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Drug use among non-students in three countries
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 7 (1981) 125 - 132 0 Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne - Printed in The Netherlands
DRUG USE AMONG NON-STUDENTS
REGINALD G. SMARTla, VIJOY K. VARMA3C
MARIA-ELENA
IN THREE
MORA2b,
125
COUNTRIES
GRACIELA
TERROBA2b
and
la Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto (Canada), 2’ Instituto Mexican0 de Psiquiatria, Mexico City (Mexico), and 3’ Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh (India) (Received
November
3, 1980)
Summary This paper reports a study of drug use among non-students in three countries: Mexico, Canada and India. In all three countries core items from a World Health Organization questionnaire were used. The results were generally consistent with the expectation that non-students would show greater use than students. The strongest relationship was found for cannabis (all three countries) and amphetamines (Canada and Mexico). The results indicate the need for special preventive programmes for non-students in both developing and developed countries.
Numerous studies have been made of drug use among young people who are attending school (see refs. 1 and 2 for reviews). However, few studies have been conducted on non-student youth, probably on account of the methodological problems and the costs involved. Many countries have no studies at all of drug use among non-students. Students are easy to sample in schools; they are literate and hence suitable for low cost self-administered questionnaires. Studying non-student youth involves difficulties in sampling because of their numbers and locations, and basic demographic information is usually lacking. Also, verbal questionnaire administration or interviews are usually required. It is not surprising, therefore, that most investigators have focused on students, This paper marks a departure from the usual in that it reports data from studies of students and non-students in three countries; Non-students constitute an important segment of the young population especially in developing countries. Data from the World Bank [3] show that only 36% of the secondary school age group in Latin America, 22% in North Africa and the Middle East, 20% in South Asia and only 6.9% in Africa south of the Sahara, are in secondary school. Only about 50% of the eligible age group in African and Asian countries go to primary school. This situation is different in developed countries such as Canada, the U.S.A. and Europe,
126
where most young people (under 18 years of age) can be reached in school; nevertheless, even in these countries there are many young people who are out of school [4]. Drug use appears to be more prevalent among non-students as compared to students in North America although detailed comparisons with the same sampling methods are difficult to find. School dropouts and infrequent attenders tend to use more drugs when compared with regular school attenders [ 51. Field studies among non-student youth have concentrated on heavy-use groups such as persons living in high-use drug subcultures [6, 71. A few studies have been conducted on general populations. In a household survey conducted in Mexico City [ 81, those who had left school without finishing a level (elementary, high school), and those with low school status had higher rates of inhalant use. Several household surveys have been conducted in Mexico and other countries, but unfortunately no comparison was made on drug use among students and non-students [9]. Varma and Dang [lo, 111 have made a variety of studies of both student and non-student groups in India, including general populations, restaurant workers, rickshaw drivers and other unskilled persons. Non-students in all countries should have higher rates of drug use than students. A United Nations study [12] showed that early school leavers have more problems with illiteracy and unemployment than those who finish. Also, they have more feelings of alienation, worthlessness and resentment. Many must leave their homes to look for work and hence become migrants. International comparisons have been made with student populations [l, 13,141 but apparently none comparing student and non-student drug use. We report here a comparison between three countries, Mexico, Canada and India, where similar instruments were used to investigate this phenomenon. This represents a unique opportunity to assess differences and similarities among students and non-students in quite different cultures. The detailed aims of this study were to compare drug use among students and non-students in Chandigarh, India, Mexico and Canada in terms of the prevalence of drug use, i.e. use “ever”, “in past year” and “in past month”. Data for the following drugs were analysed: cannabis, opiates other than opium, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives. In all three countries core items from the World Health Organization (WHO) Youth Survey Questionnaire [1] comprised the instrument for collecting information . Method Mexico
For this study a stratified multistage sample was drawn from a population of 166 000 inhabitants of a low socio-economic level in an area south of the capital city. About 36.3% of this population were between 12 and 25 years; 63.8% were students and 36.2% were non-students (23.2% and 13.1%, respectively, from the total population).
127
Three different strata were defined, and three sampling units were considered within each strata. The sample unit in the first stage was formed by blocks of houses randomly selected according to the size of each stratum. The blocks were divided into segments or groups of houses according to the size of each block; two segments were selected in each block (second sampling unit). The third sampling unit was the individual. All inhabitants aged 12 years and over were listed. All the non-student population from 12 to 18 years was interviewed. The selection of the rest of the population was based on a sample fraction of one-sixth. In order to produce data this probability of selection was considered. The total sample included 1572 households located in 233 blocks. A total of 823 persons aged 12 years or more was interviewed; 448 were between 12 and 25 years (n = 210 students and n = 238 non-students). The nonresponse rate was 15%, including those not located after four visits and some who refused to give any information. The information was gathered through a questionnaire filled out in a personal interview with an average duration of 25 minutes. The drug use and demographic items were included from the WHO Youth Survey Questionnaire [ 11. Its reliability and validity were previously tested on Mexican populations. India
A total of 266 non-students in the age range of 10 to 24 years in urban and rural areas in and around Chandigarh, India, was sampled. Of these, 199 were in the age range 17 to 24 years, and these were included in this study. A number of households were chosen by a stratified, multi-stage random sampling technique; and within the selected households, all non-students in the age range 10 to 24 years were selected. The subjects were contacted by personal visits and interviewed in homes and occupational locations. The WHO Youth Survey Questionnaire was adapted for use in India. Simultaneously, another study was carried out among 570 students in the age range 10 to 24 years, belonging to primary, middle and secondary schools and to undergraduate colleges and universities. Those studying in both rural and urban settings were included. The sample questionnaire used for nonstudents was administered in class groups by the self-administered technique. Canada
The survey was carried out in the Durham region of Ontario. It is an area to the east of metropolitan Toronto and includes several small cities and a large rural component with a population of 235 000 persons. In general, the region is quite representative of many of the demographic features of Ontario. The sample involved 257 students and 173 non-students aged from 14 to 25 years , who were selected during a study of a stratified sample of the household population of Durham region. The households were chosen to give an interviewed sample of 1000 persons. A four-stage stratified proportion sampling process was incorporated using census enumeration areas, addresses, households and individuals as the strata. Sampling was essentially random
128
within strata. There were 165 persons aged 18 and over selected from the household sample and 265 aged 14 to 18 from the same households or adjacent ones. The older sample was given a personal interview and the younger a fill-in questionnaire. Method
of analysis
Differences in drug use between students and non-students in Chandigarh, Mexico and Canada were examined for the following drugs: (1) use euer of cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers, barbiturates/sedatives, and other opiates; (2) use in the prior year of cannabis and tranquillizers; and (3) use in the prior 30 days of cannabis and tranquillizers. Log-linear analyses of three-way contingency tables were performed on the data, in which models were tested for the minimum set of interaction effects which could account for the observed data [ 151. Log-linear analysis is a newly developed method of analyzing data in contingency tables and the interactions in them. It is superior to the more usual chi-squared analyses as it can examine interactions easily with computerized data. Chi-squared interactions are difficult to analyze and must be done by hand. Several drugs were not examined by this mode of analysis. For some drugs, the rate of use was very low, resulting in mostly empty cells in the three-way contingency table. In instances where two or more cells were empty in a particular table, the decision was made not to test for a three-way interaction effect, specifically: use ever of hallucinogens, cocaine, heroin, opium, inhalants; use in the prior year and the prior 30 days of amphetamines, barbiturates/sedatives, hallucinogens, cocaine, heroin, opium, other opiates, inhalants. Analysis of these data would have given meaningless results.
Results Overall results
The data are shown in Tables 1 - 3 for “ever use”, “use in past year” and “past month”. It can be seen that in all three countries cannabis was most often used, followed by amphetamines and tranquillizers. Use of cannabis and amphetamines was most prevalent in Canada. A larger proportion of the Mexican sample used other opiates than in the other two countries. Student
versus non-student
differences:
ever use
Significant three-way interaction effects between drug use, student/nonstudent status, and country were found for the following drugs: cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives. In Canada a trend towards non-students more often than students using cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives was observed. In Mexico non-students were also more often users of cannabis, amphetamines and tranquillizers but not of barbiturates/sedatives. Similar results were found in Chandigarh for cannabis but not for amphetamines, tranquihizers or barbiturates/sedatives.
5.0 4.7 6.1
3.6 0.7
14 13 17
10 2
12.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0
25 2 3
4 0
% 0 0 8 13 79
n
5 96
40 10 69
n
0.7 14.5
6.0 1.5 10.4
%
vs. country vs. drug use).
3.9 23.6
0.0 0.0 2.4
%
n
n
%
Students (n = 334)
Non-students (n = 199)
Students (n = 279)
Non-students (n = 663)
Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
*Significant three-way interaction effect (student/non-student
Cannabis* Amphetamines* Tranquillizers Barbiturates/ sedatives* Opiates
Drug
15 18
111 16 16
n
109 25 12 12 6
5.8 7.0
n
6.9 3.5
63.0 14.5 6.9
%
Non-students (n = 173)
43.2 6.2 6.2
%
Students (n = 257)
Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
Student and non-student drug use in Mexico, Durham and Chandigarh: number and per cent “ever users”
TABLE 1
*Significant
Cannabis* Tranquillizers*
three-way
effect
interaction
effect
13 1 (student/non-student
vs. country
0.0 0.0
vs. drug use).
1.2 0.7
8 5
0 0
6.5 0.5
0.7 0.7
2 2
%
n
n
%
n
%
%
n
Non-students (n = 663)
Non-students (n = 199)
36.6 2.7
32.9 1.7
57 3
in last 30 days”
%
n
57 2
n
22.2 0.8
%
Students (n = 257)
% 24.3 0.6
n 42 1
Non-students (n = 173)
Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
and per cent “using
Students (n = 334)
number
vs. drug use).
Students (n = 279)
and Chandigarh:
us. country
0.0 0.0
Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
Durham
(student/non-student
drug use in Mexico,
interaction
0 0
9.5 1.0
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
and non-student
Student
Drug
3
three-way
19 2
94 7
1.2 1.5
8 10
2.1 3.6
6 10
TABLE
*Significant
Cannabis* Tranquillizers*
%
n
n
%
%
%
n
Non-students (n = 173)
n
%
n
Non-students (n = 199) Students (n = 257)
in past year”
Non-students (n = 663)
and per cent “using
Students (n = 334)
number
Students (n = 279)
and Chandigarh: Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
Durham Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
drug use in Mexico,
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
and non-student
Student
Drug
2
TABLE
131
Differences between students and non-students involving the use of other opiates were the same in all three countries; non-students were less often users than students. Student versus non-student differences: recent use Non-students in Mexico and Chandigarh were most often users of cannabis in both the past year and past 30 days; however, in Canada this applied only to use in the past 30 days. Use of tranquillizers in the past year was greater among non-students than students only in Mexico and did not vary between students and non-students for the prior 30day period.
Discussion The results indicate that the proportions of young people reporting the use of drugs do vary with their student/non-student status. The strongest relationship was found for “ever use”, with non-students in all three countries more often reporting the use of cannabis. In addition, non-students in Canada and Mexico (but not India) more often than students reported the use of drugs such as amphetamines and tranquillizers. The results for cannabis were the same for all analyses of recent use (except for use in Canada in the past year). It is possible that similar findings for drugs other than cannabis were not found because of the infrequency of their use among both students and non-students. Perhaps studies with larger samples would yield the same results for drugs other than cannabis. The results are generally in keeping with the expectation that nonstudents would show greater drug use than students. Drug use is often both a cause and a consequence of dropping out of school [ 51. It is also known that early dropouts have more unemployment and social problems than those who graduate [12]. Early dropouts enter the job market with fewer skills and can expect to have more frustrations and anxieties which could be medicated or escaped from with drugs. The results indicate that non-students are at risk for the development of drug abuse of several types. Both developing and developed countries will need to consider special programs of a preventive or educational nature for non-students. These programs may take the form of special work or leisure programs or special efforts to discourage drug use among students leaving school.
References l- R. G. Smart, et al., A Methodology for Student Drug-Use Surveys, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1980. 2 H. Blumberg, Surveys of drug use among young people. Int. J. Addict., 10 (1975) 699 - 720.
132 3 World Bank, World Bank Economic and Social Indicators, (Report No. 700/79/01), World Bank, Washington, 1979. 4 R. G. Smart and N. Blair, Test-retest reliability and validity information for a high school drug use questionnaire. Drug Alcohol Depend, 3 (1978) 265 - 271. 5 H. M. Annis and C. Watson, Drug use and school dropout: a longitudinal study. Can. Counsell., 9 (1975) 155 - 162. 6 R. G. Smart, The Yorkuille Subculture, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, 1969. 7 H. Leal, L. Mejia, L. Gomez and V. 0. Salinas, Naturalistic study on the phenomenon of inhalant use in a group of children in Mexico City. In C. H. Sharp and T. Carroll teds.), Voluntary Inhalation of Industrial Solvents, [DHEW Publication No. (ADM) 79 - 7791, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1978. 8 M. E. Medina-Mora, A. L. Schnaas, G. G. Terroba, V. Y. Isoard and U. C. Suarez, Epidemiology of inhalant use in Mexico. In C. Sharp and T. Carroil (eds.), Voluntary Inhalation of Industrial Solvents, [DHEWPublication No. (ADM) 79 - 7791, 1978. 9 M. E. Medina-Mora, Prevalencia de1 consume de drogas en algunas cuidades de la Republica Mexicana. Encuestas de hogares. Ensetianza Invest. Psicol. IV (1) (1978) 17 - 21. 10 V. K. Varma and R. Dang, Non-medical use of drugs amongst school and college students. Indian J. Psychiatry, 21 (1979) 228 _ 234. 11 V. K. Varma and R. Dang, Non-medical drug use amongst non-student youth in India. Drug Alcohol Depend., 5 (1980) 457 - 465. 12 United Nations, Report of the Interregional Seminar on Problems of Early School Leavers, United Nations, New York, 1974. 13 D. Wellisch and J. R. Hays, A cross cultural study of the prevalence and correlates of student drug use in the United States and Mexico.Bull. Narc., XXVI, (1) (1974) 31- 42. 14 M. E. Castro, M. Valencia and R. G. Smart, Drug and alcohol use, problems and availability among students in Mexico and Canada. Bull. Narc., XXXI, (1) (1978) 41 - 48. 15 J. A. Davis, Hierarchical models for significance tests in multivariate contingency tables: an exegis of Goodman’s recent papers. In H. L. Costner (ed.), Sociological Methodology 1973 1974, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1974.
DRUG USE AMONG NON-STUDENTS
REGINALD G. SMARTla, VIJOY K. VARMA3C
MARIA-ELENA
IN THREE
MORA2b,
125
COUNTRIES
GRACIELA
TERROBA2b
and
la Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto (Canada), 2’ Instituto Mexican0 de Psiquiatria, Mexico City (Mexico), and 3’ Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh (India) (Received
November
3, 1980)
Summary This paper reports a study of drug use among non-students in three countries: Mexico, Canada and India. In all three countries core items from a World Health Organization questionnaire were used. The results were generally consistent with the expectation that non-students would show greater use than students. The strongest relationship was found for cannabis (all three countries) and amphetamines (Canada and Mexico). The results indicate the need for special preventive programmes for non-students in both developing and developed countries.
Numerous studies have been made of drug use among young people who are attending school (see refs. 1 and 2 for reviews). However, few studies have been conducted on non-student youth, probably on account of the methodological problems and the costs involved. Many countries have no studies at all of drug use among non-students. Students are easy to sample in schools; they are literate and hence suitable for low cost self-administered questionnaires. Studying non-student youth involves difficulties in sampling because of their numbers and locations, and basic demographic information is usually lacking. Also, verbal questionnaire administration or interviews are usually required. It is not surprising, therefore, that most investigators have focused on students, This paper marks a departure from the usual in that it reports data from studies of students and non-students in three countries; Non-students constitute an important segment of the young population especially in developing countries. Data from the World Bank [3] show that only 36% of the secondary school age group in Latin America, 22% in North Africa and the Middle East, 20% in South Asia and only 6.9% in Africa south of the Sahara, are in secondary school. Only about 50% of the eligible age group in African and Asian countries go to primary school. This situation is different in developed countries such as Canada, the U.S.A. and Europe,
126
where most young people (under 18 years of age) can be reached in school; nevertheless, even in these countries there are many young people who are out of school [4]. Drug use appears to be more prevalent among non-students as compared to students in North America although detailed comparisons with the same sampling methods are difficult to find. School dropouts and infrequent attenders tend to use more drugs when compared with regular school attenders [ 51. Field studies among non-student youth have concentrated on heavy-use groups such as persons living in high-use drug subcultures [6, 71. A few studies have been conducted on general populations. In a household survey conducted in Mexico City [ 81, those who had left school without finishing a level (elementary, high school), and those with low school status had higher rates of inhalant use. Several household surveys have been conducted in Mexico and other countries, but unfortunately no comparison was made on drug use among students and non-students [9]. Varma and Dang [lo, 111 have made a variety of studies of both student and non-student groups in India, including general populations, restaurant workers, rickshaw drivers and other unskilled persons. Non-students in all countries should have higher rates of drug use than students. A United Nations study [12] showed that early school leavers have more problems with illiteracy and unemployment than those who finish. Also, they have more feelings of alienation, worthlessness and resentment. Many must leave their homes to look for work and hence become migrants. International comparisons have been made with student populations [l, 13,141 but apparently none comparing student and non-student drug use. We report here a comparison between three countries, Mexico, Canada and India, where similar instruments were used to investigate this phenomenon. This represents a unique opportunity to assess differences and similarities among students and non-students in quite different cultures. The detailed aims of this study were to compare drug use among students and non-students in Chandigarh, India, Mexico and Canada in terms of the prevalence of drug use, i.e. use “ever”, “in past year” and “in past month”. Data for the following drugs were analysed: cannabis, opiates other than opium, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives. In all three countries core items from the World Health Organization (WHO) Youth Survey Questionnaire [1] comprised the instrument for collecting information . Method Mexico
For this study a stratified multistage sample was drawn from a population of 166 000 inhabitants of a low socio-economic level in an area south of the capital city. About 36.3% of this population were between 12 and 25 years; 63.8% were students and 36.2% were non-students (23.2% and 13.1%, respectively, from the total population).
127
Three different strata were defined, and three sampling units were considered within each strata. The sample unit in the first stage was formed by blocks of houses randomly selected according to the size of each stratum. The blocks were divided into segments or groups of houses according to the size of each block; two segments were selected in each block (second sampling unit). The third sampling unit was the individual. All inhabitants aged 12 years and over were listed. All the non-student population from 12 to 18 years was interviewed. The selection of the rest of the population was based on a sample fraction of one-sixth. In order to produce data this probability of selection was considered. The total sample included 1572 households located in 233 blocks. A total of 823 persons aged 12 years or more was interviewed; 448 were between 12 and 25 years (n = 210 students and n = 238 non-students). The nonresponse rate was 15%, including those not located after four visits and some who refused to give any information. The information was gathered through a questionnaire filled out in a personal interview with an average duration of 25 minutes. The drug use and demographic items were included from the WHO Youth Survey Questionnaire [ 11. Its reliability and validity were previously tested on Mexican populations. India
A total of 266 non-students in the age range of 10 to 24 years in urban and rural areas in and around Chandigarh, India, was sampled. Of these, 199 were in the age range 17 to 24 years, and these were included in this study. A number of households were chosen by a stratified, multi-stage random sampling technique; and within the selected households, all non-students in the age range 10 to 24 years were selected. The subjects were contacted by personal visits and interviewed in homes and occupational locations. The WHO Youth Survey Questionnaire was adapted for use in India. Simultaneously, another study was carried out among 570 students in the age range 10 to 24 years, belonging to primary, middle and secondary schools and to undergraduate colleges and universities. Those studying in both rural and urban settings were included. The sample questionnaire used for nonstudents was administered in class groups by the self-administered technique. Canada
The survey was carried out in the Durham region of Ontario. It is an area to the east of metropolitan Toronto and includes several small cities and a large rural component with a population of 235 000 persons. In general, the region is quite representative of many of the demographic features of Ontario. The sample involved 257 students and 173 non-students aged from 14 to 25 years , who were selected during a study of a stratified sample of the household population of Durham region. The households were chosen to give an interviewed sample of 1000 persons. A four-stage stratified proportion sampling process was incorporated using census enumeration areas, addresses, households and individuals as the strata. Sampling was essentially random
128
within strata. There were 165 persons aged 18 and over selected from the household sample and 265 aged 14 to 18 from the same households or adjacent ones. The older sample was given a personal interview and the younger a fill-in questionnaire. Method
of analysis
Differences in drug use between students and non-students in Chandigarh, Mexico and Canada were examined for the following drugs: (1) use euer of cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers, barbiturates/sedatives, and other opiates; (2) use in the prior year of cannabis and tranquillizers; and (3) use in the prior 30 days of cannabis and tranquillizers. Log-linear analyses of three-way contingency tables were performed on the data, in which models were tested for the minimum set of interaction effects which could account for the observed data [ 151. Log-linear analysis is a newly developed method of analyzing data in contingency tables and the interactions in them. It is superior to the more usual chi-squared analyses as it can examine interactions easily with computerized data. Chi-squared interactions are difficult to analyze and must be done by hand. Several drugs were not examined by this mode of analysis. For some drugs, the rate of use was very low, resulting in mostly empty cells in the three-way contingency table. In instances where two or more cells were empty in a particular table, the decision was made not to test for a three-way interaction effect, specifically: use ever of hallucinogens, cocaine, heroin, opium, inhalants; use in the prior year and the prior 30 days of amphetamines, barbiturates/sedatives, hallucinogens, cocaine, heroin, opium, other opiates, inhalants. Analysis of these data would have given meaningless results.
Results Overall results
The data are shown in Tables 1 - 3 for “ever use”, “use in past year” and “past month”. It can be seen that in all three countries cannabis was most often used, followed by amphetamines and tranquillizers. Use of cannabis and amphetamines was most prevalent in Canada. A larger proportion of the Mexican sample used other opiates than in the other two countries. Student
versus non-student
differences:
ever use
Significant three-way interaction effects between drug use, student/nonstudent status, and country were found for the following drugs: cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives. In Canada a trend towards non-students more often than students using cannabis, amphetamines, tranquillizers and barbiturates/sedatives was observed. In Mexico non-students were also more often users of cannabis, amphetamines and tranquillizers but not of barbiturates/sedatives. Similar results were found in Chandigarh for cannabis but not for amphetamines, tranquihizers or barbiturates/sedatives.
5.0 4.7 6.1
3.6 0.7
14 13 17
10 2
12.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0
25 2 3
4 0
% 0 0 8 13 79
n
5 96
40 10 69
n
0.7 14.5
6.0 1.5 10.4
%
vs. country vs. drug use).
3.9 23.6
0.0 0.0 2.4
%
n
n
%
Students (n = 334)
Non-students (n = 199)
Students (n = 279)
Non-students (n = 663)
Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
*Significant three-way interaction effect (student/non-student
Cannabis* Amphetamines* Tranquillizers Barbiturates/ sedatives* Opiates
Drug
15 18
111 16 16
n
109 25 12 12 6
5.8 7.0
n
6.9 3.5
63.0 14.5 6.9
%
Non-students (n = 173)
43.2 6.2 6.2
%
Students (n = 257)
Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
Student and non-student drug use in Mexico, Durham and Chandigarh: number and per cent “ever users”
TABLE 1
*Significant
Cannabis* Tranquillizers*
three-way
effect
interaction
effect
13 1 (student/non-student
vs. country
0.0 0.0
vs. drug use).
1.2 0.7
8 5
0 0
6.5 0.5
0.7 0.7
2 2
%
n
n
%
n
%
%
n
Non-students (n = 663)
Non-students (n = 199)
36.6 2.7
32.9 1.7
57 3
in last 30 days”
%
n
57 2
n
22.2 0.8
%
Students (n = 257)
% 24.3 0.6
n 42 1
Non-students (n = 173)
Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
and per cent “using
Students (n = 334)
number
vs. drug use).
Students (n = 279)
and Chandigarh:
us. country
0.0 0.0
Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
Durham
(student/non-student
drug use in Mexico,
interaction
0 0
9.5 1.0
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
and non-student
Student
Drug
3
three-way
19 2
94 7
1.2 1.5
8 10
2.1 3.6
6 10
TABLE
*Significant
Cannabis* Tranquillizers*
%
n
n
%
%
%
n
Non-students (n = 173)
n
%
n
Non-students (n = 199) Students (n = 257)
in past year”
Non-students (n = 663)
and per cent “using
Students (n = 334)
number
Students (n = 279)
and Chandigarh: Canada (14 - 25 years of age)
Durham Mexico (19 - 25 years of age)
drug use in Mexico,
Chandigarh (17 - 25 years of age)
and non-student
Student
Drug
2
TABLE
131
Differences between students and non-students involving the use of other opiates were the same in all three countries; non-students were less often users than students. Student versus non-student differences: recent use Non-students in Mexico and Chandigarh were most often users of cannabis in both the past year and past 30 days; however, in Canada this applied only to use in the past 30 days. Use of tranquillizers in the past year was greater among non-students than students only in Mexico and did not vary between students and non-students for the prior 30day period.
Discussion The results indicate that the proportions of young people reporting the use of drugs do vary with their student/non-student status. The strongest relationship was found for “ever use”, with non-students in all three countries more often reporting the use of cannabis. In addition, non-students in Canada and Mexico (but not India) more often than students reported the use of drugs such as amphetamines and tranquillizers. The results for cannabis were the same for all analyses of recent use (except for use in Canada in the past year). It is possible that similar findings for drugs other than cannabis were not found because of the infrequency of their use among both students and non-students. Perhaps studies with larger samples would yield the same results for drugs other than cannabis. The results are generally in keeping with the expectation that nonstudents would show greater drug use than students. Drug use is often both a cause and a consequence of dropping out of school [ 51. It is also known that early dropouts have more unemployment and social problems than those who graduate [12]. Early dropouts enter the job market with fewer skills and can expect to have more frustrations and anxieties which could be medicated or escaped from with drugs. The results indicate that non-students are at risk for the development of drug abuse of several types. Both developing and developed countries will need to consider special programs of a preventive or educational nature for non-students. These programs may take the form of special work or leisure programs or special efforts to discourage drug use among students leaving school.
References l- R. G. Smart, et al., A Methodology for Student Drug-Use Surveys, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1980. 2 H. Blumberg, Surveys of drug use among young people. Int. J. Addict., 10 (1975) 699 - 720.
132 3 World Bank, World Bank Economic and Social Indicators, (Report No. 700/79/01), World Bank, Washington, 1979. 4 R. G. Smart and N. Blair, Test-retest reliability and validity information for a high school drug use questionnaire. Drug Alcohol Depend, 3 (1978) 265 - 271. 5 H. M. Annis and C. Watson, Drug use and school dropout: a longitudinal study. Can. Counsell., 9 (1975) 155 - 162. 6 R. G. Smart, The Yorkuille Subculture, Addiction Research Foundation, Toronto, 1969. 7 H. Leal, L. Mejia, L. Gomez and V. 0. Salinas, Naturalistic study on the phenomenon of inhalant use in a group of children in Mexico City. In C. H. Sharp and T. Carroll teds.), Voluntary Inhalation of Industrial Solvents, [DHEW Publication No. (ADM) 79 - 7791, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1978. 8 M. E. Medina-Mora, A. L. Schnaas, G. G. Terroba, V. Y. Isoard and U. C. Suarez, Epidemiology of inhalant use in Mexico. In C. Sharp and T. Carroil (eds.), Voluntary Inhalation of Industrial Solvents, [DHEWPublication No. (ADM) 79 - 7791, 1978. 9 M. E. Medina-Mora, Prevalencia de1 consume de drogas en algunas cuidades de la Republica Mexicana. Encuestas de hogares. Ensetianza Invest. Psicol. IV (1) (1978) 17 - 21. 10 V. K. Varma and R. Dang, Non-medical use of drugs amongst school and college students. Indian J. Psychiatry, 21 (1979) 228 _ 234. 11 V. K. Varma and R. Dang, Non-medical drug use amongst non-student youth in India. Drug Alcohol Depend., 5 (1980) 457 - 465. 12 United Nations, Report of the Interregional Seminar on Problems of Early School Leavers, United Nations, New York, 1974. 13 D. Wellisch and J. R. Hays, A cross cultural study of the prevalence and correlates of student drug use in the United States and Mexico.Bull. Narc., XXVI, (1) (1974) 31- 42. 14 M. E. Castro, M. Valencia and R. G. Smart, Drug and alcohol use, problems and availability among students in Mexico and Canada. Bull. Narc., XXXI, (1) (1978) 41 - 48. 15 J. A. Davis, Hierarchical models for significance tests in multivariate contingency tables: an exegis of Goodman’s recent papers. In H. L. Costner (ed.), Sociological Methodology 1973 1974, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1974.