) and other parts of world (Seyid et al., 2013; Hyun and MiJang, 2014; Teresa et al., 2014). The decoction was obtained by boiling the plant parts in water until the volume of the water reduced to minimum or required amount. The inhalation was done by the burning of plant parts and inhaled the smoke through nose or mouth. The powder was prepared by the grinding of shade dried plant parts.

3.3.1. Side effect/adverse actions of some medicinal plants Some of the medicinal herbal drugs causing side effects/ adverse actions. For the present study 22 medicinal plants recorded and these plants causing side effects which were used by local herbal practitioners (Table 4). For example, Ruta graveolens was best for heart problem, eventhough high dosage may damage kidney and liver function. Similar report made by Inamul (2004), the use of herbal drug causes side effects like cardiac problem, anti diabetic, diuretic, sedative, hypertension, hypotension and anticoagulant effect.

Several cases of bleeding involving anticoagulant therapy and herbals have been reported (Wu, 1988). The American Society of Anaesthesiologists has issued warnings against using herbals such as ginger, ginkgo, kava kava, garlic, maize and pepper before undergoing surgery because these herbs may cause increased risk of bleeding or prolong the effect of anesthesia.

3.3.2. Illness categories with high Fic values The Fic values of the major illness categories that were treated by the healers are presented in Table 5 and the plants which have a minimum of two citations for the treatment of same illness category listed in Table 6. Plants which were used as aphrodisiac, hair care and endocrinal disorders had a high Fic values. Four plants had a minimum of two citations in this group. Among them, the leaves of Hibiscus surattensis, Aegle marmelos, Centaurea iberica, Gymnema sylvestre and root of Cajanus cajan had high number of citations. The sugar destroyer extract extracted from Gymnema sylvstre. The oil of Ricinus communis and Azadirachta indica are used to prepare medicated oils. The oil from Ricinus communis is used in preparing oils for taking bath and dropping in stomach, head and nose. Of the 11 citations for oil from Ricinus communis five were meant for General health ailments (reduce body heat) and six for Respiratory system disease ailments (children cold). Aparajita and Ramanakumar (2012) reported that, bronchitis and asthma were recorded as the leading causes of death, whereas pneumonia and tuberculosis of the lungs were ranked as some of the five leading causes of deaths in rural India. It is the largest single disease category for India, accounting for one–ninth of the national burden. Exposure to biomass fuel cooking, usage of tobacco, poor sanitation, environmental and socio-economic conditions contribute for the increase in the prevalence of these ailments (Kumar and Mehra, 2012). In hair care Emblica officinalis had high number of citations and high IAR value indicating that it had been recommended only for the treatment of hair care. Among the medicinal plants cited for the treatment of skeleto muscular system ailments Dodonaea viscosa was having a high number of citations. The endocrinal disorder had a high number of plants reported. In this illness category Gymnema sylvestre and Cynodon dactylon had a high number of citations. This plant is given either singly or in combination with other plants for a wide range of endocrinal disorder. The eye ailments Rosa brunonii had high number of citations. For the management of general health ailments Aegle marmelos and Argyrolobium roseum were having high number of citations. The Kapha ailments Uvaria narum had a high number of citations. Psychological ailments Hibiscus fuscus had a high number of citations.

Table 3 Local knowledge of traditional healer medical practitioners on medicinal plants in Kalrayan hills of Viluppuram District in Tamil Nadu, India. S. no.

Family/binomial name

1.

ANNONACEAE Annona squamosa L.

2.

Uvaria narum Wall (or) Blume

Vernacular names

Voucher no.

Flowering period

Parts used

Method of preparation Ailments treated

Total number of citation

Administration dosage, duration of the treatment

Kattu Seetha

PHC1116

Aug.–Sep.

Lea.

Dec.

Diabetes (4)

11

Oral: (drink one glass juice 3 times a day 0.900 for 4–8 weeks)

Uvaria

PHC1133

Dec.–Feb.

Lea.

Inf.

Digestion (7) Head ache (3) hypercholesterolemia (7)

13

Oral: (drink one teacup 2–3 times a day for 2–3 weeks )

0.833

18

Oral: (early morning 1 glass of decoction once a day for 4 weeks.)

0.941

Ba., Fru. 3.

VIOLACEAE Viola canescens Wall.

Phul-naqshu

PHC1154

March–April

WP.

IAR

Bowel disease (3) Dec.

Jaundice (6)

Pas.

Cough(4) Cold (4) Fever (4)

4.

5.

6.

7.

MALVACEAE Hibiscus surattensis L.

Hibiscus fuscus. Garcke

LINACEAE Hugonia mystax L.

RUTACEAE Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Lumotomato

Luswagamene

Motirakanni

PHC1173

PHC1155

PHC1193

Oct.–Nov.

Aug.–Oct.

May–June

Lea.

Roo.

Pas.

Wound (13) burns (12), itch (2) and rash (3). Bladder infection (5)

35

Pas.

Mental illness (6)

15

Pas.

Head ache (9)

Lea. Roo. Pas.

Inflammation (2)

Dec.

High fever (6)

Oral: (apply 2 times a day for 7–10 days) 0.970 Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 4 weeks.) Topical: (applying forehead 3 times day for 2 months) Topical: (applying forehead 2 times day for 1 week. )

0.928

8

Topical: (applying forehead 2 times day for 2 week. ) Oral: (drink one teacup 2–3 times a day for 1–3 days.)

Oral: (drink 1 glass early morning 1 times 1.000 a day for 6 weeks.) Oral: (drink 1 cup 3 times a day for 10 0.941 days.)

Vilvam

PHC1117

May–Oct.

Lea., Ba.

Inf.

Health tonic (13)

13

0.857

8.

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm) Swingle.

Mndimu

PHC1134

Feb.–April

Ba., Fru.

Jui.

Stomach ache (11)

18

9.

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. F.

Mlimau

PHC1174

May–July

Roo.

Inf.

Bronchitis (7) Stomach ache (9)

9

Oral: (drink 1 cup 2 times a day for 3 days.)

10.

Ruta graveolens L.

Rue

PHC1156

Jan.–Feb.

Lea. Roo.

Pas. Dec.

Gout (7) and rheumatism (7) Heart problem (3)

17

Topical: (apply 3 times a day for 3 weeks.) 0.937 Oral: (drink 1 teacup 1–2 times a day for 8 weeks.)

11.

MELIACEAE Azadirachta indica A. Juss

Mwarobaini

PHC1135

April–May

Lea.

Pas.

Small pox (11) and wound (9)

49

Bar.

Inf.

Flo.

Dec.

Gonorrhea (4), malaria fever (7) and vaginal itching (7). Stomach ulcer (6) intestinal warms (2), insect bites (3)

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 8–12 days.) Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 2–3 weeks.) Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 2–4 weeks.)

WP.

Pow. With milk.

37

Lea.

Raw.

Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 40 0.944 days.) Oral: (take a handful a day for 2–3 weeks.)

12.

SAPINDACEAE Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.

Sanatha

PHC1118

Jan.–March

Snakebites (5) rheumatism ( 12) and ovarian cysts (11) Muscle pain (9)

1.000

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

Topical: (applying forehead 2 times a day for 1 week. )

0.916

13

14

Table 3 (continued ) S. no.

Family/binomial name

13.

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. Pounanga W&A

14. 15.

16.

ANACARDIACEAE Cotinus coggygria Scop. Pistacia chinensis Skewart ex Brandis MORINGACEAE Moringa oleifera Lam.

Vernacular names

Voucher no.

Flowering period

Parts used

Method of preparation Ailments treated

Total number of citation

Administration dosage, duration of the treatment

IAR

PHC1157

Throughout the year

Fru.

Jui.

Health tonic (9) and stomach ulcer (11)

20

Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 31days.)

0.947

Bhan

PHC1136

March–May

WP.

Pow. With milk.

23

Kangar

PHC1158

March–April

WP.

Dec.

Anemia (12), hepatitis (3), bacterial and fungal diseases (8) Indigestion (7), cough (3), cold (1), fever (2)

13

Oral: (drink one teacup 1–2 times a day 0.909 for 2–3 days.) Oral: (take ½ bunches a day for 2 weeks.) 0.833

Mlonge

PHC1119

Throughout the year

Lea.

Pas.

Skin disease (9)

28

Topical: (apply 3 times a day for 3 weeks.) 0.925

Ba.

Inf.

Rheumatism (7) and venereal disease (12)

Oral: (drink one teacup 1–2 times a day for 1–3 days.)

FABACEAE Cassia mimosoides L.

Lusangalala

PHC1175

Oct.–Nov.

Roo., Ba.

Inf.

Rheumatism (6) and stomach ache (5)

11

18.

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Mbaazi

PHC1190

June–Aug.

Roo.

Pow.

Male fertility (13)

13

19. 20.

Indigofera heterantha Wall. Medicago polymorpha L.

Kainthi Sinji

PHC1159 PHC1137

May–June March–April

WP. WP.

Jui. Dec.

21.

Argyrolobium roseum Comb. Pterocarpus angolensis DC Vicia sativa L. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

Makhani booti

PHC1162

April–Oct.

Bar. Lea.

Inf. Dec.

Joint pain (12), abdominal pain (7) 19 Muscle pain (5) and urinary tract infection 17 (8) Dengue fever (4) Aphrodisiac (7) and health tonic (11) 18

Mininga Kablae Moona Mkunde

PHC1191 PHC1160 PHC1138

Jan.–April March–April Sept.–Nov.

Ba. Lea. Roo.

Pow. Dec. Pow.

Mental stimulant (3) and hernia (7). Blood tonic (5) and asthma (9) Abscess (5)

Lea.

Dec.

Chest pain (6), hernia (11) and cough (9)

Bu.

Pow.

Bar.

22. 23. 24.

Kalyar

PHC1161

Feb.–April

Oral: (drink one teacup 2 times a day for 3days.) Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 42days.) Oral: (take ½ bunches a day for 2 weeks.) Oral: (drink one glass 2 times a day for 20days.) Oral: (take ½ bunches a day for 7weeks.)

0.900 1.000 0.944 0.875

0.941

10 14 31

Oral: (take a handful a day for 29 days.) 0.888 Oral: (take a 2–3 desert spoon 3–4 weeks) 0.923 Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 7–10 0.900 days) Oral: (drink one teacup 1–2 times a day for 1 week.)

23

Oral: (take 3–4 handfuls a day for 5–6 weeks.)

Dec.

Anemia (3), dysentery (2), stomach ache (5), urinary disorder (3) and nervous problems (4) Skin diseases (6)

25.

Bauhinia variegata L.

26.

ROSACEAE Duchesnea indica Andr.

Budimiva

PHC1120

March–May

WP.

Dec.

Release body pain (7).

7

27. 28.

Pyrus pashia Buch.Ham. Rosa brunonii Lindley.

Botanyi Tarni

PHC1176 PHC1192

March–May April–June

WP. WP.

Rubus pinnatus Willd.

Lufifi

PHC1139

April–May

Lea.

Inflammation (6) Wounds (3) Ophthalmic (Cataract) (8) Menstrual cycle (2)

6 11

29.

Pow. Pow. Pas. Dec.

2

Oral: (drink one teacup 2 times a day for 1.000 3days.)

30.

MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus maidenii

Mmaidini

PHC1163

Sep.–Nov.

Fru.

Dec.

Cough (3) and head ache (2)

5

Oral: (eat 3–4 fruits a day for weeks.)

0.750

31.

LYTHRACEAE Woodfordia fruticosa L.

Thawi

PHC1121

April–May

WP.

Pow. mixed with Honey Dysentery (3) and stomach ache (9) and Milk.

12

Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 4 weeks.)

1.000

32.

CUCURBITACEAE Momordica foetida L.

Huluhundu

PHC1140

Feb.–April

Lea.

Jui.

57

Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 32 0.928 days.)

Cough (1), stomach ache (2), intestinal disorders (5), headache (7), snake bites (11), fever (12), joint pain (11) and Cold (8)

0.818

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 15 days) Oral: (drink one teacup 1–2 times a day for 1 week.) Oral: (take1 bunch a day for 14 days.) Topical: (apply 2–3 times a day)

1.000 1.000 0.900

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

17.

RUBIACEAE Garcinia indica Choisy

Marukalam

PHC1164

Nov.–Dec.

Fru.,

Pow.

Dandruff (6)

6

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 3 weeks.) 1.000

34.

ASTERACEAE Centaurea iberica Trev.

Kandaria

PHC1141

April–May

Lea.

Dec.

Inflammation (13) and kidney stones (8)

21

Oral: (drink one teacup 1–2 times a day for 18 days.)

0.950

35.

Centella asiatica. L

Vallarai

PHC1193

WP.

Pas. Pow.

19

Oral: (take 1 bunch a day for 14 days.)

0.888

36.

Tagetes minuta L.

Sadbarya

PHC1165

May–Dec.

Lea.

Jui.

Abdominal pains (5), diabetes (7) and fever (7). Nasal bleeding (2)

2

Oral: (take 3–7 drops a day for 1–7 days.) 1.000

37.

OLEACEAE Olea ferruginea Royle.

Kahu

PHC1177

April–June

WP.

Dec.

Hoar senses (3), and throat ache (11)

14

38.

Jasminum malabaricum W.

Wild jasmine

PHC1142

May–July

Flo.

Pow.

Snake (2) scorpion bites (2) and skin diseases (2)

6

Oral: (drink one teacup 3 times a day for 0.923 40 days.) Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 7–10 0.800 days)

39.

APOCYNACEAE Nerium oleander L.

Kaner

PHC1122

April–Oct.

WP.

Pas. Dec.

Inflammation (6) Ulcer (2), piles (4), leprosy (3)

15

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 3 weeks.) 0.857 Oral: (take 3–4 pickers a day for 30–40 days.)

Sakkarakkolli

PHC1166

Oct.–Nov.

Lea.

Ra. (fresh)

Diabetes (13) and indigestion (13)

26

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 45 days.)

0.960

0.931

40.

ASCLEPIADACEAE Gymnema sylvestre (R.Br.) Schult.

41.

SOLANACEAE Solanum suratense Burm.F.

Mohri

PHC1123

March–Dec.

WP.

Dec.

Indigestion (11), cough (12), cold (3) and fever (4)

30

Oral: (eat 10–12 leaves and 8–10 fruit a day for 10 days.)

42.

VERBINACEAE Lantana camera L.

Arisimalar

PHC1143

May–July

WP.

Pow. mixed with milk

Dysentery (4)

10

Pas.

Swelling (6)

Oral: (eat mixed with honey 2 times a day 0.888 for 3 days.) Topical: (apply 1–2 times a day for 6–7 days)

Pow.

14

Jui. Pas. Pas. Pas. Ra.

Takoon (5) (autumn fever) and Eye diseases (9) Fever (9) Anti-rheumatic (7) Chronic skin eruption (9) Head ache (9) Cough (3)

Oral: (take one spoon 3 times a day for 1 week.) Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 5 days.)

3 19

43.

LAMIACEAE Ajuga bracteosa Wall.

Ratti booti

PHC1167

March–Sep.

44.

Lamium amplexicaule Linn.

Saag

PHC1178

March–May

45.

Leucas aspera Spreng.

Tumbai

PHC1179

Aug.–Sep.

46.

L. biflora (Vahl.) R.Br.

Kodi Thulasi

PHC1144

Dec.–Jan.

Lea. Flo. Lea.

47.

Chittapodna

PHC1189

July–Aug.

Lea.

Dec.

Cholera (5), fever (7) and cough (7)

48. 49.

Mentha longifolia Huds. (Linn.) Ocimum canum Sims. Ocimum suave Willd.

Naithulasi Mnungha

PHC1124 PHC1145

Sep.–Dec. May–July

Lea. Ba.

Dec. Inf.

50.

Pogostemon vestitus

Patchouli

PHC1168

April–June

WP.

Dec.

Malarial fever (13) and cardio tonic (12) 25 Malaria (1) antiulcer (5) and gastric ulcer 12 (6) Fever tonic (1), cold (5) and health tonic 10 (4)

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 30 days.) 0.958 Oral: (drink one teacup 3 times a day for 0.909 3 weeks.) Oral: (take one bunch a day for 8 weeks.) 0.777

51.

AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus viridis L.

Ghinar/Chuli

PHC1180

July–Oct.

Lea. and See.

Pow.

Diarrhea (7) and mouth gums (5)

12

Oral: (take a handful a day for 3–4 weeks.)

0.909

Waljuin

PHC1146

April–June

Lea.

Dec.

Nervous tension (4)

5

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.)

0.750

Pas.

Skin disease (1)

52.

CHENOPODIACEAE Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Lea. and WP. Lea.

16 18

0.923 0.933

Topical: (apply 1–2 times a day for 7 days) 0.941 Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 4 days) Oral: (eat mixed with honey 2 times a day 1.000 for 3 days.) Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.) 0.888

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

33.

Topical: (crushed leaves with turmeric for 3 days.)

PIPERACEAE Piper hymenophyllum Miq.

Vaalthippilli

PHC1181

March–June

Fru.

Jui.

Vomiting (1) and diarrhea (1)

2

54.

Piper longum L.

Thippili

PHC1182

Aug.–Dec.

Fru.

Jui.

Malarial fever (3), jaundice (1), piles (2) and cold (3)

9

Oral: (drink one teacup 3 times a day for 1.000 11 days.) Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 0.625 4 weeks.)

15

53.

16

Table 3 (continued ) S. no.

Family/binomial name

Vernacular names

Voucher no.

Flowering period

Parts used

Method of preparation Ailments treated

Total number of citation

Administration dosage, duration of the treatment

IAR

55.

Piper nigrum L.

Milagu

PHC1169

Sep.–Nov.

Fru.

Jui.

Digestion (1), vomiting (1) and cold (1)

3

Oral: (take a handful a day for 3–4 weeks.)

0.500

PHC1147

Aug.–Sep.

WP.

Pow.

Anthelmintic (4) and digestion (5)

9

Oral: (take ½ bunch a day for 4 weeks)

0.875

PHC1181

April–June

Lea.

Dec.

Amenorrhea (2)

4

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.)

0.666

Ba.

Pas.

Rheumatism (2)

56. 57.

58.

LAURACEAE Cinnamomum Periya lavanga macrocarpum Hook.F. pattai C. tamala (Buch.Ham.) Nees Kattu lavangam & Emberm

Topical: (crushed bark apply joints 2 times a day for 4 weeks) Oral: (drink one teacup 3 times a day for 0.600 4 weeks)

Karruwa ilavangam

PHC1184

Oct.–Nov.

Ba.

Inf.

Bronchitis (1), asthma (1) and cardiac disease (4)

6

59. 60.

EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Kiyulwe Nelli

PHC1148 PHC1170

Aug.–Nov. April–June

Dec. Pow.

Diarrhea (2) and fever (1) Hair growth (3)

3 3

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.) Oral: (take a handful day for 2 weeks)

61. 62.

Euphorbia prostrata Linn. Jatropha curcas L.

Lal booti Mbono

PHC1125 PHC1188

Inf. Pas.

Diarrhea (5) and dysentery (2) Wound (1) and inflammation (2)

7 3

Oral: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.) 1.000 Topical: (take a handful day for 2 weeks) 1.000

63.

Ricinus communis L.

Mnyongo

PHC1183

April–Dec. July–Aug, Feb.–Mar July–Sep.

Lea. Lea. and Fru. Lea. Lea. and See. See.

Pas.

Rheumatism (11) and wound (6)

17

Topical: (take 8–10 pinches for 10 days.)

0.937

64.

ULMACEAE Celtis australis L.

Batkiar

PHC1149

April–May

WP.

Dec.

Astringent and diuretic (11)

11

Oral :(take1 bunch a day for 14 days.)

1.000

Jangli foot

PHC1126

Feb.–Mar

WP.

Inf.

18

Oral: (take1 bunch a day for 28 days.)

0.882

Foza / Mtamba

PHC1186

Dec.–Feb.

Ba.

Pow.

11

Ba.

Inf.

Oral: (powdered bark 2 times a day for 4 weeks) Oral: (take a handful day for 2 weeks)

0.700

July–Oct.

Diuretic (7), cancer (5) , edema(4) and cough (2) Stomach tumor (3), skin diseases(1), heart problem (4) and reducing cholesterol (3) Menstrual cycle (3), women fertility (4) and abdominal pain (5) Skin disease (2)

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 7–10 days) Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 4 weeks.)

1.000

0.800 0.666

0.500 1.000

66.

MORACEAE Broussonetia papyrifera Trev. Ficus stuhlmannii Waxb.

67.

Ficus sycomorus L.

Mkuya

PHC1150

68.

Ficus variegata Wall.

Phagwara

PHC 1127 April–Nov.

WP.

Pas.

69.

Morus nigra L.

Black mulberry / Kala root

PHC1170

Mar.–April

WP.

Dec.

Urinary disorders (1), anemia (3), antioxidant (1) and health tonic (2)

7

70. 71.

ZINGIBERACEAE Alpinia calcarata Rosc. Zingiber officinale Roscoe.

Sethurattai PHC1151 Ginger / Tangawizi PHC1185

Jan.–Mar. April–May

Rhi. Rhi.

Pow. Dec.

Indigestion (4) and fever (2) Cough (1) and digestion (3)

6 4

Oral: (take ½ bunch a day for 4 weeks) Oral: (take ½ bunch a day for 14 days)

72. 73.

LILIACEAE Aloe vera L. Tulipa stellata Hook. F.

Kathalai Kakae Moona

PHC1187 PHC1128

April–May Mar–April

WP. Pow. Roo. and Pas. Lea. Inf.

Skin lotions (1), cuts (1) and wounds (1) Wound (5) Menstrual cycle (1) and bleeding (2)

3 8

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 40 days) 1.000 Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 3 weeks.) 0.857 Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 4 weeks.)

74.

ARACEAE Arisaema utile Hook. F.

Adbes

PHC1171

May–June

Tub, fru.

Pow.

Gas trouble (6), stomach ache (3) and skin 11 disease (2)

Oral: (take a handful day for 2 weeks)

0.900

75.

CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus L.

Ghaya Kochin

PHC1129

July–Sep.

US.

Pas.

Breast of women to secrete more milk (4) and applied topically on bitten of scorpion (3)

7

Oral: (take ½ bunch a day for 42 days)

0.833

76.

POACEAE Aristida cyanantha Nees.

Nuri

PHC1152

Sep.–Nov.

WP.

Pow.

Stomach ache (3) and skin diseases (3)

6

77.

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

Khabbal

PHC1130

June–Oct.

WP.

Dec.

17

Lea.

Pas.

Diabetes (9), urinary disorder(5) and intestinal disorders (3) Anti–inflammatory (2)

Oral: (drink one teacup 3 times a day for 0.800 4 weeks) Oral :(take1 bunch a day for 30 days.) 0.875

65.

12 2

Topical: (apply 2 times a day for 3 weeks.)

0.909

0.666

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.

81.

17

Fig. 2. Percentage of plant parts used for the preparation of medicine. Parts: Lea- leaves; Fru- Fruit; Ba- Bark; Flo- Flower; Bu- Bulb; Roo- Root; WP- Whole Plant; Rhi- Rhizome; Tub- Tuber; US- Underground Stolon. Method of preparation: Jui- Juice; Dec- Decoction; Pow- Powder; Inf- Infusion, Pas- Paste; Ra- Raw.

Oral : (take1 bunch a day for 45 days.) 14 Inf. Roo. Jun.–Oct. PHC1132 Zea mays L.

80.

Mahindi

Roo. Jan.–Sep.

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Vetiveria zizanoides Nosk. 79.

Vetiver

PHC1153

Pow.

Malarial fever (3), sexual disease (7) and snake bite (3) Bed wetting (6), urinary tract infection (6) and stomach ache (2)

13

16 Pow. WP. July–Nov. PHC1131

Saccharum officinarum L. 78.

Baru

Roo. December Muwa / Sugarcane PHC1172

Pow.

Cardio tonic (3), diarrhea (2), dysentery (1) and inflammation (3) Anemia (3) and urinary disorders (13)

9

Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 0.750 4 weeks.) Oral: (drink 1 glass 1–2 times a day for 0.933 4 weeks.) Oral: (take one bunch a day for 8 weeks.) 0.833

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

Fig. 3. Categories of local Traditional healer's mode of utilization for the preparation of medicine.

Previous quantitative ethnobotanical studies conducted in adjacent areas also showed a high Fic for this illness category. The plants such as Mukia maderaspatana, Solanum trilobatum, Solanum torvum, Oldenlandia umbellate, Justicia adhathoda, Cynodon dactylon, Pergularia daemia and Piper nigrum were also being used for the management of respiratory illnesses by the healers in the adjacent areas (Mutheeswaran et al., 2011; Pandikumar et al., 2011). In the present study aphrodisiac ailments are one of the common ailments that hold high Fic value in quantitative ethnomedical studies. Mutheeswaran et al. (2011) reported that 15 medicinal plants were cited minimum two times. Among them, the plants such as Indigofera asphalathoides, Thespesia populnea, Abutilon indicum, Santalum album, Hemidesmus indicus and Lawsonia inermis were ethnobotanically studied in a Viruthunagar district. Hair care is one of the common illnesses encountered in day to day life. For a person in villages, it is difficult to come and get

18

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

Table 4 Side effects/adverse reactions interactions by the traditional healer medical practitioners in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. S. no.

Medicinal plants and voucher no.

Side effect/ad. reaction and interaction

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Annona squamosa L. PHC1116 Hugonia mystax L. PHC1193 Aegle marmelos L. PHC1117 Citrus aurantifolia Swingle. PHC1134 Citrus limon L. PHC1174 Ruta graveolens L. PHC1156 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. PHC1135 Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. PHC1138 Bauhinia variegata L. PHC1161 Eucalyptus maidenii L. PHC1163 Centella asiatica L. PHC1193 Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. PHC1166 Piper nigrum L. PHC1169 Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Emberm. PHC1181 Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. PHC1184 Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. PHC1148 Alpinia calcarata Rosc. PHC1151 Zingiber officinale Roscoe. PHC1185 Aloe vera L. PHC1187 Cyperus rotundus L. PHC1129 Vetiveria zizanoides Nosk. PHC1153 Zea mays L. PHC1132

It may cause eye irritation. Avoid during pregnancy as it may cause abortion. Avoid during pregnancy, breast feeding High dosage may cause constipation If take empty stomach will cause high blood pressure, depression, anxiety. High dosage may cause swelling or blister High dosage may cause stomach, intestinal, kidney, urinary tract and liver problem. Avoid during pregnancy. It may cause stomach irritation. Neem oil may lead to infant death. Avoid use if have had on organ transplant. Avoid during pregnancy, breast feeding.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Consult a physician before consume it. Peoples suffering from epilepsy and high blood pressure should be avoiding eucaulyptus essential oils. If continuously usage may cause liver problem. High dosage may cause headache, dizziness and nausea. It may cause gastro intestinal disorder. If taken empty stomach. High dosage may cause blister on skin do not use if you have low thyroid function or if taking thyroxin. Do not eat bay leaves unless and until you are sure, that what you are holding in our hand is Laurel Nobilus, as the other use of species of laurel can be poisonous. First consult your doctor before consuming. Avoid during pregnancy, breast feeding. Consult a doctor after consuming it. Fresh root is toxic, may cause dizziness, intestinal pains and vomiting. High dosage may cause irritation, ginger oil avoid during pregnancy. It may cause diarrhea or abdominal cramps. High dosage may use cause constipation. Avoid during pregnancy. Leaves may cause skin rashes and itches.

Table 5 Fic values of the illness categories treated by the traditional healer medical practitioners in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu. No.

1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Major ailments category Illness categories with high Fic values Aphrodisiac (AD) Hair care ailments (HCA) Endocrinal disorders ailments (EDA) Eye ailments (EA) General health (GH) Kapha ailments (KA) Psychological ailments (PA) Skeleto-muscular system ailments (SMSA) Illness categories with moderate Fic values Ear, nose, throat ailments (ENT) Neurology ailments Oncology ailments (ONCA) Circulatory system/cardiovascular ailments (CSCA) Genito-urinary ailments (GUA) Illness categories with low Fic values Fever (FVR) Hemorrhoids (HA) Gastro- intestinal ailments (GIA) Dermatological infections ailments (DIA) Respiratory systems ailments (RSA) Poisonous bites (PB) Total

Number of use reports (Nur)

Number of taxa (Nt)

% of UR

Informant consensus factor (Fic)

7 3 20 17 39 10 9 102

1 1 4 2 5 2 2 14

0.65 0.27 1.86 1.58 3.63 0.93 0.83 9.50

1.00 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87

21 38 13 52 147

4 7 3 10 26

1.95 3.54 1.21 4.84 13.70

0.85 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.82

91 6 226 143 100 29 1073

18 2 46 31 22 7 206

8.48 0.55 21.06 13.33 9.31 2.70

0.81 0.80 0.80 0.78 0.78 0.78

medical advice from biomedical doctors in nearby town and herbal therapies are the first choice of treatment. This might be the reason for high Fic value for this illness category. Among the plants cited under this illness category, the plants such as Cassia auriculata, Annona squamosa, Citrus hystrix, Eclipta prostrata and Emblica officinalis were also reported in the same illness category, in our previous study (Morvin et al., 2014). Zingiber officinale, Cuminum cyminum (Pitha ailments), Zingiber officinale, Cleodendrum phlomidis, Vitex negundo (Vadha ailments) Terminalia arjuna (Heart ailments), Aerva lanata, Tribulus terrestris (Urinary ailments), Abutilon indicum (Hemorrhoids) and Hybanthus enneaspermus (Aphrodisiacs) were also reported for the same

purposes in our previous studies conducted in Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Mutheeswaran et al., 2011; Morvin et al., 2014)

3.3.3. Illness categories with moderate Fic values Under this category, 5 major illness categories were grouped. The interesting plants were: Tayetes minuta (Ear, nose, throat ailments: throat ache, ear ache), Bauhinia variegata (Neurology ailments: Narambu thondharavugal, head ache), Nerium oleander (Oncology: stomatch tumor (katti)), Ocimum canum (Circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases: Raththa soagai) and Hibiscus

S. Prabhu et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 157 (2014) 7–20

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Table 6 List of interesting medicinal plants for each illness category cited by the traditional healer medical practitioner in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India. S. no.

Major illness category

Name of plants

1 2

Aphrodisiac Circulatory system/ cardiovascular ailments Dermatological infections ailments

Argyrolobium roseum (0.941) Cotinus coggygria (0.909), Vicia sativa (0.923), Bauhinia variegata (0.818), Ocimum canum (0.958), Morus nigra (0.666), Saccharum officinarum 0.250, Sorghum halepense (0.750), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (0.600), Hibiscus surattensis (0.970) , Azadirachta indica (0.916), Moringa oleifera (0.925), Cotinus coggygria (0.909), Bauhinia variegata (0.018), Centaurea iberica (0.950), Jasminum malabaricum (0.800) , Leucas aspera (0.941), Chenopodium ambrosioides (0.750), Jatropha curcas (1.000), Ficus variegata (1.000), Aloe vera (1.000), Arisaema utile (0.900), Aristida cyanantha (0.800), Nerium oleander (0.857) Rosa brunonii (0.818), Ajuga bracteosa (0.923) Tagetes minuta (1.000), Olea ferruginea (0.923) Annona squamosa (0.900), Gymnema sylvestre (0.960) Hugonia mystax (0.857), Azadirachta indica (0.916), Pistacia chinensis (0.833), Medicago polymorpha (0.875), Momordica foetida (0.928), Centella asiatica (0.888), Solanum surattense (0.931) Uvaria narum (0.833), Citrus aurantifolia (0.941), Cassia mimosoides (0.900), Woodfordia fruticosa (1.000), Momordica foetida (0.928), Centella asiatica (0.888), Piper nigrum (0.500), Cinnamomum macrocarpum (0.875), Zingiber officinale (0.666), Saccharum officinarum (0.750), Pterocarpus angolensis (0.888) Hibiscus surattensis (0.970), Zea mays (0.923), Azadirachta indica (0.916), Dodonaea viscosa (0.944), Moringa oleifera (0.925), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (0.600),Ficus sycomorus (0.909) Piper longum (0.625), Nerium oleander (0.857) Bauhinia variegata (0.818) Dodonaea viscosa (0.944), Momordica foetida (0.928), Jasminum malabaricum (0.800), Cyperus rotundus (0.833) Hibiscus fuscus (0.928), Pterocarpus angolensis (0.888), Vetiveria zizanoides (0.833) Pistacia chinensis (0.833), Vicia sativa (0.923), Vigna unguiculata (0.923), Momordica foetida (0.928), Solanum surattense (0.931), Leucas biflora (1.000), Mentha longifolia (0.888), Piper nigrum (0.500), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (0.600), Broussonetia papyrifera (0.882), Zingiber officinale (0.666), Uvaria narum (0.833), Hibiscus fuscus (0.928), Ruta graveolens (0.937), Dodonaea viscosa (0.944), Moringa oleifera (0.925), Cassia mimosoides (0.900), Indigofera heterantha (0.944), Medicago polymorpha (0.875), Duchesnea indica (1.000), Eucalyptus maidenii (0.750), Momordica foetida (0.928), Lantana camera (0.888), Lamium amplexicaule (0.933), Leucas aspera (0.941), Cinnamomum tamala (0.666), Ricinus communis (0.937)

3

4 5 6 7

Eye ailments Ear, nose, throat ailments Endocrinal disorders ailments Fever

8

Gastro-intestinal ailments

9

Genito-urinary ailments

10 11 12 13 14

Hemorrhoids ailments Neurology ailments Poisonous bites Psychological ailments Respiratory system ailments

15

Skeleto-muscular system ailments

surattensis (Genito urinary ailments: urinary tract infection, paliyal noi) (Table 5).

4. Conclusion Documentation and analysis of these medicinal practices are necessary because substantial portion of the population use these medicines. The quantitative analysis carried out showed that the percentage of species recognized useful for their medicinal properties is relatively low compared to the overall floristic richness of the study area. This could be seen as an evidence of the ongoing process of cultural erosion, considering also frequency of use and the degree of appreciation of the species. The IAR has shown, in particular, that few species would fit in the category “food medicine”. For most of the categories of major illness, the consensus among the respondents was compared to other studies, emphasizing a high uniformity in the use of specific species for certain diseases. The comparison with other pharmacological and ethnobotanical studies carried out in the other Tamil Nadu hilly regions and abroad has shown that the majority of the medicinal uses are common or similar to those reported in bibliography. The investigation carried out in the Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district represents a first quantitative and detailed contribution to the ethnobotanical exploration of the area. However the investigation should not be considered exhaustive. In the future it would be necessary to extend the research to the younger generation, including more women in order to better understand the complex process of transmission of knowledge across generation and between genders. We hope this study will stimulate other researchers in exploring other areas in Kalrayan hills of Villupuram district for discovering its rich and variegate intangible cultural heritage related to plant uses. In this study observed Aphrodisiac ailments, hair care and Endocrinal disorder ailments were used high Fic value with 1, 1 and 4 species respectively in quantitative ethnomedicimal studies.

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