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Does social support moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents? A longitudinal study
Journal of Adolescence 73 (2019) 85–94
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Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Does social support moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents? A longitudinal study
T
Michelle F. Wrighta,∗, Sebastian Wachsb a b
Pennsylvania State University and Masaryk University, USA University of Potsdam, USA
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Latinx Adolescent Racial discrimination Aggression Relational aggression Physical aggression
Introduction: This study examined the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and aggression (i.e., self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression) across one year through the moderation of social support from parents, friends, and teachers. Methods: Participants were 606 Latinx adolescents from the United States (60% girls; M = 14.36, SD = 0.46). They completed self-report questionnaires on their perceived racial discrimination by peers, and self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression. Results & conclusions: Racial discrimination by peers was negatively associated with social support from parents, friends, and teachers, as well as positively related to all forms of Time 2 (1 year) self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers were negatively related to all forms of Time 2 aggressive behaviors. Increases in social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peernominated relational aggression, while lower levels of social support strengthened this association. There were no significant moderating effects of social support from parents, social support, and close friends found for Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. These findings indicate that high social support from parents, friends, and teachers impacts Latinx adolescents reduces the impact of racial discrimination by peers on adolescents' relational aggression.
Latinx adolescents are the fastest-growing group of youths in the United States, but they are hindered by a social climate with increasing intolerance directed toward them (Seaton, Neblett, Cole, & Prinstein, 2013). Latinx is a gender-neutral term, sometimes used in lieu of Latino, Latina, Latinos, and Latinas. Most of the concern with adolescents' experience of racial discrimination concerns the impact of such discrimination on their academic achievement (Bogart et al., 2013; Chng & Tan, 2017). Some research has linked racial discrimination to physical aggression (i.e., perpetrating or threatening physical harm) among Latinx adolescents, as well as adolescents of other ethnic and racial backgrounds (Bogart et al., 2013; George, Bassani, & Armstrong, 2012; Hartshorn, Whitbeck, & Hoyt, 2012; Smith et al., 2002). It is important to understand Latinx adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination because such an experience is associated with greater depression and lower self-esteem (Greene, Way, & Pahl, 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein, Gonzalez, & Huq, 2012; Umana-Taylor, Tynes, Toomey, Williams, & Mitchell, 2015). To our knowledge, no studies have been conducted on the associations between racial discrimination and relational aggression ∗
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.F. Wright).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.001 Received 9 November 2018; Received in revised form 4 April 2019; Accepted 14 April 2019 Available online 28 April 2019 0140-1971/ © 2019 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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(i.e., manipulation of social relationships or social standing; Smith et al., 2002). Researchers interested in the role of racial discrimination in adolescents' perpetration of aggression should consider studying relational aggression because this form of aggression peaks during adolescence (Crick, Ostrov, & Kawabata, 2007; Yoon, Barton, & Taiariol, 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck, Trevaskis, Nesdale, & Downey, 2014). Social support from parents, friends, and teachers might buffer against physical and relational aggression associated with racial discrimination. Research findings indicated that social support can buffer against the negative outcomes (e.g., depression) related to aggression among adolescents (Fengqiang, Jie, Yueqiang, & Lei, 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001). The aim of the present one-year longitudinal study was to examine the moderation of social support from parents, friends, and peers in the associations between racial discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents. The results of this study might help to understand the role of social support for mitigating the potential negative consequences of racial discrimination by peers during adolescence, such as physical and relational aggression, as well as provide information on how prevention programs can help support more diverse groups of adolescents. 1. Racial discrimination by peers and aggression Ethnic or racial discrimination is defined as receiving unfair, differential treatment as a result of race or ethnicity (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000; Rosenbloom & Way, 2004; Szalacha et al., 2003; Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003). Increasing cognitive abilities make it possible for adolescents to reflect on their experiences and their roles within their communities and society (Phinney & Chavira, 1995). Ethnic and racial identity is important to many adolescents and they are aware of how others treat them based on their race or ethnicity (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). Previous research has revealed that 50% of Latinx adolescents reported racial discrimination, 47% worried about being discriminated against, and 12% reported daily incidents of discrimination perpetrated by adults within their communities (Huynh & Fuligni, 2010; Szalacha et al., 2003). Another study revealed that 94% of the Mexican-American adolescents experienced at least one incidence of racial discrimination and 21% reported racial discrimination by teachers and peers at their schools (Flores, Tschann, Dimas, Pasch, & de Groat, 2010). Racial discrimination by peers is important to study because such experiences influence adolescents' development. In their study, García Coll and colleagues (1997) proposed an integrative ecological model designed to consider discrimination as an ecological circumstance for children and adolescents of color. The overall aim of the model was to explain how experiences related to discrimination, racism, prejudice, and segregation influence children's and adolescents' well-being. Research has revealed that perceived racial discrimination by peers and adults is associated with greater depression and lower self-esteem among Latinx adolescents (Greene et al., 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein et al., 2012; Umana-Taylor et al., 2015). Furthermore, the experience of racial discrimination reduces Latinx adolescents' sense of connectiveness and belonginess to their school (Degarmo & Martinez, 2006; Martinez, DeGarmo, & Edd, 2004; Roche & Kuperminc, 2012). Lower levels of school connectiveness and belonginess are associated with overt and relational aggression among Latinx adolescents (Brubacher, McMahon, & Keys, 2016; Sanchez, Colon, & Esparza, 2005). Few studies have been conducted on the association between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents. In the one study on this topic, Bogart et al. (2013) found that Latinx adolescents reported greater delinquency, nonphysical aggression, physical aggression, and retaliatory behaviors when they experienced higher levels of racial discrimination than white adolescents while controlling for sociodemographic information. Other studies have found similar patterns among North American Indigenous adolescents and immigrant children in Canada (George et al., 2012; Hartshorn et al., 2012). There is a paucity of research on the associations between racial discrimination and relational aggression among Latinx adolescents or other adolescents of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Addressing this gap in the literature is important because many researchers claim that relational aggression peaks during adolescence because of increases in verbal ability and social sophistication (Crick et al., 2007; Yoon et al., 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2014). Thus, researchers interested in racial discrimination during adolescence should also focus their attention on relational aggression. Given the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and physical aggression, as well as the potential relationship with relational aggression, it is important to understand more about how to reduce the negative impact of racial discrimination on aggression. Social support might have a role in buffering against or reducing the negative consequences associated with racial discrimination among adolescents. 2. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers Social support is defined as the knowledge that someone is cared for, respected, and has people who are concerned with the person's welfare (Davidson & Demaray, 2007). Social support provides security, reaffirms and increases self-worth, and involves adolescents having someone who can provide them with support during negative situations (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Parents, teachers, and friends are common sources of social support for adolescents explored in the literature (Bokhorst, Sumter, & Westenberg, 2010). During early adolescence (ages 10 through 14), parents and friends provide similar levels of social support, with parental support providing the best indicator of emotional and behavioral problems (Bokhorst et al., 2010; Helsen, Vollebergh, & Meeus, 2000; Marini, Dane, Bosacki, & Cura, 2006). Social support from teachers generally diminishes from childhood into early adolescence, though such support was rated higher in early adolescence than in late adolescence (Bokhorst et al., 2010). Furthermore, adolescents tend to rate social support from teachers highest during a school transition, such as when they transition from sixth grade to seventh grade. Considering this literature, it is important to focus on parents, friends, and teachers as three sources of social support for Latinx adolescents. Focusing on social support is further important because different levels of such support are associated with various outcomes. In 86
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particular, low social support from teachers and parents was linked to greater use of substances and poor quality of life among adolescents (Flaspohler, Elfstrom, Vanderzee, & Sink, 2009; Wormington, Anderson, Tomlinson, & Brown, 2013). Similarly, adolescents' perceptions of low social support from friends and parents were related to poor academic achievement (Rothon, Head, Klineberg, & Stansfeld, 2011). Research also indicates that perceived social support is related to adolescents' perpetration of aggression. Low social support from parents was related to greater perpetration of verbal, physical, and relational aggression among adolescents (Bibi & Malik, 2016; Kashani & Shepperd, 1990; Mukhtar & Mahmood, 2018; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Adolescents with high perceived social support from friends reported lower perpetration of overt and relational aggression (Prinstein et al., 2001; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Flaspohler et al. (2009) found that higher perceived social support from teachers diminished the likelihood that adolescents were involved in bullying as perpetrators. Furthermore, adolescents' perception of high social support from their teachers was related to less physical and relational aggression (Aceves, Hinshaw, Mendoz-Denton, & Page-Gould, 2010; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Although no research has focused on the role of social support for reducing the association between perceived racial discrimination and physical aggression and relational aggression, some research has found that social support can buffer against negative well-being resulting from perceived racial discrimination. In this study, Seawell, Cutrona, and Russell (2014) found that general social support protected African American women's well-being after they experienced racial discrimination, although the researchers did not examine different types of social support. Research has also revealed that perceived social support buffers against the negative outcomes associated with aggression, including adolescents' drug use, depression, and internet addiction (Fengqiang et al., 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein et al., 2001). Considering that few studies have focused on the buffering effect of social support, it seems reasonable to propose that social support from parents, friends, and teachers might moderate the associations between racial discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents. Such a proposal might be especially likely considering that social support functions to reduce and/or diminish stress through reappraisal of the situation (Barrera, 1986; Cohen & Wills, 1985). 3. The present study The purpose of this study was to examine the potential moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationship between racial discrimination by self-reported and peer-nominated peers and relational aggression and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents, using a one-year longitudinal design. We utilized self-reports and peer-nominations of relational aggression and physical aggression. Self-reports, particularly about aggression, are susceptible to bias, including socially desirability (Paulhus, 1989). Both informants overlap but they offer different information about adolescents' aggressive behaviors. Including self-reports and peer-nominations strengthen the assessment of relational aggression and physical aggression. The following research questions were created to guide this study: 1) What, if any, moderating effect does social support from parents, friends, and teachers have in the association between racial discrimination by peers and relational aggression, as measured one year later? 2) What, if any moderating effect does social support from parents, friends, and teachers have in the association between racial discrimination by peers and physical aggression, as measured one year later? 4. Methods 4.1. Participants Participants were 606 Latinx adolescents (60% girls) from three middle schools, located in the Midwestern United States. All adolescents were in the 8th grade (Time 2), and their ages ranged from 13 to 15 (M = 14.36, SD = 0.46). Adolescents self-reported that their families were from Mexico (80%), Puerto Rico (10%), Guatemala (5%), and another country (5%), including Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. Most adolescents were second generation students (88%), with 10% indicating that they were first generation and 2% reporting that they were born outside of the United States. Families were from predominantly lower to middle class socioeconomic status backgrounds. Roughly 61% of students at the three middle schools were eligible for free or reduced cost lunch. 4.2. Procedures Prior to recruitment, IRB approval was obtained. A list of 150 schools was created for recruitment. Schools with a large number of Latinx adolescents were identified from this list, resulting in the selection of six schools. After identifying these six schools, a recruitment email was sent to the school principal, explaining the purpose of the study, how adolescents could participate, what adolescents would be expected to do, and how long adolescents would participate in the study. Of the six schools recruited, three school principals expressed their desire to have their school participate in the study. A meeting was conducted between principals, teachers from both 7th and 8th grades, and the principal investigator to discuss the study's logistics. Classroom announcements were made to discuss the importance of the study and what adolescents would be expected to do, as well as to answer any questions that adolescents might have about the study. Spanish and English language parental permission slips were distributed to adolescents, with adolescents picking the version of the parental permission slip they believed best fit their parents'/guardian's best understood language. Approximately 803 parental permission slips were sent home with adolescents. Of these 803 parental permission slips, 723 87
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were returned, with 70 parents not allowing their child to participate. Data were collected during the fall of adolescents' 7th grade (Time 1). There were nine adolescents absents on the day of data collection, and who subsequently did not participate in the study. Before completing the measures, adolescents provided their assent. All agreed to participate. Measures were administered in the following order: demographic information (i.e., gender, age, ethnicity), peer-nominated aggressive behaviors, self-reported aggressive behaviors, racial discrimination by peers, and social support from parents, friends, and teachers. There were 639 adolescents included during the first wave of data collection. Data were collected during adolescents' first period class, which could include English Language Arts, Science, Art, etc. The second wave of data collection occurred during the fall of 8th grade (Time 2). A letter in both English and Spanish was sent home to adolescents' parents/guardians. The purpose of the letter was to remind parents/guardians about their child's participation in the study during 7th grade. If no longer interested in having their child be part of the study, parents/guardians were asked to write the name of their child on the letter and return it to their child's school. No letters were returned to schools. There were 33 adolescents who had moved away or who were absent on the days of data collection. These adolescents were dropped from the study, yielding a final sample size of 606. During the second wave of data collection, adolescents completed measures on peer-nominated and self-reported aggression. Similar to Time 1, data were collected during adolescents' first period class. 4.3. Measures 4.3.1. Racial discrimination by peers To assess racial discrimination by peers, adolescents answered three items using the discrimination by peers subscale of the Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (Fisher et al., 2000). A sample item included: “Other kids exclude you from their activities because of your race/ethnicity”. All items were rated on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (a whole lot). Items were combined to form one final score of racial discrimination by peers. This measure was administered at Time 1 only. Cronbach's alpha was .79. 4.3.2. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers The Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale was used to measure adolescents' perceptions of social support received from their parents, friends, and teachers (Malecki, Demaray, & Elliot, 2000). There were 36 items on this questionnaire, with twelve items used for each of the three subscales. Some sample items included: “My parent(s) show they are proud of me”, “My teacher(s) care about me”, and “My close friends understand my feelings”. Items were rated on a scale of 1 (never) to 6 (always) and averaged to create three subscales for parents, friends, and teachers. This measure was administered at Time 1 only. Cronbach's alpha was .83 for parents, 0.84 for close friends, and 0.82 for teachers. 4.3.3. Self-reported aggression Adolescents answered items on this measure about their self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. This measure was adapted from the peer-nomination aggressive behaviors measure (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Five items were used to examine relational aggression (e.g., “How often do you keep a peer out of a group of peers because you are mad at the peer”) and three items for physical aggression (e.g., “How often do you start fights with others”). Items were answered on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (all the time). The items were averaged to form final scores on relational aggression and physical aggression. This measure was administered at Time 1 and Time 2. Cronbach's alphas were .90 for relational aggression at Time 1 and Time 2, 0.83 for physical aggression at Time 1, and 0.84 for physical aggression at Time 2. 4.3.4. Peer-nominated aggression This measure assessed peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Four items assessed relational aggression (e.g., peers who when mad, get even by keeping the person from being in their group of friends) and three items assessed physical aggression (e.g., peers who start fights). Prior to completing the measure, adolescents received an ID code sheet. They were asked to read each item carefully and then record the ID code of the name of a peer who fit the description. After data collection, the ID code sheet was collected. All nominations were tallied and standardized within school. The items were then averaged for relational aggression and physical aggression separately. This measure was administered at both waves of data collection. Cronbach's alphas were .87 for relational aggression at Time 1, 0.88 for relational aggression at Time 2, 0.86 for physical aggression at Time 1, and 0.85 for physical aggression at Time 2. 4.4. Analytic plan Means and standard deviations were conducted for all variables, along with correlations. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the measurement model. The measurement model included all constructs and each construct was modeled as a single latent variable. The model fit was adequate (x2 = 1,001.67, df = 919, p < .001, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.03); all standardized factor loadings were significant (ps < .001), indicating that the items reliably measured the constructs. A structural regression model was conducted with paths specified from perceived racial discrimination by peers to social support from parents, close friends, and teachers, and from perceived racial discrimination by peers to Time 2 peer-nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Paths were also specified from social support from parents, friends, and teachers to Time 2 peer-nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Time 1 peer-nominated and selfreported relational aggression and physical aggression were controlled for in the analyses by allowing them to predict Time 2 peer88
89
– .20* -.28*** -.39*** -.39*** -.30*** -.29** -.37*** -.30*** -.30*** -.28*** 4.02 (.98)
– .26** .19* -.30*** -.40*** -.37*** -.30*** -.28** -.30** -.29*** -.29*** -.26** 4.46 (.91) – -.20* -.37*** -.34*** -.27** -.25** -.30*** -.24** -.24** -.20* 4.56 (.88)
3
– .30*** .30*** .27** .27** .26** .24** .20* .19* 3.01 (1.03)
4
– .28*** .29*** .21* .40*** .28*** .30*** .28** 3.24 (.87)
5
– .25** .25** .23* .36*** .25** .30*** 2.93 (.98)
6
– .21* .21* .25** .35*** .19* .16 (.04)
7
– .20* .26** .26** .35*** .03 (.01)
8
Note. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; SR = Self-reported; PN = Peer-nominated; Rel Agg = Relational Aggression; Phy Agg = Physical Aggression. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
1. Social Support from Parents 2. Social Support from Close Friends 3. Social Support from Teachers 4. Racial Discrimination by Peers 5. T1 SR Rel Agg 6. T1 SR Phy Agg 7. T1 PN Rel Agg 8. T1 PN Phy Agg 9. T2 SR Rel Agg 10. T2 SR Phy Agg 11. T2 PN Rel Agg 12. T2 PN Phy Agg M (SD)
2
1
Table 1 Correlations among social support, racial discrimination by peers, and time 1 and time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated aggression.
– .24** .25** .20* 3.36 (.86)
9
– .19* .19* 2.94 (.89)
10
– .23** .17 (.03)
11
– .04 (.02)
12
M.F. Wright and S. Wachs
Journal of Adolescence 73 (2019) 85–94
Journal of Adolescence 73 (2019) 85–94
M.F. Wright and S. Wachs
Fig. 1. Standardized Regression Model for the Relationships among Perceived Racial Discrimination, Social Support, and Time 2 Aggression. Fig. 1 Notes. T2 = Time 2; SR = Self-Reported; PN = Peer-Nominated. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated aggression were controlled by allowing them to predict their respective aggression at Time 2. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated relational (Time 2 self-reported relational aggression: β = 0.30, p < .001; Time 2 peer-nominated relational aggression: β = 0.27, p < .01) and physical aggression (Time 2 self-reported physical aggression: β = 0.29, p < .001; Time 2 peer-nominated physical aggression: β = 0.26, p < .01) were positive predictors of their respective Time 2 behavior. Moderation effects are not displayed to facilitate reading. Significant interactions were found between racial discrimination by peers and social support from parents (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.23, p < .01; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.20, p < .05), close friends (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.21, p < .05; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.21, p < .05), and teachers (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.18, p < .05; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.16, p < .05) when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Interactions for Time 2 physical aggression were not significant. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Two-way interactions were included between perceived racial discrimination by peers and each of the social support from parents, close friends, and teachers. To examine the significant interactions, the Interaction program was used (Soper, 2013). The program provides the significance of the unstandardized simple regression slopes and displays graphical illustration of the simple slopes at +1 standard deviation (SD), the mean, and −1 SD.
5. Results Correlations, means, and standard deviations were conducted and are included in Table 1. All correlations were in the expected direction. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers were negatively related to racial discrimination by peers and Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. Racial discrimination by peers was associated positively with Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. All Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression variables were related positively to each other.
5.1. Predicting time 2 relational aggression and physical aggression from racial discrimination by peers and social support Perceived racial discrimination by peers is related negatively to social support from parents, friends, and teachers, but it was associated positively with Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression (see Fig. 1). Social support from parents was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported relational aggression, Time 2 self-reported physical aggression, and Time 2 peer-nominated relational aggression but it was unrelated to Time 2 peer-nominated physical aggression. Social support from friends was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, but it was unrelated to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Social support from teachers was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, but it was unrelated to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression were positive predictors of their respective Time 2 behaviors.
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5.2. Interactions between racial discrimination by peers and social support Significant interactions were found between racial discrimination by peers and social support from parents, friends, and teachers when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Probing the significant interactions further revealed that higher levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = −0.27, SE = 0.06, p < .01 at + 1 SD; friends: B = - 0.26, SE = 0.08, p < .01 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = −0.21, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD) and peer-nominated relational aggression (parents: B = −0.23, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = −0.21, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = −0.18, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD). Lower levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers strengthened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = 0.23, SE = 0.04, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = 0.20, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = 0.17, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD) and peer-nominated relational aggression (parents: B = 0.20, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = 0.19, SE = 0.02, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = 0.16, SE = 0.02, p < .05 at + 1 SD). The simple slopes for average levels was not significant for Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = 0.03, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at the mean; friends: B = 0.02, SE = 0.02, p = n.s. at mean; teachers: B = 0.02, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean) and peernominated (parents: B = 0.02, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at the mean; friends: B = 0.01, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean; teachers: B = 0.01, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean) relational aggression. There were not significant interactions found when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. 6. Discussion The purpose of the present study was to provide a better understanding of the buffering effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers on the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and physical aggression and relational aggression, as well as understand how a lack of social support might worsen these associations. Racial discrimination by peers is conceptualized as a chronic stressor, has a negative effect on Latinx adolescents' adjustment, and relates to aggressive behaviors (Greene et al., 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein et al., 2012; Umana-Taylor et al., 2015). Despite receiving some attention in the literature, little is known about how social support form parents, friends, and teachers buffers or exacerbates the associations between racial discrimination by peers and aggression. Findings from the present study revealed that racial discrimination by peer was negatively associated with social support from parents, friends, and teachers, but positively associated with Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. High levels of social support might increase adolescents' ability to deal effectively with racial discrimination (Baldry & Farrington, 2005; Davidson & Demaray, 2007; Smokowski, Evans, & Cotter, 2014). Adolescents with parents, friends, and teachers who support them have a lower vulnerability for perpetrating relational aggression (Aceves et al., 2010; Bibi & Malik, 2016; Kashani & Shepperd, 1990; Mukhtar & Mahmood, 2018; Prinstein et al., 2001; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Given that parents, close friends, and teachers are an active part of adolescents' lives, there might be opportunities for these individuals to discuss ways to effectively deal with relational aggression. The complex associations examined in this study are better understood by examining social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Concerning our first research question on social support and relational aggression, we found that higher levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive relationship between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, while lower levels of social support strengthened this positive relationship. Social support can prevent the appraisal of an event as stressful and involves the intervening of other individuals, such as parents, friends, and teachers, between the experience of stress and negative outcomes, such as aggression (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Adolescents with high levels of social support might have increased self-efficacy for dealing with racial discrimination, as they have someone who will be there for them if they need help. Furthermore, social support might suppress or weakened the effect of stress, such as the stress experienced following racial discrimination, leading to decreases in negative outcomes (Barrera, 1986). Therefore, when adolescents are exposed to racial discrimination by their peers, they have a social network of individuals who mobilize to provide support, reducing the likelihood of perpetrating aggression. However, adolescents with lower levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers might have fewer coping resources to deal with racial discrimination, which could increase their likelihood of engaging in relational aggression. Such a proposal is supported by Prelow, Mosher, and Bowman (2006) who found that perceived racial discrimination was associated with lower perceptions of support among African American women. Other research supports the role of perceived social support for reducing adolescents' perpetration of aggression (Fengqiang et al., 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein et al., 2001). Regarding research question two on social support and physical aggression, we did not find support for the moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the associations between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Physical aggression diminishes during adolescence, while relational forms of aggression increase, due to increases in verbal and social skills (Crick et al., 2007; Li & Wright, 2014; Yoon et al., 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2014). Adolescents' increasing cognitive abilities and focus on peer relationships increase the likelihood for perpetrating relational aggression (Phinney & Chavira, 1995). There is a lack of research to reconcile the finding that social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the association between racial discrimination by peers and relational aggression but not physical aggression. Additional research should be conducted to better understand why physical aggression was not influenced by social support from parents, friends, and teachers. 91
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6.1. Limitations and future directions This study employed a short-term longitudinal design, measuring relational aggression and physical aggression over one year, with two time periods. Such a design makes it difficult to draw long-term conclusions about the associations investigated in this study, reducing the ability to understand the temporal ordering of the variables. Future research should utilize longer term designs, with multiple waves of data collection, to better understand the moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationships between racial discrimination by peers and self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression. We used multiple informants to examine relational and physical aggression, which provided a strength to the study's design. However, adolescents are connected to the digital world, and it is important for follow-up research to consider cyber aggression and cyber social support as well. Adolescents in this study were from different Latinx descents. The small sample size for some of these descents made it difficult to examine group differences, and therefore, we did not investigate group differences. For example, adolescents of Mexican descent might experience different types or more racial discrimination than adolescents of Puerto Rican descent, which could impact their perceptions of social support and perpetration of aggression. Follow-up research might investigate different types of racial discrimination based on the descent of adolescents, instead of considering all Latinx adolescents as a homogenous group. We also investigated three forms of social support, including support from parents, friends, and teachers; given that adolescence is a time in which adolescents' social world is expanding, there might be other individuals, such as sports coaches, that provide social support that we did not consider. In addition, not all support is equally effective and it is important to understand more about what constitutes effective support for dealing with racial discrimination by peers. Furthermore, we focused on a general social support and not social support specifically related to experiencing racial discrimination by peers. Researchers should investigate how social support for racial discrimination might mitigate the negative consequences of this experience. We focused on one type of racial discrimination: racial discrimination by peers. There are other forms of racial discrimination that adolescents might experience at school, such as racial discrimination by adults. Follow-up research should incorporate different forms of racial discrimination, as well as the intersections among racial and ethnic background, social class, and disability. Although we examined aggressive behaviors as outcomes, we could have included other outcomes, such as academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy reduces the impacts of race and ethnicity in school dropout (Peguero & Shaffer, 2015). 7. Conclusion Racial discrimination remains a significant stressor in the life of ethnic minority adolescents. Therefore, it is important to raise awareness about adolescents' experience of racial discrimination in an effort to diminish the belief that such discrimination is inconsequential. Such awareness is especially important because racial discrimination negatively influences adolescents' lives. This study increases the knowledge concerning the relationship between perceived discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression, as well as the role of social support in this association. Adolescents from this study who had individuals to support them were less vulnerable to racial discrimination by peers and perpetrating relational and physical aggression. Because of the detrimental outcomes of experiencing discrimination, it is imperative to equip vulnerable adolescents with coping strategies against discrimination. It is also important for prevention scientists to construct programs to reduce the occurrence of racial discrimination by peers. These programs could be implemented in isolation of other programs or in conjunction with existing programs (e.g., antibullying programs) to reduce racial discrimination. Teachers, school staff, and students need to be trained to identify the signs of discriminating behavior and how they can support those students who experience discrimination. These actions are important because students have the right to feel safe from discrimination in school and all school members have a responsibility to ensure that they do not engage in discriminatory behavior. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.001. 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Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Does social support moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents? A longitudinal study
T
Michelle F. Wrighta,∗, Sebastian Wachsb a b
Pennsylvania State University and Masaryk University, USA University of Potsdam, USA
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Latinx Adolescent Racial discrimination Aggression Relational aggression Physical aggression
Introduction: This study examined the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and aggression (i.e., self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression) across one year through the moderation of social support from parents, friends, and teachers. Methods: Participants were 606 Latinx adolescents from the United States (60% girls; M = 14.36, SD = 0.46). They completed self-report questionnaires on their perceived racial discrimination by peers, and self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression. Results & conclusions: Racial discrimination by peers was negatively associated with social support from parents, friends, and teachers, as well as positively related to all forms of Time 2 (1 year) self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers were negatively related to all forms of Time 2 aggressive behaviors. Increases in social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peernominated relational aggression, while lower levels of social support strengthened this association. There were no significant moderating effects of social support from parents, social support, and close friends found for Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. These findings indicate that high social support from parents, friends, and teachers impacts Latinx adolescents reduces the impact of racial discrimination by peers on adolescents' relational aggression.
Latinx adolescents are the fastest-growing group of youths in the United States, but they are hindered by a social climate with increasing intolerance directed toward them (Seaton, Neblett, Cole, & Prinstein, 2013). Latinx is a gender-neutral term, sometimes used in lieu of Latino, Latina, Latinos, and Latinas. Most of the concern with adolescents' experience of racial discrimination concerns the impact of such discrimination on their academic achievement (Bogart et al., 2013; Chng & Tan, 2017). Some research has linked racial discrimination to physical aggression (i.e., perpetrating or threatening physical harm) among Latinx adolescents, as well as adolescents of other ethnic and racial backgrounds (Bogart et al., 2013; George, Bassani, & Armstrong, 2012; Hartshorn, Whitbeck, & Hoyt, 2012; Smith et al., 2002). It is important to understand Latinx adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination because such an experience is associated with greater depression and lower self-esteem (Greene, Way, & Pahl, 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein, Gonzalez, & Huq, 2012; Umana-Taylor, Tynes, Toomey, Williams, & Mitchell, 2015). To our knowledge, no studies have been conducted on the associations between racial discrimination and relational aggression ∗
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.F. Wright).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.001 Received 9 November 2018; Received in revised form 4 April 2019; Accepted 14 April 2019 Available online 28 April 2019 0140-1971/ © 2019 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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(i.e., manipulation of social relationships or social standing; Smith et al., 2002). Researchers interested in the role of racial discrimination in adolescents' perpetration of aggression should consider studying relational aggression because this form of aggression peaks during adolescence (Crick, Ostrov, & Kawabata, 2007; Yoon, Barton, & Taiariol, 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck, Trevaskis, Nesdale, & Downey, 2014). Social support from parents, friends, and teachers might buffer against physical and relational aggression associated with racial discrimination. Research findings indicated that social support can buffer against the negative outcomes (e.g., depression) related to aggression among adolescents (Fengqiang, Jie, Yueqiang, & Lei, 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001). The aim of the present one-year longitudinal study was to examine the moderation of social support from parents, friends, and peers in the associations between racial discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents. The results of this study might help to understand the role of social support for mitigating the potential negative consequences of racial discrimination by peers during adolescence, such as physical and relational aggression, as well as provide information on how prevention programs can help support more diverse groups of adolescents. 1. Racial discrimination by peers and aggression Ethnic or racial discrimination is defined as receiving unfair, differential treatment as a result of race or ethnicity (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000; Rosenbloom & Way, 2004; Szalacha et al., 2003; Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003). Increasing cognitive abilities make it possible for adolescents to reflect on their experiences and their roles within their communities and society (Phinney & Chavira, 1995). Ethnic and racial identity is important to many adolescents and they are aware of how others treat them based on their race or ethnicity (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). Previous research has revealed that 50% of Latinx adolescents reported racial discrimination, 47% worried about being discriminated against, and 12% reported daily incidents of discrimination perpetrated by adults within their communities (Huynh & Fuligni, 2010; Szalacha et al., 2003). Another study revealed that 94% of the Mexican-American adolescents experienced at least one incidence of racial discrimination and 21% reported racial discrimination by teachers and peers at their schools (Flores, Tschann, Dimas, Pasch, & de Groat, 2010). Racial discrimination by peers is important to study because such experiences influence adolescents' development. In their study, García Coll and colleagues (1997) proposed an integrative ecological model designed to consider discrimination as an ecological circumstance for children and adolescents of color. The overall aim of the model was to explain how experiences related to discrimination, racism, prejudice, and segregation influence children's and adolescents' well-being. Research has revealed that perceived racial discrimination by peers and adults is associated with greater depression and lower self-esteem among Latinx adolescents (Greene et al., 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein et al., 2012; Umana-Taylor et al., 2015). Furthermore, the experience of racial discrimination reduces Latinx adolescents' sense of connectiveness and belonginess to their school (Degarmo & Martinez, 2006; Martinez, DeGarmo, & Edd, 2004; Roche & Kuperminc, 2012). Lower levels of school connectiveness and belonginess are associated with overt and relational aggression among Latinx adolescents (Brubacher, McMahon, & Keys, 2016; Sanchez, Colon, & Esparza, 2005). Few studies have been conducted on the association between racial discrimination and aggression among Latinx adolescents. In the one study on this topic, Bogart et al. (2013) found that Latinx adolescents reported greater delinquency, nonphysical aggression, physical aggression, and retaliatory behaviors when they experienced higher levels of racial discrimination than white adolescents while controlling for sociodemographic information. Other studies have found similar patterns among North American Indigenous adolescents and immigrant children in Canada (George et al., 2012; Hartshorn et al., 2012). There is a paucity of research on the associations between racial discrimination and relational aggression among Latinx adolescents or other adolescents of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Addressing this gap in the literature is important because many researchers claim that relational aggression peaks during adolescence because of increases in verbal ability and social sophistication (Crick et al., 2007; Yoon et al., 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2014). Thus, researchers interested in racial discrimination during adolescence should also focus their attention on relational aggression. Given the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and physical aggression, as well as the potential relationship with relational aggression, it is important to understand more about how to reduce the negative impact of racial discrimination on aggression. Social support might have a role in buffering against or reducing the negative consequences associated with racial discrimination among adolescents. 2. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers Social support is defined as the knowledge that someone is cared for, respected, and has people who are concerned with the person's welfare (Davidson & Demaray, 2007). Social support provides security, reaffirms and increases self-worth, and involves adolescents having someone who can provide them with support during negative situations (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Parents, teachers, and friends are common sources of social support for adolescents explored in the literature (Bokhorst, Sumter, & Westenberg, 2010). During early adolescence (ages 10 through 14), parents and friends provide similar levels of social support, with parental support providing the best indicator of emotional and behavioral problems (Bokhorst et al., 2010; Helsen, Vollebergh, & Meeus, 2000; Marini, Dane, Bosacki, & Cura, 2006). Social support from teachers generally diminishes from childhood into early adolescence, though such support was rated higher in early adolescence than in late adolescence (Bokhorst et al., 2010). Furthermore, adolescents tend to rate social support from teachers highest during a school transition, such as when they transition from sixth grade to seventh grade. Considering this literature, it is important to focus on parents, friends, and teachers as three sources of social support for Latinx adolescents. Focusing on social support is further important because different levels of such support are associated with various outcomes. In 86
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particular, low social support from teachers and parents was linked to greater use of substances and poor quality of life among adolescents (Flaspohler, Elfstrom, Vanderzee, & Sink, 2009; Wormington, Anderson, Tomlinson, & Brown, 2013). Similarly, adolescents' perceptions of low social support from friends and parents were related to poor academic achievement (Rothon, Head, Klineberg, & Stansfeld, 2011). Research also indicates that perceived social support is related to adolescents' perpetration of aggression. Low social support from parents was related to greater perpetration of verbal, physical, and relational aggression among adolescents (Bibi & Malik, 2016; Kashani & Shepperd, 1990; Mukhtar & Mahmood, 2018; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Adolescents with high perceived social support from friends reported lower perpetration of overt and relational aggression (Prinstein et al., 2001; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Flaspohler et al. (2009) found that higher perceived social support from teachers diminished the likelihood that adolescents were involved in bullying as perpetrators. Furthermore, adolescents' perception of high social support from their teachers was related to less physical and relational aggression (Aceves, Hinshaw, Mendoz-Denton, & Page-Gould, 2010; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Although no research has focused on the role of social support for reducing the association between perceived racial discrimination and physical aggression and relational aggression, some research has found that social support can buffer against negative well-being resulting from perceived racial discrimination. In this study, Seawell, Cutrona, and Russell (2014) found that general social support protected African American women's well-being after they experienced racial discrimination, although the researchers did not examine different types of social support. Research has also revealed that perceived social support buffers against the negative outcomes associated with aggression, including adolescents' drug use, depression, and internet addiction (Fengqiang et al., 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein et al., 2001). Considering that few studies have focused on the buffering effect of social support, it seems reasonable to propose that social support from parents, friends, and teachers might moderate the associations between racial discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents. Such a proposal might be especially likely considering that social support functions to reduce and/or diminish stress through reappraisal of the situation (Barrera, 1986; Cohen & Wills, 1985). 3. The present study The purpose of this study was to examine the potential moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationship between racial discrimination by self-reported and peer-nominated peers and relational aggression and physical aggression among Latinx adolescents, using a one-year longitudinal design. We utilized self-reports and peer-nominations of relational aggression and physical aggression. Self-reports, particularly about aggression, are susceptible to bias, including socially desirability (Paulhus, 1989). Both informants overlap but they offer different information about adolescents' aggressive behaviors. Including self-reports and peer-nominations strengthen the assessment of relational aggression and physical aggression. The following research questions were created to guide this study: 1) What, if any, moderating effect does social support from parents, friends, and teachers have in the association between racial discrimination by peers and relational aggression, as measured one year later? 2) What, if any moderating effect does social support from parents, friends, and teachers have in the association between racial discrimination by peers and physical aggression, as measured one year later? 4. Methods 4.1. Participants Participants were 606 Latinx adolescents (60% girls) from three middle schools, located in the Midwestern United States. All adolescents were in the 8th grade (Time 2), and their ages ranged from 13 to 15 (M = 14.36, SD = 0.46). Adolescents self-reported that their families were from Mexico (80%), Puerto Rico (10%), Guatemala (5%), and another country (5%), including Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. Most adolescents were second generation students (88%), with 10% indicating that they were first generation and 2% reporting that they were born outside of the United States. Families were from predominantly lower to middle class socioeconomic status backgrounds. Roughly 61% of students at the three middle schools were eligible for free or reduced cost lunch. 4.2. Procedures Prior to recruitment, IRB approval was obtained. A list of 150 schools was created for recruitment. Schools with a large number of Latinx adolescents were identified from this list, resulting in the selection of six schools. After identifying these six schools, a recruitment email was sent to the school principal, explaining the purpose of the study, how adolescents could participate, what adolescents would be expected to do, and how long adolescents would participate in the study. Of the six schools recruited, three school principals expressed their desire to have their school participate in the study. A meeting was conducted between principals, teachers from both 7th and 8th grades, and the principal investigator to discuss the study's logistics. Classroom announcements were made to discuss the importance of the study and what adolescents would be expected to do, as well as to answer any questions that adolescents might have about the study. Spanish and English language parental permission slips were distributed to adolescents, with adolescents picking the version of the parental permission slip they believed best fit their parents'/guardian's best understood language. Approximately 803 parental permission slips were sent home with adolescents. Of these 803 parental permission slips, 723 87
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were returned, with 70 parents not allowing their child to participate. Data were collected during the fall of adolescents' 7th grade (Time 1). There were nine adolescents absents on the day of data collection, and who subsequently did not participate in the study. Before completing the measures, adolescents provided their assent. All agreed to participate. Measures were administered in the following order: demographic information (i.e., gender, age, ethnicity), peer-nominated aggressive behaviors, self-reported aggressive behaviors, racial discrimination by peers, and social support from parents, friends, and teachers. There were 639 adolescents included during the first wave of data collection. Data were collected during adolescents' first period class, which could include English Language Arts, Science, Art, etc. The second wave of data collection occurred during the fall of 8th grade (Time 2). A letter in both English and Spanish was sent home to adolescents' parents/guardians. The purpose of the letter was to remind parents/guardians about their child's participation in the study during 7th grade. If no longer interested in having their child be part of the study, parents/guardians were asked to write the name of their child on the letter and return it to their child's school. No letters were returned to schools. There were 33 adolescents who had moved away or who were absent on the days of data collection. These adolescents were dropped from the study, yielding a final sample size of 606. During the second wave of data collection, adolescents completed measures on peer-nominated and self-reported aggression. Similar to Time 1, data were collected during adolescents' first period class. 4.3. Measures 4.3.1. Racial discrimination by peers To assess racial discrimination by peers, adolescents answered three items using the discrimination by peers subscale of the Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (Fisher et al., 2000). A sample item included: “Other kids exclude you from their activities because of your race/ethnicity”. All items were rated on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (a whole lot). Items were combined to form one final score of racial discrimination by peers. This measure was administered at Time 1 only. Cronbach's alpha was .79. 4.3.2. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers The Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale was used to measure adolescents' perceptions of social support received from their parents, friends, and teachers (Malecki, Demaray, & Elliot, 2000). There were 36 items on this questionnaire, with twelve items used for each of the three subscales. Some sample items included: “My parent(s) show they are proud of me”, “My teacher(s) care about me”, and “My close friends understand my feelings”. Items were rated on a scale of 1 (never) to 6 (always) and averaged to create three subscales for parents, friends, and teachers. This measure was administered at Time 1 only. Cronbach's alpha was .83 for parents, 0.84 for close friends, and 0.82 for teachers. 4.3.3. Self-reported aggression Adolescents answered items on this measure about their self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. This measure was adapted from the peer-nomination aggressive behaviors measure (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Five items were used to examine relational aggression (e.g., “How often do you keep a peer out of a group of peers because you are mad at the peer”) and three items for physical aggression (e.g., “How often do you start fights with others”). Items were answered on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (all the time). The items were averaged to form final scores on relational aggression and physical aggression. This measure was administered at Time 1 and Time 2. Cronbach's alphas were .90 for relational aggression at Time 1 and Time 2, 0.83 for physical aggression at Time 1, and 0.84 for physical aggression at Time 2. 4.3.4. Peer-nominated aggression This measure assessed peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Four items assessed relational aggression (e.g., peers who when mad, get even by keeping the person from being in their group of friends) and three items assessed physical aggression (e.g., peers who start fights). Prior to completing the measure, adolescents received an ID code sheet. They were asked to read each item carefully and then record the ID code of the name of a peer who fit the description. After data collection, the ID code sheet was collected. All nominations were tallied and standardized within school. The items were then averaged for relational aggression and physical aggression separately. This measure was administered at both waves of data collection. Cronbach's alphas were .87 for relational aggression at Time 1, 0.88 for relational aggression at Time 2, 0.86 for physical aggression at Time 1, and 0.85 for physical aggression at Time 2. 4.4. Analytic plan Means and standard deviations were conducted for all variables, along with correlations. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the measurement model. The measurement model included all constructs and each construct was modeled as a single latent variable. The model fit was adequate (x2 = 1,001.67, df = 919, p < .001, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.03); all standardized factor loadings were significant (ps < .001), indicating that the items reliably measured the constructs. A structural regression model was conducted with paths specified from perceived racial discrimination by peers to social support from parents, close friends, and teachers, and from perceived racial discrimination by peers to Time 2 peer-nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Paths were also specified from social support from parents, friends, and teachers to Time 2 peer-nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Time 1 peer-nominated and selfreported relational aggression and physical aggression were controlled for in the analyses by allowing them to predict Time 2 peer88
89
– .20* -.28*** -.39*** -.39*** -.30*** -.29** -.37*** -.30*** -.30*** -.28*** 4.02 (.98)
– .26** .19* -.30*** -.40*** -.37*** -.30*** -.28** -.30** -.29*** -.29*** -.26** 4.46 (.91) – -.20* -.37*** -.34*** -.27** -.25** -.30*** -.24** -.24** -.20* 4.56 (.88)
3
– .30*** .30*** .27** .27** .26** .24** .20* .19* 3.01 (1.03)
4
– .28*** .29*** .21* .40*** .28*** .30*** .28** 3.24 (.87)
5
– .25** .25** .23* .36*** .25** .30*** 2.93 (.98)
6
– .21* .21* .25** .35*** .19* .16 (.04)
7
– .20* .26** .26** .35*** .03 (.01)
8
Note. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; SR = Self-reported; PN = Peer-nominated; Rel Agg = Relational Aggression; Phy Agg = Physical Aggression. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
1. Social Support from Parents 2. Social Support from Close Friends 3. Social Support from Teachers 4. Racial Discrimination by Peers 5. T1 SR Rel Agg 6. T1 SR Phy Agg 7. T1 PN Rel Agg 8. T1 PN Phy Agg 9. T2 SR Rel Agg 10. T2 SR Phy Agg 11. T2 PN Rel Agg 12. T2 PN Phy Agg M (SD)
2
1
Table 1 Correlations among social support, racial discrimination by peers, and time 1 and time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated aggression.
– .24** .25** .20* 3.36 (.86)
9
– .19* .19* 2.94 (.89)
10
– .23** .17 (.03)
11
– .04 (.02)
12
M.F. Wright and S. Wachs
Journal of Adolescence 73 (2019) 85–94
Journal of Adolescence 73 (2019) 85–94
M.F. Wright and S. Wachs
Fig. 1. Standardized Regression Model for the Relationships among Perceived Racial Discrimination, Social Support, and Time 2 Aggression. Fig. 1 Notes. T2 = Time 2; SR = Self-Reported; PN = Peer-Nominated. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated aggression were controlled by allowing them to predict their respective aggression at Time 2. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated relational (Time 2 self-reported relational aggression: β = 0.30, p < .001; Time 2 peer-nominated relational aggression: β = 0.27, p < .01) and physical aggression (Time 2 self-reported physical aggression: β = 0.29, p < .001; Time 2 peer-nominated physical aggression: β = 0.26, p < .01) were positive predictors of their respective Time 2 behavior. Moderation effects are not displayed to facilitate reading. Significant interactions were found between racial discrimination by peers and social support from parents (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.23, p < .01; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.20, p < .05), close friends (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.21, p < .05; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.21, p < .05), and teachers (Time 2 self-reported: β = 0.18, p < .05; Time 2 peer-nominated: β = 0.16, p < .05) when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Interactions for Time 2 physical aggression were not significant. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
nominated and self-reported relational aggression and physical aggression. Two-way interactions were included between perceived racial discrimination by peers and each of the social support from parents, close friends, and teachers. To examine the significant interactions, the Interaction program was used (Soper, 2013). The program provides the significance of the unstandardized simple regression slopes and displays graphical illustration of the simple slopes at +1 standard deviation (SD), the mean, and −1 SD.
5. Results Correlations, means, and standard deviations were conducted and are included in Table 1. All correlations were in the expected direction. Social support from parents, friends, and teachers were negatively related to racial discrimination by peers and Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. Racial discrimination by peers was associated positively with Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression. All Time 1 and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression variables were related positively to each other.
5.1. Predicting time 2 relational aggression and physical aggression from racial discrimination by peers and social support Perceived racial discrimination by peers is related negatively to social support from parents, friends, and teachers, but it was associated positively with Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression and physical aggression (see Fig. 1). Social support from parents was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported relational aggression, Time 2 self-reported physical aggression, and Time 2 peer-nominated relational aggression but it was unrelated to Time 2 peer-nominated physical aggression. Social support from friends was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, but it was unrelated to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Social support from teachers was related negatively to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, but it was unrelated to Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Time 1 self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression were positive predictors of their respective Time 2 behaviors.
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5.2. Interactions between racial discrimination by peers and social support Significant interactions were found between racial discrimination by peers and social support from parents, friends, and teachers when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Probing the significant interactions further revealed that higher levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = −0.27, SE = 0.06, p < .01 at + 1 SD; friends: B = - 0.26, SE = 0.08, p < .01 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = −0.21, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD) and peer-nominated relational aggression (parents: B = −0.23, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = −0.21, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = −0.18, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD). Lower levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers strengthened the positive association between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = 0.23, SE = 0.04, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = 0.20, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = 0.17, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD) and peer-nominated relational aggression (parents: B = 0.20, SE = 0.03, p < .05 at + 1 SD; friends: B = 0.19, SE = 0.02, p < .05 at + 1 SD; teachers: B = 0.16, SE = 0.02, p < .05 at + 1 SD). The simple slopes for average levels was not significant for Time 2 self-reported (parents: B = 0.03, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at the mean; friends: B = 0.02, SE = 0.02, p = n.s. at mean; teachers: B = 0.02, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean) and peernominated (parents: B = 0.02, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at the mean; friends: B = 0.01, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean; teachers: B = 0.01, SE = 0.01, p = n.s. at mean) relational aggression. There were not significant interactions found when predicting Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. 6. Discussion The purpose of the present study was to provide a better understanding of the buffering effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers on the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and physical aggression and relational aggression, as well as understand how a lack of social support might worsen these associations. Racial discrimination by peers is conceptualized as a chronic stressor, has a negative effect on Latinx adolescents' adjustment, and relates to aggressive behaviors (Greene et al., 2006; Hwang & Goto, 2008; Stein et al., 2012; Umana-Taylor et al., 2015). Despite receiving some attention in the literature, little is known about how social support form parents, friends, and teachers buffers or exacerbates the associations between racial discrimination by peers and aggression. Findings from the present study revealed that racial discrimination by peer was negatively associated with social support from parents, friends, and teachers, but positively associated with Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. High levels of social support might increase adolescents' ability to deal effectively with racial discrimination (Baldry & Farrington, 2005; Davidson & Demaray, 2007; Smokowski, Evans, & Cotter, 2014). Adolescents with parents, friends, and teachers who support them have a lower vulnerability for perpetrating relational aggression (Aceves et al., 2010; Bibi & Malik, 2016; Kashani & Shepperd, 1990; Mukhtar & Mahmood, 2018; Prinstein et al., 2001; Smigelskas et al., 2018). Given that parents, close friends, and teachers are an active part of adolescents' lives, there might be opportunities for these individuals to discuss ways to effectively deal with relational aggression. The complex associations examined in this study are better understood by examining social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationship between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression. Concerning our first research question on social support and relational aggression, we found that higher levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the positive relationship between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated relational aggression, while lower levels of social support strengthened this positive relationship. Social support can prevent the appraisal of an event as stressful and involves the intervening of other individuals, such as parents, friends, and teachers, between the experience of stress and negative outcomes, such as aggression (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Adolescents with high levels of social support might have increased self-efficacy for dealing with racial discrimination, as they have someone who will be there for them if they need help. Furthermore, social support might suppress or weakened the effect of stress, such as the stress experienced following racial discrimination, leading to decreases in negative outcomes (Barrera, 1986). Therefore, when adolescents are exposed to racial discrimination by their peers, they have a social network of individuals who mobilize to provide support, reducing the likelihood of perpetrating aggression. However, adolescents with lower levels of social support from parents, friends, and teachers might have fewer coping resources to deal with racial discrimination, which could increase their likelihood of engaging in relational aggression. Such a proposal is supported by Prelow, Mosher, and Bowman (2006) who found that perceived racial discrimination was associated with lower perceptions of support among African American women. Other research supports the role of perceived social support for reducing adolescents' perpetration of aggression (Fengqiang et al., 2016; Gazquez et al., 2016; Prinstein et al., 2001). Regarding research question two on social support and physical aggression, we did not find support for the moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the associations between racial discrimination by peers and Time 2 self-reported and peer-nominated physical aggression. Physical aggression diminishes during adolescence, while relational forms of aggression increase, due to increases in verbal and social skills (Crick et al., 2007; Li & Wright, 2014; Yoon et al., 2004; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2014). Adolescents' increasing cognitive abilities and focus on peer relationships increase the likelihood for perpetrating relational aggression (Phinney & Chavira, 1995). There is a lack of research to reconcile the finding that social support from parents, friends, and teachers weakened the association between racial discrimination by peers and relational aggression but not physical aggression. Additional research should be conducted to better understand why physical aggression was not influenced by social support from parents, friends, and teachers. 91
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6.1. Limitations and future directions This study employed a short-term longitudinal design, measuring relational aggression and physical aggression over one year, with two time periods. Such a design makes it difficult to draw long-term conclusions about the associations investigated in this study, reducing the ability to understand the temporal ordering of the variables. Future research should utilize longer term designs, with multiple waves of data collection, to better understand the moderating effect of social support from parents, friends, and teachers in the relationships between racial discrimination by peers and self-reported and peer-nominated relational and physical aggression. We used multiple informants to examine relational and physical aggression, which provided a strength to the study's design. However, adolescents are connected to the digital world, and it is important for follow-up research to consider cyber aggression and cyber social support as well. Adolescents in this study were from different Latinx descents. The small sample size for some of these descents made it difficult to examine group differences, and therefore, we did not investigate group differences. For example, adolescents of Mexican descent might experience different types or more racial discrimination than adolescents of Puerto Rican descent, which could impact their perceptions of social support and perpetration of aggression. Follow-up research might investigate different types of racial discrimination based on the descent of adolescents, instead of considering all Latinx adolescents as a homogenous group. We also investigated three forms of social support, including support from parents, friends, and teachers; given that adolescence is a time in which adolescents' social world is expanding, there might be other individuals, such as sports coaches, that provide social support that we did not consider. In addition, not all support is equally effective and it is important to understand more about what constitutes effective support for dealing with racial discrimination by peers. Furthermore, we focused on a general social support and not social support specifically related to experiencing racial discrimination by peers. Researchers should investigate how social support for racial discrimination might mitigate the negative consequences of this experience. We focused on one type of racial discrimination: racial discrimination by peers. There are other forms of racial discrimination that adolescents might experience at school, such as racial discrimination by adults. Follow-up research should incorporate different forms of racial discrimination, as well as the intersections among racial and ethnic background, social class, and disability. Although we examined aggressive behaviors as outcomes, we could have included other outcomes, such as academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy reduces the impacts of race and ethnicity in school dropout (Peguero & Shaffer, 2015). 7. Conclusion Racial discrimination remains a significant stressor in the life of ethnic minority adolescents. Therefore, it is important to raise awareness about adolescents' experience of racial discrimination in an effort to diminish the belief that such discrimination is inconsequential. Such awareness is especially important because racial discrimination negatively influences adolescents' lives. This study increases the knowledge concerning the relationship between perceived discrimination by peers and relational and physical aggression, as well as the role of social support in this association. Adolescents from this study who had individuals to support them were less vulnerable to racial discrimination by peers and perpetrating relational and physical aggression. Because of the detrimental outcomes of experiencing discrimination, it is imperative to equip vulnerable adolescents with coping strategies against discrimination. It is also important for prevention scientists to construct programs to reduce the occurrence of racial discrimination by peers. These programs could be implemented in isolation of other programs or in conjunction with existing programs (e.g., antibullying programs) to reduce racial discrimination. Teachers, school staff, and students need to be trained to identify the signs of discriminating behavior and how they can support those students who experience discrimination. These actions are important because students have the right to feel safe from discrimination in school and all school members have a responsibility to ensure that they do not engage in discriminatory behavior. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.04.001. 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