- Email: [email protected]
Drive for thinness and drive for muscularity: Opposite ends of the continuum or separate constructs?
Body Image 7 (2010) 74–77
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Body Image journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bodyimage
Brief research report
Drive for thinness and drive for muscularity: Opposite ends of the continuum or separate constructs? Courtney C. (Galliger) Kelley *, Jennie M. Neufeld, Dara R. Musher-Eizenman Bowling Green State University, 206 Psychology, Bowling Green, OH 43402, United States
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 1 May 2009 Received in revised form 28 August 2009 Accepted 29 September 2009
The goal of this study was to examine whether the drive for thinness and the drive for muscularity occur concurrently among late adolescents and to understand the body attitudes associated with desiring a thinner and/or a more muscular physique. Participants included 235 college freshmen who participated in a larger study of body image and eating attitudes. The majority of individuals reported having both a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity (65.4%). Additionally, the presence of both drives significantly predicted body compulsivity and body anxiety among females, and body-esteem among males. Results of the current study provide considerable evidence that a drive for thinness and a drive for muscularity are not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, the degree to which an individual strives for thinness and/or muscularity has differential effects on their body attitudes. ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Drive for muscularity Drive for thinness Body image Eating attitudes
Introduction Both men and women in the United States have become increasingly dissatisfied with their bodies (e.g., Adams, Turner, & Bucks, 2005; Tiggemann & Pickering, 1996), perhaps as a result of unrealistic societal standards for male and female attractiveness (Blond, 2008; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Yamamiya, Cash, Melnyk, Posavac, & Posavac, 2005). Although males and females suffer from body image concerns, these concerns tend to differ consistent with male and female standards for bodily attractiveness. Specifically, whereas the ideal body for women is very thin (McCreary, 2007), the ideal body for men is lean and muscular (Thompson & Cafri, 2007). As a result of the pressure to attain these differing ideals, females tend to have a drive for thinness, while males tend to have a drive for muscularity (e.g., Gray & Ginsberg, 2007). In fact, researchers estimate that approximately half of females desire a thinner body or express concerns about being or becoming overweight (Striegel-Moore & Franko, 2002), and between onefifth and one-third of adolescent men desire more muscular bodies (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). While females tend to desire a thinner physique and while males tend to desire a more muscular physique, research has recognized that a subset of females develop a drive for muscularity and a subset of males develop a drive for thinness. For example, Drewnowski and Yee (1987) found that nearly half
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 216 570 6842. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.C.(. Kelley). 1740-1445/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.09.008
of men in their sample desired to be thinner. Additionally, Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, and Kauer (2004) found that female athletes, depending on their sport, may desire a more muscular body. Possessing both a drive for thinness and drive for muscularity tends to be associated with a negative behavioral and/or psychological profile. Specifically, Hildebrandt, Schlundt, Langenbucher, and Chung (2006) found that male bodybuilders who strived to decrease body fat and increase muscle mass had higher levels of body image disturbances and psychopathology than men who strived to just decrease body fat or just increase muscle mass. Moreover, past research has found that a drive for thinness among both males and females is associated with disordered eating (Garner, 2002; Stice, 2002) and body dissatisfaction (Smolak & Murnen, 2008). Similarly, a drive for muscularity in both males and females has been linked to increased depression and lower selfesteem (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). It is clear that many men and women suffer serious consequences in order to achieve a thin or muscular body. While this research has made a valuable contribution to our understanding of body image, it has remained limited as it has not considered the fact that some individuals might strive for both a thin physique and toned muscles. That is, little to no research has examined whether males and females have both a drive for thinness and a drive for muscularity simultaneously. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine whether the drive for thinness and the drive for muscularity occur concurrently among males and females, and to understand the psychological and behavioral profile associated with desiring a thinner and/or a more muscular physique.
C.C.G. Kelley et al. / Body Image 7 (2010) 74–77
75
Method
Specifically, the Inadequacy subscale (females, a = .92; males, a = .92) consists of five items that measure the degree to which an
Participants
individual feels inadequate about their body shape and/or size. The six-item Preoccupation subscale (females, a = .88; males, a = .84) measures the extent to which an individual is preoccupied with their body and/or workout. The Compulsivity subscale (females, a = .87; males, a = .87) consists of five items that measure the extent to which an individual feels the need to maintain his or her workout or diet schedule. Finally, the threeitem Anxiety subscale (females, a = .84; males, a = .84) measures the degree to which an individual avoids or becomes anxious in situations in which his or her body is exposed to others. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree.
Participants included 285 (174 female, 111 male) college students between the ages of 18–26 (M = 18.80 years, SD = 0.94) who participated in a larger study of body image and eating attitudes. Of the participants, 79.4% were Caucasian, 11.1% African American, 4.2% Latino/Hispanic American, and 3.5% others. Participants’ average BMI was 23.89 (SD = 4.55; males BMI M = 24.56, SD = 3.96; females BMI M = 23.68, SD = 4.71). Procedure Students were recruited through psychology classes, and completed a series of online questionnaires about body attitudes and behaviors located on a secure website. Measures Body-esteem Body-esteem was assessed using the Body-Esteem Scale (BES) (Mendelson & White, 1982). The BES is a 24-item questionnaire that asks respondents to select yes (1) or no (0) answers. An overall body-esteem score was calculated for each participant by reverse coding several items, and summing items to produce scores from zero to 24 with higher scores reflecting higher body-esteem. KR20 was .82 for females and .76 for males. Drive for muscularity The Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS, McCreary & Sasse, 2000) is a 15-item measure that assesses preoccupation with becoming more muscular. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. Cronbach’s alpha was .82 for females and .89 for males. Drive for thinness The Drive for Thinness Scale (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983) is a subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. This subscale includes seven items that measures preoccupation with body weight, excessive concern with dieting, and intense fear of becoming fat. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. Past research has confirmed this scale’s reliability and validity with men and women (Spillane, Boerner, Anderson, & Smith, 2004). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was .84 for females and .84 for males.
Results To determine whether scores on the Drive for Thinness subscale and Drive for Muscularity Scale differed by gender, a MANOVA was conducted. There were significant gender differences for Drive for Thinness, F(1, 272) = 43.41, p < .001, and for Drive for Muscularity, F(1, 272) = 144.63, p < .001. Specifically, women scored higher on the Drive for Thinness subscale than did men (M = 23.42, SD = 8.25; M = 17.08, SD = 6.90, respectively), whereas men scored higher on the Drive for Muscularity Scale than women (M = 2.81, SD = 0.81; M = 1.82, SD = 0.59, respectively). The co-occurrence of these drives was determined based on the mean scores of Drive for Thinness and Drive for Muscularity. Among adolescent women, 24.1% were below the median on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 31.6% were high on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 23.0% had a high drive for muscularity, and 17.8% had a high drive for thinness. Among adolescent men, 26.2% were low on both a drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 34.4% were high on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 18.0% had a high drive for muscularity, and 16.4% had a high drive for thinness. A series of hierarchical regressions was employed to determine whether a drive for muscularity and/or a drive for thinness were related to disordered eating, body-esteem, body preoccupation, body anxiety, body compulsivity, and body inadequacy. To examine these relationships, six regression equations were calculated for men and women with BMI entered on Step 1 to control for possible BMI differences. Continuous drive for muscularity and drive for thinness scores were entered on Step 2, followed by the drive for muscularity drive for thinness interaction on Step 3 (see Table 1).
Eating attitudes Participants’ eating attitudes were assessed with the Children’s Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT, Maloney, McGuire, & Daniels, 1988). The ChEAT is a 26-item questionnaire that assess problematic eating attitudes and behaviors. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. In this sample, the alpha was .89 for females and .85 for males, and other research has reported a test–retest reliability of .81 (Maloney et al., 1988). Although some previous research has used subscales of the ChEAT, the present study used the total scale due to its high internal consistency.
Drive for muscularity
Muscle dysmorphia Participants’ body attitudes were assessed using four subscales of the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI, Short, 2006). Although the MDI is intended to assess individuals’ attitudes towards muscularity, the subscales and items used in the current study focus on an individual’s overall body rather than muscularity.
Women with a higher drive for thinness had a higher rate of disordered eating, F(3, 149) = 78.68, p < .0001, lower body-esteem, F(3, 160) = 43.30, p < .001, and more feelings of body inadequacy, F(3, 161) = 75.54, p < .001. For men, a higher drive for thinness was related to more body anxiety, F(3, 101) = 6.34, p < .008, and more body compulsivity, F(3, 101) = 18.68, p < .001.
For women, a high drive for muscularity significantly predicted body preoccupation, F(3, 164) = 14.72, p < .001, such that women with a higher drive for muscularity were more preoccupied with their bodies than women with a lower drive for muscularity. For men, a high drive for muscularity was significantly related to a higher rate of body preoccupation, F(3, 100) = 4.95, p < .008, and more body compulsivity, F(3, 101) = 18.68, p < .001. Drive for thinness
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Table 1 Linear regression of drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, and the interaction on ChEAT, body-esteem, body anxiety, body compulsivity, body preoccupation, and body inadequacy.
Means (SD) ChEAT Males Females
BMI
Drive for Muscularity
b
b
DR2
Drive for Thinness
DMSx DFT
DR2
b
DR2
b
1.94 (1.33) 2.64 (1.59)
.31 .07
.37** .07
.51 .61
.53** .80**
.51 .61
.52 .29
17.28 (5.64) 12.29 (5.99)
.42 .40
.25* .07
.15 .30
.24 .52**
.15 .30
1.31* .10
7.45 (3.14) 8.65 (3.33)
.33 .26
.08 .04
.03 .23
.12 .47**
.03 .23
.86 .50*
.02 .02
Body compulsivity Males Females
11.83 (4.75) 12.29 (4.69)
.09 .02
.54** .27**
.36 .34
.15 .44**
.36 .34
.22 .65**
.002 .03
Body preoccupation Males Females
9.88 (3.92) 10.94 (4.36)
.13 .03
.22 .22**
.06 .21
.06 .40**
.06 .21
1.30 .16
Body inadequacy Males Females
12.39 (5.19) 14.37 (5.67)
.27 .31
.35** .09
.34 .50
.39** .70**
.34 .50
.49 .10
Body-Esteem Scale Males Females Body anxiety Males Females
* **
.01 .01
.06 0
.05 .002
.01 0
p < .05. p < .01.
Drive for muscularity drive for thinness For women, the interaction between drive for muscularity and drive for thinness significantly predicted body compulsivity, F(4, 155) = 22.44, p < .001. Specifically, women who were low on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity had a low level of body compulsivity, relative to the other three groups. The interaction between these two drives was also significantly related to body anxiety, F(4, 162) = 18.81, p < .001. As above, the absence of both drives was associated with lower body anxiety, whereas women with a high drive for thinness, high drive for muscularity, or both exhibited higher anxiety about their bodies. For men, the interaction between drive for muscularity and drive for thinness significantly predicted body-esteem, F(4, 99) = 6.66, p < .001, body inadequacy, F(4, 100) = 18.85, p < .001, and disordered eating, F(3, 95) = 24.38, p < .001. Specifically, although men with a low drive for thinness and a low drive for muscularity felt the best about their bodies, men who had a combination of a high drive for muscularity and a high drive for thinness had better body-esteem than men who had either a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness alone. Additionally, the results indicated that a high drive for muscularity seems to mitigate the negative effect of a high drive for thinness on body inadequacy. Specifically, while men with a high drive for thinness felt the most inadequate about their bodies, men who had both a high drive for thinness and muscularity reported feeling less inadequate about their bodies. Last, men with a high drive for thinness and muscularity reported the highest levels of disordered eating. Discussion The current study yielded three primary findings. First, consistent with past research, the current study found that while women tend to desire to be thin, men tend to desire to be muscular. Additionally, similar to past research, these drives are associated with negative psychological outcomes. Specifically, for women, a higher drive for thinness was associated with higher rates of disordered eating, lower body-esteem, and higher levels of body
anxiety. For men, a higher drive for muscularity predicted higher rates of body preoccupation and body compulsivity. Second, as suggested by Hildebrandt et al. (2006), the present study found that a drive for muscularity and the drive for thinness are not mutually exclusive, an aspect of body image that past research has seldom examined. Ultimately, though women tend to desire thinness and men tend to desire muscularity, some individuals have both a drive for muscularity and a drive for thinness. This is important for future research to consider as this combination may create differential effects on an individual’s selfconcept. In fact, women with both a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity have levels of body anxiety and body compulsivity similar to the levels of women with either a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness. Moreover, although having a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity has negative consequences on women’s body attitudes, this combination may serve as a protective factor for men’s body-esteem and body inadequacy. In regard to body inadequacy, men with only a drive for thinness reported feeling the most inadequate about their bodies; however, when a high drive for thinness was accompanied by a high drive for muscularity, feelings of body inadequacy declined. In regard to body-esteem, while men who were low on both drives had the highest bodyesteem, men who desired to be both thin and muscular had higher body-esteem than men who had only a high drive to for thinness or a high drive for muscularity. This more positive effect on men’s body-esteem may be due to the fact that men who have a high drive for muscularity and a high drive for thinness may be closer to their ideal body image than other men. Finally, the current study found that the effect a drive for muscularity and/or a drive for thinness has on an individual’s body image is not only dependent upon gender, as recognized by McCreary and Sasse (2000), but it is also dependent upon the level and type of drive as well. For example, having a high drive for thinness and low drive for muscularity has a different effect on a man’s body image than does a low drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity. These results support the findings of Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, and Cohane (2004) that two dimensions of body image, a drive for thinness and a drive for
C.C.G. Kelley et al. / Body Image 7 (2010) 74–77
muscularity, need to be considered when examining male and female body concerns, as men and women respond to these dimensions in different ways. Additionally, as found in the present study, both drives need to be considered as some individuals experience a drive for muscularity and a drive for thinness simultaneously. Limitations The present study possesses several limitations that warrant discussion. As the sample used in this study consisted primarily of Caucasian college students, the results may not generalize to other populations. Future research should seek a more ethnically diverse sample. Second, the present study is cross-sectional in nature and therefore causal relationships cannot be established. The major premise for the present study was that a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness, or a combination of these drives leads individuals to possess certain psychological attitudes. Although this premise has theoretical and empirical support, it is also possible that the relationship between these variables could be in the opposite direction. A longitudinal study would help clarify the relationships between drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, body-esteem, muscle dysmorphia, and eating attitudes and behaviors. References Adams, G., Turner, H., & Bucks, R. (2005). The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image, 2, 271–283. Blond, A. (2008). Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: A review. Body Image, 5, 244–250. Drewnowski, A., & Yee, D. K. (1987). Men and body image: Are males less satisfied with their body weight? Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 626–634. Garner, D. M. (2002). Body image and anorexia nervosa. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 295– 303). New York: Guilford. Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34.
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Gray, J. J., & Ginsberg, R. L. (2007). Muscle dissatisfaction: An overview of psychological and cultural research and theory. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (pp. 15–40). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2004). Idealized media images and adolescent body image: ‘‘Comparing’’ boys and girls. Body Image, 1, 351–361. Hildebrandt, T., Schlundt, D., Langenbucher, J., & Chung, T. (2006). Presence of muscle dysmorphia symptomology among male weightlifters. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47, 127–135. Krane, V., Choi, P., Baird, S., Aimar, C., & Kauer, K. (2004). Living the paradox: Female athletes negotiate femininity and muscularity. Sex Roles, 50, 315–329. Maloney, M. J., McGuire, J., & Daniels, S. R. (1988). Reliability testing of a children’s version of the Eating Attitudes Test. Journal of the American Academy of Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 541–543. McCreary, D. R. (2007). The Drive for Muscularity Scale: Description, psychometrics, and research findings. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspective (pp. 87–106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48, 297–304. Mendelson, B. K., & White, D. R. (1982). Relation between body-esteem and self-esteem of obese and normal children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 899–905. Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 112–120. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2004). A biopsychosocial model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity in adolescent boys. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 179– 205. Short, J. (2006). Creating an assessment tool for muscle dysmorphia. Unpublished Masters thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY. Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2008). Drive for leanness: Assessment and relationship to gender, gender role, and objectification. Body Image, 5, 251–260. Spillane, N. S., Boerner, L. M., Anderson, K. G., & Smith, G. T. (2004). Comparability of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 between women and men. Assessment, 11, 85–93. Stice, E. (2002). Body image and bulimia nervosa. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 304–311). New York: Guilford. Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Franko, D. L. (2002). Body image issues among girls and women. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 183–191). New York: Guilford. Thompson, J. K., & Cafri, G. (Eds.). (2007). The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Tiggemann, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women’s body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20, 199–203. Yamamiya, Y., Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., Posavac, H. D., & Posavac, S. S. (2005). Women’s exposure to thin-and-beautiful media images: Body image effects of media-ideal internalization and impact-reduction interventions. Body Image, 2, 74–80.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Body Image journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bodyimage
Brief research report
Drive for thinness and drive for muscularity: Opposite ends of the continuum or separate constructs? Courtney C. (Galliger) Kelley *, Jennie M. Neufeld, Dara R. Musher-Eizenman Bowling Green State University, 206 Psychology, Bowling Green, OH 43402, United States
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 1 May 2009 Received in revised form 28 August 2009 Accepted 29 September 2009
The goal of this study was to examine whether the drive for thinness and the drive for muscularity occur concurrently among late adolescents and to understand the body attitudes associated with desiring a thinner and/or a more muscular physique. Participants included 235 college freshmen who participated in a larger study of body image and eating attitudes. The majority of individuals reported having both a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity (65.4%). Additionally, the presence of both drives significantly predicted body compulsivity and body anxiety among females, and body-esteem among males. Results of the current study provide considerable evidence that a drive for thinness and a drive for muscularity are not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, the degree to which an individual strives for thinness and/or muscularity has differential effects on their body attitudes. ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Drive for muscularity Drive for thinness Body image Eating attitudes
Introduction Both men and women in the United States have become increasingly dissatisfied with their bodies (e.g., Adams, Turner, & Bucks, 2005; Tiggemann & Pickering, 1996), perhaps as a result of unrealistic societal standards for male and female attractiveness (Blond, 2008; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Yamamiya, Cash, Melnyk, Posavac, & Posavac, 2005). Although males and females suffer from body image concerns, these concerns tend to differ consistent with male and female standards for bodily attractiveness. Specifically, whereas the ideal body for women is very thin (McCreary, 2007), the ideal body for men is lean and muscular (Thompson & Cafri, 2007). As a result of the pressure to attain these differing ideals, females tend to have a drive for thinness, while males tend to have a drive for muscularity (e.g., Gray & Ginsberg, 2007). In fact, researchers estimate that approximately half of females desire a thinner body or express concerns about being or becoming overweight (Striegel-Moore & Franko, 2002), and between onefifth and one-third of adolescent men desire more muscular bodies (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). While females tend to desire a thinner physique and while males tend to desire a more muscular physique, research has recognized that a subset of females develop a drive for muscularity and a subset of males develop a drive for thinness. For example, Drewnowski and Yee (1987) found that nearly half
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 216 570 6842. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.C.(. Kelley). 1740-1445/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.09.008
of men in their sample desired to be thinner. Additionally, Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, and Kauer (2004) found that female athletes, depending on their sport, may desire a more muscular body. Possessing both a drive for thinness and drive for muscularity tends to be associated with a negative behavioral and/or psychological profile. Specifically, Hildebrandt, Schlundt, Langenbucher, and Chung (2006) found that male bodybuilders who strived to decrease body fat and increase muscle mass had higher levels of body image disturbances and psychopathology than men who strived to just decrease body fat or just increase muscle mass. Moreover, past research has found that a drive for thinness among both males and females is associated with disordered eating (Garner, 2002; Stice, 2002) and body dissatisfaction (Smolak & Murnen, 2008). Similarly, a drive for muscularity in both males and females has been linked to increased depression and lower selfesteem (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). It is clear that many men and women suffer serious consequences in order to achieve a thin or muscular body. While this research has made a valuable contribution to our understanding of body image, it has remained limited as it has not considered the fact that some individuals might strive for both a thin physique and toned muscles. That is, little to no research has examined whether males and females have both a drive for thinness and a drive for muscularity simultaneously. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine whether the drive for thinness and the drive for muscularity occur concurrently among males and females, and to understand the psychological and behavioral profile associated with desiring a thinner and/or a more muscular physique.
C.C.G. Kelley et al. / Body Image 7 (2010) 74–77
75
Method
Specifically, the Inadequacy subscale (females, a = .92; males, a = .92) consists of five items that measure the degree to which an
Participants
individual feels inadequate about their body shape and/or size. The six-item Preoccupation subscale (females, a = .88; males, a = .84) measures the extent to which an individual is preoccupied with their body and/or workout. The Compulsivity subscale (females, a = .87; males, a = .87) consists of five items that measure the extent to which an individual feels the need to maintain his or her workout or diet schedule. Finally, the threeitem Anxiety subscale (females, a = .84; males, a = .84) measures the degree to which an individual avoids or becomes anxious in situations in which his or her body is exposed to others. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree.
Participants included 285 (174 female, 111 male) college students between the ages of 18–26 (M = 18.80 years, SD = 0.94) who participated in a larger study of body image and eating attitudes. Of the participants, 79.4% were Caucasian, 11.1% African American, 4.2% Latino/Hispanic American, and 3.5% others. Participants’ average BMI was 23.89 (SD = 4.55; males BMI M = 24.56, SD = 3.96; females BMI M = 23.68, SD = 4.71). Procedure Students were recruited through psychology classes, and completed a series of online questionnaires about body attitudes and behaviors located on a secure website. Measures Body-esteem Body-esteem was assessed using the Body-Esteem Scale (BES) (Mendelson & White, 1982). The BES is a 24-item questionnaire that asks respondents to select yes (1) or no (0) answers. An overall body-esteem score was calculated for each participant by reverse coding several items, and summing items to produce scores from zero to 24 with higher scores reflecting higher body-esteem. KR20 was .82 for females and .76 for males. Drive for muscularity The Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS, McCreary & Sasse, 2000) is a 15-item measure that assesses preoccupation with becoming more muscular. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. Cronbach’s alpha was .82 for females and .89 for males. Drive for thinness The Drive for Thinness Scale (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983) is a subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. This subscale includes seven items that measures preoccupation with body weight, excessive concern with dieting, and intense fear of becoming fat. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. Past research has confirmed this scale’s reliability and validity with men and women (Spillane, Boerner, Anderson, & Smith, 2004). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was .84 for females and .84 for males.
Results To determine whether scores on the Drive for Thinness subscale and Drive for Muscularity Scale differed by gender, a MANOVA was conducted. There were significant gender differences for Drive for Thinness, F(1, 272) = 43.41, p < .001, and for Drive for Muscularity, F(1, 272) = 144.63, p < .001. Specifically, women scored higher on the Drive for Thinness subscale than did men (M = 23.42, SD = 8.25; M = 17.08, SD = 6.90, respectively), whereas men scored higher on the Drive for Muscularity Scale than women (M = 2.81, SD = 0.81; M = 1.82, SD = 0.59, respectively). The co-occurrence of these drives was determined based on the mean scores of Drive for Thinness and Drive for Muscularity. Among adolescent women, 24.1% were below the median on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 31.6% were high on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 23.0% had a high drive for muscularity, and 17.8% had a high drive for thinness. Among adolescent men, 26.2% were low on both a drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 34.4% were high on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity, 18.0% had a high drive for muscularity, and 16.4% had a high drive for thinness. A series of hierarchical regressions was employed to determine whether a drive for muscularity and/or a drive for thinness were related to disordered eating, body-esteem, body preoccupation, body anxiety, body compulsivity, and body inadequacy. To examine these relationships, six regression equations were calculated for men and women with BMI entered on Step 1 to control for possible BMI differences. Continuous drive for muscularity and drive for thinness scores were entered on Step 2, followed by the drive for muscularity drive for thinness interaction on Step 3 (see Table 1).
Eating attitudes Participants’ eating attitudes were assessed with the Children’s Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT, Maloney, McGuire, & Daniels, 1988). The ChEAT is a 26-item questionnaire that assess problematic eating attitudes and behaviors. All items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale ranging from (1) never to (6) always. In this sample, the alpha was .89 for females and .85 for males, and other research has reported a test–retest reliability of .81 (Maloney et al., 1988). Although some previous research has used subscales of the ChEAT, the present study used the total scale due to its high internal consistency.
Drive for muscularity
Muscle dysmorphia Participants’ body attitudes were assessed using four subscales of the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI, Short, 2006). Although the MDI is intended to assess individuals’ attitudes towards muscularity, the subscales and items used in the current study focus on an individual’s overall body rather than muscularity.
Women with a higher drive for thinness had a higher rate of disordered eating, F(3, 149) = 78.68, p < .0001, lower body-esteem, F(3, 160) = 43.30, p < .001, and more feelings of body inadequacy, F(3, 161) = 75.54, p < .001. For men, a higher drive for thinness was related to more body anxiety, F(3, 101) = 6.34, p < .008, and more body compulsivity, F(3, 101) = 18.68, p < .001.
For women, a high drive for muscularity significantly predicted body preoccupation, F(3, 164) = 14.72, p < .001, such that women with a higher drive for muscularity were more preoccupied with their bodies than women with a lower drive for muscularity. For men, a high drive for muscularity was significantly related to a higher rate of body preoccupation, F(3, 100) = 4.95, p < .008, and more body compulsivity, F(3, 101) = 18.68, p < .001. Drive for thinness
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Table 1 Linear regression of drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, and the interaction on ChEAT, body-esteem, body anxiety, body compulsivity, body preoccupation, and body inadequacy.
Means (SD) ChEAT Males Females
BMI
Drive for Muscularity
b
b
DR2
Drive for Thinness
DMSx DFT
DR2
b
DR2
b
1.94 (1.33) 2.64 (1.59)
.31 .07
.37** .07
.51 .61
.53** .80**
.51 .61
.52 .29
17.28 (5.64) 12.29 (5.99)
.42 .40
.25* .07
.15 .30
.24 .52**
.15 .30
1.31* .10
7.45 (3.14) 8.65 (3.33)
.33 .26
.08 .04
.03 .23
.12 .47**
.03 .23
.86 .50*
.02 .02
Body compulsivity Males Females
11.83 (4.75) 12.29 (4.69)
.09 .02
.54** .27**
.36 .34
.15 .44**
.36 .34
.22 .65**
.002 .03
Body preoccupation Males Females
9.88 (3.92) 10.94 (4.36)
.13 .03
.22 .22**
.06 .21
.06 .40**
.06 .21
1.30 .16
Body inadequacy Males Females
12.39 (5.19) 14.37 (5.67)
.27 .31
.35** .09
.34 .50
.39** .70**
.34 .50
.49 .10
Body-Esteem Scale Males Females Body anxiety Males Females
* **
.01 .01
.06 0
.05 .002
.01 0
p < .05. p < .01.
Drive for muscularity drive for thinness For women, the interaction between drive for muscularity and drive for thinness significantly predicted body compulsivity, F(4, 155) = 22.44, p < .001. Specifically, women who were low on both drive for thinness and drive for muscularity had a low level of body compulsivity, relative to the other three groups. The interaction between these two drives was also significantly related to body anxiety, F(4, 162) = 18.81, p < .001. As above, the absence of both drives was associated with lower body anxiety, whereas women with a high drive for thinness, high drive for muscularity, or both exhibited higher anxiety about their bodies. For men, the interaction between drive for muscularity and drive for thinness significantly predicted body-esteem, F(4, 99) = 6.66, p < .001, body inadequacy, F(4, 100) = 18.85, p < .001, and disordered eating, F(3, 95) = 24.38, p < .001. Specifically, although men with a low drive for thinness and a low drive for muscularity felt the best about their bodies, men who had a combination of a high drive for muscularity and a high drive for thinness had better body-esteem than men who had either a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness alone. Additionally, the results indicated that a high drive for muscularity seems to mitigate the negative effect of a high drive for thinness on body inadequacy. Specifically, while men with a high drive for thinness felt the most inadequate about their bodies, men who had both a high drive for thinness and muscularity reported feeling less inadequate about their bodies. Last, men with a high drive for thinness and muscularity reported the highest levels of disordered eating. Discussion The current study yielded three primary findings. First, consistent with past research, the current study found that while women tend to desire to be thin, men tend to desire to be muscular. Additionally, similar to past research, these drives are associated with negative psychological outcomes. Specifically, for women, a higher drive for thinness was associated with higher rates of disordered eating, lower body-esteem, and higher levels of body
anxiety. For men, a higher drive for muscularity predicted higher rates of body preoccupation and body compulsivity. Second, as suggested by Hildebrandt et al. (2006), the present study found that a drive for muscularity and the drive for thinness are not mutually exclusive, an aspect of body image that past research has seldom examined. Ultimately, though women tend to desire thinness and men tend to desire muscularity, some individuals have both a drive for muscularity and a drive for thinness. This is important for future research to consider as this combination may create differential effects on an individual’s selfconcept. In fact, women with both a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity have levels of body anxiety and body compulsivity similar to the levels of women with either a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness. Moreover, although having a high drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity has negative consequences on women’s body attitudes, this combination may serve as a protective factor for men’s body-esteem and body inadequacy. In regard to body inadequacy, men with only a drive for thinness reported feeling the most inadequate about their bodies; however, when a high drive for thinness was accompanied by a high drive for muscularity, feelings of body inadequacy declined. In regard to body-esteem, while men who were low on both drives had the highest bodyesteem, men who desired to be both thin and muscular had higher body-esteem than men who had only a high drive to for thinness or a high drive for muscularity. This more positive effect on men’s body-esteem may be due to the fact that men who have a high drive for muscularity and a high drive for thinness may be closer to their ideal body image than other men. Finally, the current study found that the effect a drive for muscularity and/or a drive for thinness has on an individual’s body image is not only dependent upon gender, as recognized by McCreary and Sasse (2000), but it is also dependent upon the level and type of drive as well. For example, having a high drive for thinness and low drive for muscularity has a different effect on a man’s body image than does a low drive for thinness and a high drive for muscularity. These results support the findings of Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, and Cohane (2004) that two dimensions of body image, a drive for thinness and a drive for
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muscularity, need to be considered when examining male and female body concerns, as men and women respond to these dimensions in different ways. Additionally, as found in the present study, both drives need to be considered as some individuals experience a drive for muscularity and a drive for thinness simultaneously. Limitations The present study possesses several limitations that warrant discussion. As the sample used in this study consisted primarily of Caucasian college students, the results may not generalize to other populations. Future research should seek a more ethnically diverse sample. Second, the present study is cross-sectional in nature and therefore causal relationships cannot be established. The major premise for the present study was that a high drive for muscularity or a high drive for thinness, or a combination of these drives leads individuals to possess certain psychological attitudes. Although this premise has theoretical and empirical support, it is also possible that the relationship between these variables could be in the opposite direction. A longitudinal study would help clarify the relationships between drive for muscularity, drive for thinness, body-esteem, muscle dysmorphia, and eating attitudes and behaviors. References Adams, G., Turner, H., & Bucks, R. (2005). The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image, 2, 271–283. Blond, A. (2008). Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: A review. Body Image, 5, 244–250. Drewnowski, A., & Yee, D. K. (1987). Men and body image: Are males less satisfied with their body weight? Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 626–634. Garner, D. M. (2002). Body image and anorexia nervosa. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 295– 303). New York: Guilford. Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34.
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