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Drugs and Society
0Forensic Science Society
SOCIETY NEWS-MEETINGS
1987
Drugs and Society RJ DAVIS
The Metropolitan Police Forensic Science Laboratory, 109 Lambeth Road, London, United Kingdom SEl 7LP and MJ LEWIS
Home Ofice Forensic Science Laboratory, Washington Hall, Ewton, Chorley , Lancashire PR 7 6HJ
Abstract The Society's highly prestigious Drugs and Society meeting, held jointly with the British Academy of Forensic Sciences, took place at the Old Swan Hotel, Harrogate on the 9th and 10th May 1987. The Forensic Science Society President, Dr Bill Rodger, welcomed delegates to the meeting and chaired the first session on Saturday morning. After lunch, the chair passed to Mr Roger Henderson, QC, President of the British Academy of Sciences. The Sunday morning session was chaired by Mr Gordon Applebe, Head of the Law Department of the Pharmaceutical Society. Mike Lewis and Roger Davis attended the meeting on behalf of the Forensic Science Society and prepared the following accounts between them. Welcome and Introduction Dr WJ Rodger, President of The Forensic Science Society In his introduction, Dr Rodger referred to the scale of drug misuse in society today and to the serious threat that it posed to the well-being and stability of the nation. Perhaps as much as one half of all crime in Britain was now drugs-related, accounting for a comparable proportion of police resources; this was set against a background of steeply rising levels of undetected crime. Scientific assistance, he said, could prove invaluable to the police and to the courts by aiding investigation, and through the guilty pleas which overwhelming scientific evidence often produced. The effectiveness and efficiency of law and order services could be improved by increasing this scientific support, particularly when it was recognised that it was currently used in only 1-2% of investigations. Despite the vital part that science had to play, the size of the Home Office Forensic Science Service had been
significantly decreased, thus forcing on the Laboratories even greater selectivity in accepting cases. H e submitted that this should be a matter for concern, not only to the police, but to all those involved in, and responsible for, the upholding of law and order. Also of concern was poor morale within the service, resulting from the low status accorded to practising scientists, and further damage caused by a recent staff review. There was a consequent loss of senior scientists of many years experience-expertise which could not be replaced simply by recruitment of young applicants. Tragically, there appeared to be indifference to these matters. Forensic science was now at a crossroads; the increase in crime rate, changes in the legal system, and advances in science provided a challenge for the increased application of science. What was needed was support and a better share of the available resources.
DRUGSAND SOCIETYMEETING,HARROGATE. From left to right: Mr R Henderson QC (President of the British Academy of Forensic Sciences); Rt Hon Douglas Hurd MP (Home Secretary); Dr WJ Rodger (President of the Forensic Science Society).
Opening Address The Rt Hon DR Hurd, CBE M P , Home Secretary Mr Hurd began by stating that drug abuse was a subject which weighed on the minds of both government and citizen. It was a problem with many facets and it recognised no social or political boundaries. He went on to describe a five-part strategy adopted by the government, which sought to intervene at all links in the chain, beginning with international co-operation in reducing drug production and in countering drug trafficking. Here, intelligence exchange between the various national 338
and international agencies was leading to successes. Good intelligence was also important in domestic enforcement; this second element of the strategy was coordinated by the Drugs Intelligence Unit. In this, as in other areas of crime investigation, the Forensic Science Service made a vital contribution, he said. Thirdly, there had been a strengthening of the deterrent effect of the law and a tightening of controls; he mentioned the extension of legislation to designer drugs, and increased sentences and powers of confiscation now available to the courts. Prevention, the fourth link, was a battle for the hearts and minds of the young. Information had been made available through a variety of channels and the responsible and wellinformed initiatives of the media were welcomed. Finally, there was the rehabilitation of users; for this, more money had been made available to develop the necessary services. In conclusion, Mr Hurd gave some statistics which, he suggested, indicated that the problem may be coming under control. However, it was an ever-changing scene, still requiring a great deal of vigilance and hard work. For its part, the Government would continue to give a very high priority to action against drug misuse. During his address, the Home Secretary had digressed in response to the President's introduction and had said that the Service gave very good value for the £12 m that it cost to run. In a question from the floor, he was now asked whether-if he shared the expressed concerns-action would follow. Referring to organisational matters, Mr Hurd replied that three studies were currently being made of the Service and their outcomes would be used to determine its future size and function.
International Drug Trafficking Mr R E Kendall Q P M , Secretary General, Interpol Drug trafficking, Mr Kendall recalled, was on the international agenda some twenty years ago; unhappily, since then, no advance in the war against it could be claimed-traffickers were now more sophisticated and ruthless, and increased penalties were having no deterrent effect. Future progress would be very much dependent on political will. Mr Kendall went on to describe the overall picture of drug production and distribution, which involved all countries, East and West alike. Annual production of opiates and cocaine, now respectively estimated at 2000 and 500 tonnes, had increased to meet greater demand and to compensate for the larger seizures being made. Stockpiling in both of these drugs was also suspected. Determined efforts were being made by the governments of Thailand and Pakistan to curtail illicit opium production; but despite this, it had increased threefold in Pakistan between 1984 and 1986. Crop substitution programmes were also being used in an attempt to reduce cocaine production in Latin America; the USA was particularly involved. In the case of cannabis, single consignments now reached several tonnes in size, 339
and profits from this trade were being used to finance other drug activities. Widespread illicit manufacture of synthetic drugs, particularly cheap amphetamines, was an underrated problem but was being given attention by the UN and Interpol. Mr Kendall then turned to consider the special problems facing African countries. Formerly a source of cannabis only, the continent had recently become deeply involved in the heroin and cocaine trade, as well as in diverted pharmaceuticals. Within Africa itself, drug use-particularly of cocaine-was such that it posed a threat to the stability and development of those countries. It was essential that the international community gave every assistance to avert this. In conclusion, the Secretary General suggested that a change of approach may be needed; but he emphasised the need for full cooperation by all concerned at national and international levels: the health and welfare of mankind were at stake. Customs-The First Line of Defence Mr JR Hector and Mr PF Robinson, Senior Investigation OfJicers, HM Customs and Excise Department
The speakers are responsible for drugs investigations in the North-East and North-West of England respectively. In their presentation, assisted by a short video tape, they gave the audience some insight into the workings of the Department and an overview of the 1986 drugs figures. The responsibilities of HM Customs and Excise officers are concerned with smuggling, gathering intelligence and follow-up. The main problem for the Intelligence Group is the sheer volume of traffic passing through sea-ports and airports and the speed with which it must be cleared. During 1986, fourteen million passengers arrived at Dover; Heathrow Airport handled more than thirty million. Central to the intelligence effort are the Customs and Excise Departmental Reference and Index Computer (CEDRIC), the Lloyd's Shipping List (accessible on the Prestel Viewdata system) and the recently-introduced Customs 'Freefone Drugs'. The intelligence role is concerned with helping customs officers identify principals and couriers by acquiring the basic knowledge of what sort of people and what sort of freight to look at carefully. This is analysis of the risk; low-risk traffic warrants only a low degree of examination whereas in some instances a very high degree of examination takes place where there is the appropriate degree of risk to justify it. Drug smugglers are generally well-organised and resourceful. The 1986 drug seizures by Customs were given in some detail, with illuminating comments made on the trends seen in recent years. Much of the 175 kg heroin seized came from India, while the chief source of cannabis 340
resin (10859 kg seized) was Lebanon, and of herbal cannabis (11693 kg), Nigeria. In conclusion, the provisions of the Drug Trafficking Offences Act 1986 were explained and reference was made to inter-agency co-operation. Inter-force Co-operation Mr C V Hewitt OBE, QPM Assistant Commissioner, Metropolitan Police, Co-ordinator, National Drugs Intelligence unit ( N D I U ) Drug trafficking is a sphere where violent and treacherous criminals band together in successful production, export and marketing ventures. In dealing with the interaction between drug enforcement agencies both nationally and internationally, the speaker pointed out that no other business would succeed in the face of such a concerted offensive against its raw materials, production facilities, wholesalers and so on. Historically, in 1984 the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) decided against a national drug squad, instead opting for a three-tier police response at divisional, force and regional levels where the Regional Crime Squads were seen as a key element. One of the speaker's first tasks as National Drugs Intelligence Co-ordinator was to change the Central Drugs Intelligence Unit at New Scotland Yard into a national unit. The work of the NDIU today was illustrated with a video presentation. The Unit is staffed by police officers from various forces and Customs officers. Its fundamental role is to collect, evaluate, analyse and provide drugs intelligence nationally and internationally. Regional desks maintain contact within each of the nine regions and with the heart of the system, the NDIU data base which now comprises 60,000 records. Using speciallydeveloped methods of analysis, the relationships between the component parts of complicated organisations can be displayed. NDIU also monitors the supply and movement of key precursors and intermediates in illicit drug manufacture. Criminals based in other parts of the world are now probing the possibilities in Western Europe, hence the huge increase in the number of Interpol drugs enquiries handled by the NDIU. By way of a comment on recent newspaper reports of friction between police and Customs, Mr Hewitt referred to the joint selection boards now held for Drugs Liaison Officers and gave two examples of successful joint operations mounted this year. Drugs and Drug Related Crime Det Supt G S Dunwoody, Head of Drugs Squad, West Midlands Police Burns' words, "Man's inhumanity to man, Makes countless thousands mourn!", epitomized for the speaker the nature of the problem: drug dealers reaping their rewards at a cost of misery to many. Drug misuse, being a largely unreported crime, had grown unrecognised, but in 1986 it 341
had become a priority of Chief Constables, he said. Importantly, the link with other forms of crime was now established; included were housebreaking, fraud, prostitution and mugging, as well as violence amongst the dealers themselves. Detailed information followed on the availability and street prices of the more common drugs, namely heroin, cocaine, amphetamine and cannabis. Cocaine, he predicted, would become a major problem in the UK this year: use of poor man's cocaine, amphetamine, had spread alarmingly; it was simply made and brought large profits to its producers. Mr Dunwoody then described two recent drugs operations carried out by his force. The first was directed at a cafe in the Handsworth area of Birmingham, where heavy dealing went on under the watchful protection of "soldiers". An overwhelming police presence was achieved, without warning being given, by the use of a double-decker bus. Within a few minutes, the premises had been searched and the police had departed with their prisoners; no public disorder had occurred, despite the considerable potential. The other case concerned the importation of heroin from Bombay. This joint operation with H M Customs had culminated in charges against seven men, and prison sentences totalling 46 years. In concluding, he registered his appreciation of the assistance given by the Forensic Science Service and joined other speakers in urging a united effort to safeguard our society.
Drugs and the Courts His Honour Judge J Murchie Judge Murchie drew on his considerable experience of presiding over drugs trials at Reading Crown Court and, in doing so, both informed and entertained the meeting. Much crime was of a spontaneous nature, he said; in sharp contrast, the importation of drugs was a highly planned activity involving a number of individuals. A source of supply had to be found, finance arranged, couriers recruited, concealment made, and so on. Arrangements at this end would include a reception committee, a safe house and a network for distribution and marketing. But the rewards were high and, despite the rise in interception, there was an ever increasing flow of heroin into the country. He described some of the techniques employed by the Immigration and Customs officers in dealing with suspects at the ports. Much could be learned from such items as tickets, landing cards and bills; answers to simple questions could also be very revealing. While this was going on, the "cold noses and hot intelligence" of the rummage crews would be turned on the suspects' baggage. . . . 342
Having brought the traffickers before the court, the problems were not over. The prosecution had to show that the accused was knowingly concerned in the act. It was here that another element of planning became important, the courier's cover story. Many variants were used, from simple denial of knowledge to alleged duress. Also, a courier's claim that he thought he was smuggling gold could acquit him; or that the drug was cannabis, and not the heroin found, could procure a lighter sentence. Finally, in mitigation, counsel might note that the drug concerned was free from control in some other part of the world-but this was to no avail, naturally.
BBC-TV's "Drugwatch" Mr R Cogan (producer) and Mr R McCron (BBC Broadcasting Research Group) The presentation was introduced with an excerpt from the BBC's "Just Say No" video. Much research has been done in the US into what messages were effective for teenagers growing up in a drug-orientated society, but how effective are such mass-media campaigns? Robin McCron first of all addressed the question of whether such programmes on social issues like drugs and AIDS are worthwhile. Do they work? In 1981, the Health Education Council concluded that the effects of media health campaigns were not very great. Early assumptions were that the media are like a hypodermic syringe: direct, persuasive and powerful, affecting everyone in the same way. In fact, the evidence now suggests that they are much more likely to reinforce our beliefs and confirm existing attitudes. The main advantage of the media is that they reach a lot of people. A more appropriate analogy for the influence of the media is the aerosol spray; some hits the target, most drifts away and there is very little penetration. The broadcasting media can, however, produce significant effects at a wider social level by setting the agenda and influencing climates of opinion. Before the "Drugwatch" programme was televised, researchers circulated a self-completion questionnaire and conducted a national survey of attitudes to drugs. Afterwards they assessed the impact. A large audience (7.7 million) watched the programme and about 15 million people saw at least part of it. No major differences were found between people who had watched the programme and those who had not, possibly due to a high general level of media activity on drugs at the time. Those who had watched it certainly had a rather clearer and better understanding of how young users could be and of the fact that many are introduced to drugs through friends. 343
A Perspective of the Role of Education in the National Concern about Drugs of Abuse Mr JT Lee, Teachers Advisory Council on Alcohol and Drug Education (TACAD E ) Mr Lee opened his presentation by asking whether it is just drug education that should be offered, or something broader. He then used a football-team analogy to cover the whole spectrum of drug abuse. The "forwards", Customs, police and the courts, have only a minimal effect on the long-term problem. The key "mid-field positions" are occupied by education, one aspect of which is formal schooling, and prevention, which raises the issue of the acceptability of experimentation. In the "back row", treatment and rehabilitation measures try to do something once drugs have become a problem. Death is "in goal", and 600 of these are scored annually by the "first team" (illegal drugs) with the "reserves" (alcohol and tobacco) scoring a further 10,000 and 100,000 respectively. This raises the question, "What do we mean by a drug?" Educationalists would suggest that a drug is any substance that modifies a body function, or any chemical substance used for its physiological or psychological effects. Certainly, various categories of drug may be identified in terms of uselmisuse, legallillegal, beneficiallharmful and socially acceptable1 unacceptable. Because drugs are part and parcel of everyday life and experience today, the process of education must equip people to operate in a drug-orientated society. Education is for people about people, and a 4th R , Responsibility, should perhaps be added to the well-known 3 Rs. Education must allow youngsters to acquire knowledge, identify with attitudes and values and develop social and personal skills. These especially will lead to self-esteem which is vital for informed decision-making and behaviour. Drug education should occur within a programme of healthlpersonal and social education involving schools, homes and communities. Public education is not one-off talks, "shock horror" tactics or facts alone; this is public information and there is a world of difference between the two.
Drugs and Personality Disorder Professor AH Ghodse, Drug Dependency Unit, St George's Hospital, London Personality disorder, said Professor Ghodse, was marked by the individual's failure to adapt to changes in society and by his difficulty in relating to others; it was a state capable of objective diagnosis. Epidemiological studies, while showing a link between disorder and drug abuse, had failed to demonstrate a causal relationship, or even the existence of a typical addiction-prone personality. Instead, a range of personality traits had been identified as predisposing factors to initiation of drug use. This was not 344
surprising; a wide range of substances was abused-from tobacco-and a full cross-section of society was involved.
solvents to
Interacting with personality traits were social factors, including prevailing attitudes in society towards specific drugs, drug use by peers, and the family and cultural background of the individual. The more accepted a drug was in society, the less likely it would be that the user would display a personality disorder. Initial motivation to drug use arose from a reduced ability to adapt to society; for example, a short-term solution to tension, shyness or sleeplessness. Other initiating factors were peer group pressure and hedonism. If the experience was successful, and the drug available, then drug-taking would continue and might result in psychological dependence. Pyschoactive drugs such as the opiates, amphetamine and especially cocaine base had primary reinforcing properties, producing an intense and relentless drive for their further administration, regardless of cost. This overwhelming drive, rather than an underlying personality disorder, was the reason for the addict behaving in a persistently deviant and criminal way. In summary, Professor Ghodse said that drug abuse and dependence was the result of a progressive and complex interaction between drug, personality and society. Drug Dependency Clinics Dr J Strung, Director, Drug Dependency Clinical Research and Treatment Unit, Maudsley Hospital, London The philosophy of the early drug clinics, opened in the south of England in the 'sixties, had been one of competitive prescribing to attract the user and thus provide an opportunity for behaviour modification. Dr Strang said that this approach had since been found to have drawbacks, including a tendency to perpetuate the condition; consequently, it was no longer used. Recently, drug abuse had escalated considerably forcing a radical change of approach. A greater complexity in the problem was being recognised; there had been a move away from the simple disease concept of addiction, with its implied ideal cure, towards an individual-orientated approach geared to personality and environmental circumstances. Rehabilitiation of drug addicts, he explained, involved bringing about a process of change, definable in terms of a progression through a series of distinct states. Treatment agencies were involved in the 'action' phase-helping the subject from a point of 'contemplation' of withdrawal towards actual attainmentand, subsequently, in 'maintenance' of the drug-free state. Addict care, once solely the responsibility of the specialist in his hospital clinic, was now shared with the general practitioner and a variety of special agencies. Rehabilitation houses, based on a Californian concept, were the most 345
common of these agencies; they sought a progressive build-up in the subject's sense of responsibility for himself and others. Second most common were Christian houses, one type of which had a particularly caring approach; there were also Community houses, which placed emphasis on the early reintegration of the individual into society. Other agencies included, in the London area, a newly-enlarged Narcotics Anonymous. Despite expansion, the services were failing to keep pace with need. It was important, said Dr Strang, to attract the user at an early stage, before debt, legal and family problems encroached on the individual.
A Wider Role for Forensic Science Mr M R Loveland, Deputy Director, Metropolitan Police Forensic Science Laboratory, London This presentation covered all aspects of the forensic scientist's involvement with drugs investigations, its main theme being that traditional attitudes and training within the Metropolitan and Home Office Laboratories may not be adequate to cope with the projected demands on those forensic scientists involved in drugs cases. These demands were itemised as: new initiatives to combat drug-dealing and trafficking; a continuing workload of drugs-driving and drugs-possession cases; illicit drugs manufacture and violence against the person; pressures created by the courts, defence examinations and the new Crown Prosecution Service; and in-service quality assurance. Traditionally, the forensic scientist's role in cases involving restricted drugs is to carry out chemical analysis to determine the nature and quantity of a potentially restricted substance. Nowadays, the detailed chemical analysis of different drugs seizures can be used to establish similarities in terms of country of origin, laboratory of manufacture and distributor. So far, such 'chemical profiling' has been concentrated on the range of opiates present. Impurities may provide better discrimination, but more work needs to be done to establish the best discriminators and build up an adequate body of background data. Drugs profiling has tremendous potential in the field of drugs intelligence. In its wider role, however, forensic science must start to share out the drugs load among all its practitioners, and not rely just on the chemists. For example, the examination of the packaging materials used for drugs requires marks comparison skills, and the examination of the scene of a drugsrelated crime can often only be completed by the attendance of scientists skilled in the enhancement of fingermarks or in the interpretation of blood splashing. In conclusion, the audience were reminded of the fact that people still come to the United Kingdom from all over the world to learn of our approach to all aspects of drug analysis. 346
The Abuse of Other Substances Dr PA Toseland, Department of Toxicology, Guy's Hospital, London Dr Toseland talked about the abuse of drugs other than narcotics, giving his audience a fascinating, sometimes bizarre, insight into the investigation of death under unusual circumstances. He dealt initially with the common drugs of abuse-alcohol and tobacco-pointing out that chronic cyanide poisoning can result from taking both alcohol and tobacco. Referring to cases dealt with in his laboratory, those where death was caused by alcohol abuse numbered 56 in 1985 and 42 in 1986. The corresponding figures for solvent abuse were 8 in 1985 and 24 in 1986; most solvent self-abuse is now inflicted with typewriter correction fluids. Instances were then described where death, initially thought to have a straightforward cause, was found by toxicological means to have been actually rather more involved. Chloroform (used for sexual excitation) was found in the blood of one individual thought to have died of alcohol abuse as was hexane in another case where there had been abuse of petrol with alcohol. Nitrous oxide in the blood was found in an apparently simple hanging case. (An aside reference was made to designer drugs, when it was pointed out that amyl nitrite was "designed" about 120 years ago. The substance is now used solely by homosexuals on account of its ability to dilate smooth muscle.) The presentation was concluded on a more serious note with a case example. A young man died in a car crash; there wasn't a mark on him, hence no cause of death was given. Chromatograph analysis of post-mortem samples showed the presence of the drug disopyramide in quantity; this had never been prescribed, so where did it come from? It was known that the deceased was a fitness fanatic, and that he took vitamin capsules. Could it be that he intended taking yellow and green "A11Bee with C" vitamin capsules and took the almost identical "Rythmoden" disopyramide capsules by mistake? Closing Address Dr J Marks, Liverpool Drug Dependency Clinic Dr Marks threw down a challenge at the outset of his short but compelling presentation, inviting members of the audience to fault his argument if they could. Efforts here and in the United States seem to be not controlling the drugs problem but aggravating it; at present, most of the drugs are not seized, most of the offenders not prosecuted and most of the addicts not treated. Although not advocating the free availability of drugs, the speaker felt that drug-abuse strategy should be based on the experience already gained, exemplified by a schematic plot which he showed of demand vs supply. 347
Prohibition leads to soaring demand satisfied only by black-market gangsterism; on the other hand, free availability results in epidemic intoxication. The black market mechanism and pyramid selling make the whole drug business inherently epidemic. The happy medium of moderate social use of opium and alcohol was achieved in England between 1920 and 1960 (in contrast to the United States) and in conclusion, Dr Marks suggested that we should look again at controlled availability for drugs.
SOCIETY NEWS-MEETINGS
1987
Drugs and Society RJ DAVIS
The Metropolitan Police Forensic Science Laboratory, 109 Lambeth Road, London, United Kingdom SEl 7LP and MJ LEWIS
Home Ofice Forensic Science Laboratory, Washington Hall, Ewton, Chorley , Lancashire PR 7 6HJ
Abstract The Society's highly prestigious Drugs and Society meeting, held jointly with the British Academy of Forensic Sciences, took place at the Old Swan Hotel, Harrogate on the 9th and 10th May 1987. The Forensic Science Society President, Dr Bill Rodger, welcomed delegates to the meeting and chaired the first session on Saturday morning. After lunch, the chair passed to Mr Roger Henderson, QC, President of the British Academy of Sciences. The Sunday morning session was chaired by Mr Gordon Applebe, Head of the Law Department of the Pharmaceutical Society. Mike Lewis and Roger Davis attended the meeting on behalf of the Forensic Science Society and prepared the following accounts between them. Welcome and Introduction Dr WJ Rodger, President of The Forensic Science Society In his introduction, Dr Rodger referred to the scale of drug misuse in society today and to the serious threat that it posed to the well-being and stability of the nation. Perhaps as much as one half of all crime in Britain was now drugs-related, accounting for a comparable proportion of police resources; this was set against a background of steeply rising levels of undetected crime. Scientific assistance, he said, could prove invaluable to the police and to the courts by aiding investigation, and through the guilty pleas which overwhelming scientific evidence often produced. The effectiveness and efficiency of law and order services could be improved by increasing this scientific support, particularly when it was recognised that it was currently used in only 1-2% of investigations. Despite the vital part that science had to play, the size of the Home Office Forensic Science Service had been
significantly decreased, thus forcing on the Laboratories even greater selectivity in accepting cases. H e submitted that this should be a matter for concern, not only to the police, but to all those involved in, and responsible for, the upholding of law and order. Also of concern was poor morale within the service, resulting from the low status accorded to practising scientists, and further damage caused by a recent staff review. There was a consequent loss of senior scientists of many years experience-expertise which could not be replaced simply by recruitment of young applicants. Tragically, there appeared to be indifference to these matters. Forensic science was now at a crossroads; the increase in crime rate, changes in the legal system, and advances in science provided a challenge for the increased application of science. What was needed was support and a better share of the available resources.
DRUGSAND SOCIETYMEETING,HARROGATE. From left to right: Mr R Henderson QC (President of the British Academy of Forensic Sciences); Rt Hon Douglas Hurd MP (Home Secretary); Dr WJ Rodger (President of the Forensic Science Society).
Opening Address The Rt Hon DR Hurd, CBE M P , Home Secretary Mr Hurd began by stating that drug abuse was a subject which weighed on the minds of both government and citizen. It was a problem with many facets and it recognised no social or political boundaries. He went on to describe a five-part strategy adopted by the government, which sought to intervene at all links in the chain, beginning with international co-operation in reducing drug production and in countering drug trafficking. Here, intelligence exchange between the various national 338
and international agencies was leading to successes. Good intelligence was also important in domestic enforcement; this second element of the strategy was coordinated by the Drugs Intelligence Unit. In this, as in other areas of crime investigation, the Forensic Science Service made a vital contribution, he said. Thirdly, there had been a strengthening of the deterrent effect of the law and a tightening of controls; he mentioned the extension of legislation to designer drugs, and increased sentences and powers of confiscation now available to the courts. Prevention, the fourth link, was a battle for the hearts and minds of the young. Information had been made available through a variety of channels and the responsible and wellinformed initiatives of the media were welcomed. Finally, there was the rehabilitation of users; for this, more money had been made available to develop the necessary services. In conclusion, Mr Hurd gave some statistics which, he suggested, indicated that the problem may be coming under control. However, it was an ever-changing scene, still requiring a great deal of vigilance and hard work. For its part, the Government would continue to give a very high priority to action against drug misuse. During his address, the Home Secretary had digressed in response to the President's introduction and had said that the Service gave very good value for the £12 m that it cost to run. In a question from the floor, he was now asked whether-if he shared the expressed concerns-action would follow. Referring to organisational matters, Mr Hurd replied that three studies were currently being made of the Service and their outcomes would be used to determine its future size and function.
International Drug Trafficking Mr R E Kendall Q P M , Secretary General, Interpol Drug trafficking, Mr Kendall recalled, was on the international agenda some twenty years ago; unhappily, since then, no advance in the war against it could be claimed-traffickers were now more sophisticated and ruthless, and increased penalties were having no deterrent effect. Future progress would be very much dependent on political will. Mr Kendall went on to describe the overall picture of drug production and distribution, which involved all countries, East and West alike. Annual production of opiates and cocaine, now respectively estimated at 2000 and 500 tonnes, had increased to meet greater demand and to compensate for the larger seizures being made. Stockpiling in both of these drugs was also suspected. Determined efforts were being made by the governments of Thailand and Pakistan to curtail illicit opium production; but despite this, it had increased threefold in Pakistan between 1984 and 1986. Crop substitution programmes were also being used in an attempt to reduce cocaine production in Latin America; the USA was particularly involved. In the case of cannabis, single consignments now reached several tonnes in size, 339
and profits from this trade were being used to finance other drug activities. Widespread illicit manufacture of synthetic drugs, particularly cheap amphetamines, was an underrated problem but was being given attention by the UN and Interpol. Mr Kendall then turned to consider the special problems facing African countries. Formerly a source of cannabis only, the continent had recently become deeply involved in the heroin and cocaine trade, as well as in diverted pharmaceuticals. Within Africa itself, drug use-particularly of cocaine-was such that it posed a threat to the stability and development of those countries. It was essential that the international community gave every assistance to avert this. In conclusion, the Secretary General suggested that a change of approach may be needed; but he emphasised the need for full cooperation by all concerned at national and international levels: the health and welfare of mankind were at stake. Customs-The First Line of Defence Mr JR Hector and Mr PF Robinson, Senior Investigation OfJicers, HM Customs and Excise Department
The speakers are responsible for drugs investigations in the North-East and North-West of England respectively. In their presentation, assisted by a short video tape, they gave the audience some insight into the workings of the Department and an overview of the 1986 drugs figures. The responsibilities of HM Customs and Excise officers are concerned with smuggling, gathering intelligence and follow-up. The main problem for the Intelligence Group is the sheer volume of traffic passing through sea-ports and airports and the speed with which it must be cleared. During 1986, fourteen million passengers arrived at Dover; Heathrow Airport handled more than thirty million. Central to the intelligence effort are the Customs and Excise Departmental Reference and Index Computer (CEDRIC), the Lloyd's Shipping List (accessible on the Prestel Viewdata system) and the recently-introduced Customs 'Freefone Drugs'. The intelligence role is concerned with helping customs officers identify principals and couriers by acquiring the basic knowledge of what sort of people and what sort of freight to look at carefully. This is analysis of the risk; low-risk traffic warrants only a low degree of examination whereas in some instances a very high degree of examination takes place where there is the appropriate degree of risk to justify it. Drug smugglers are generally well-organised and resourceful. The 1986 drug seizures by Customs were given in some detail, with illuminating comments made on the trends seen in recent years. Much of the 175 kg heroin seized came from India, while the chief source of cannabis 340
resin (10859 kg seized) was Lebanon, and of herbal cannabis (11693 kg), Nigeria. In conclusion, the provisions of the Drug Trafficking Offences Act 1986 were explained and reference was made to inter-agency co-operation. Inter-force Co-operation Mr C V Hewitt OBE, QPM Assistant Commissioner, Metropolitan Police, Co-ordinator, National Drugs Intelligence unit ( N D I U ) Drug trafficking is a sphere where violent and treacherous criminals band together in successful production, export and marketing ventures. In dealing with the interaction between drug enforcement agencies both nationally and internationally, the speaker pointed out that no other business would succeed in the face of such a concerted offensive against its raw materials, production facilities, wholesalers and so on. Historically, in 1984 the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) decided against a national drug squad, instead opting for a three-tier police response at divisional, force and regional levels where the Regional Crime Squads were seen as a key element. One of the speaker's first tasks as National Drugs Intelligence Co-ordinator was to change the Central Drugs Intelligence Unit at New Scotland Yard into a national unit. The work of the NDIU today was illustrated with a video presentation. The Unit is staffed by police officers from various forces and Customs officers. Its fundamental role is to collect, evaluate, analyse and provide drugs intelligence nationally and internationally. Regional desks maintain contact within each of the nine regions and with the heart of the system, the NDIU data base which now comprises 60,000 records. Using speciallydeveloped methods of analysis, the relationships between the component parts of complicated organisations can be displayed. NDIU also monitors the supply and movement of key precursors and intermediates in illicit drug manufacture. Criminals based in other parts of the world are now probing the possibilities in Western Europe, hence the huge increase in the number of Interpol drugs enquiries handled by the NDIU. By way of a comment on recent newspaper reports of friction between police and Customs, Mr Hewitt referred to the joint selection boards now held for Drugs Liaison Officers and gave two examples of successful joint operations mounted this year. Drugs and Drug Related Crime Det Supt G S Dunwoody, Head of Drugs Squad, West Midlands Police Burns' words, "Man's inhumanity to man, Makes countless thousands mourn!", epitomized for the speaker the nature of the problem: drug dealers reaping their rewards at a cost of misery to many. Drug misuse, being a largely unreported crime, had grown unrecognised, but in 1986 it 341
had become a priority of Chief Constables, he said. Importantly, the link with other forms of crime was now established; included were housebreaking, fraud, prostitution and mugging, as well as violence amongst the dealers themselves. Detailed information followed on the availability and street prices of the more common drugs, namely heroin, cocaine, amphetamine and cannabis. Cocaine, he predicted, would become a major problem in the UK this year: use of poor man's cocaine, amphetamine, had spread alarmingly; it was simply made and brought large profits to its producers. Mr Dunwoody then described two recent drugs operations carried out by his force. The first was directed at a cafe in the Handsworth area of Birmingham, where heavy dealing went on under the watchful protection of "soldiers". An overwhelming police presence was achieved, without warning being given, by the use of a double-decker bus. Within a few minutes, the premises had been searched and the police had departed with their prisoners; no public disorder had occurred, despite the considerable potential. The other case concerned the importation of heroin from Bombay. This joint operation with H M Customs had culminated in charges against seven men, and prison sentences totalling 46 years. In concluding, he registered his appreciation of the assistance given by the Forensic Science Service and joined other speakers in urging a united effort to safeguard our society.
Drugs and the Courts His Honour Judge J Murchie Judge Murchie drew on his considerable experience of presiding over drugs trials at Reading Crown Court and, in doing so, both informed and entertained the meeting. Much crime was of a spontaneous nature, he said; in sharp contrast, the importation of drugs was a highly planned activity involving a number of individuals. A source of supply had to be found, finance arranged, couriers recruited, concealment made, and so on. Arrangements at this end would include a reception committee, a safe house and a network for distribution and marketing. But the rewards were high and, despite the rise in interception, there was an ever increasing flow of heroin into the country. He described some of the techniques employed by the Immigration and Customs officers in dealing with suspects at the ports. Much could be learned from such items as tickets, landing cards and bills; answers to simple questions could also be very revealing. While this was going on, the "cold noses and hot intelligence" of the rummage crews would be turned on the suspects' baggage. . . . 342
Having brought the traffickers before the court, the problems were not over. The prosecution had to show that the accused was knowingly concerned in the act. It was here that another element of planning became important, the courier's cover story. Many variants were used, from simple denial of knowledge to alleged duress. Also, a courier's claim that he thought he was smuggling gold could acquit him; or that the drug was cannabis, and not the heroin found, could procure a lighter sentence. Finally, in mitigation, counsel might note that the drug concerned was free from control in some other part of the world-but this was to no avail, naturally.
BBC-TV's "Drugwatch" Mr R Cogan (producer) and Mr R McCron (BBC Broadcasting Research Group) The presentation was introduced with an excerpt from the BBC's "Just Say No" video. Much research has been done in the US into what messages were effective for teenagers growing up in a drug-orientated society, but how effective are such mass-media campaigns? Robin McCron first of all addressed the question of whether such programmes on social issues like drugs and AIDS are worthwhile. Do they work? In 1981, the Health Education Council concluded that the effects of media health campaigns were not very great. Early assumptions were that the media are like a hypodermic syringe: direct, persuasive and powerful, affecting everyone in the same way. In fact, the evidence now suggests that they are much more likely to reinforce our beliefs and confirm existing attitudes. The main advantage of the media is that they reach a lot of people. A more appropriate analogy for the influence of the media is the aerosol spray; some hits the target, most drifts away and there is very little penetration. The broadcasting media can, however, produce significant effects at a wider social level by setting the agenda and influencing climates of opinion. Before the "Drugwatch" programme was televised, researchers circulated a self-completion questionnaire and conducted a national survey of attitudes to drugs. Afterwards they assessed the impact. A large audience (7.7 million) watched the programme and about 15 million people saw at least part of it. No major differences were found between people who had watched the programme and those who had not, possibly due to a high general level of media activity on drugs at the time. Those who had watched it certainly had a rather clearer and better understanding of how young users could be and of the fact that many are introduced to drugs through friends. 343
A Perspective of the Role of Education in the National Concern about Drugs of Abuse Mr JT Lee, Teachers Advisory Council on Alcohol and Drug Education (TACAD E ) Mr Lee opened his presentation by asking whether it is just drug education that should be offered, or something broader. He then used a football-team analogy to cover the whole spectrum of drug abuse. The "forwards", Customs, police and the courts, have only a minimal effect on the long-term problem. The key "mid-field positions" are occupied by education, one aspect of which is formal schooling, and prevention, which raises the issue of the acceptability of experimentation. In the "back row", treatment and rehabilitation measures try to do something once drugs have become a problem. Death is "in goal", and 600 of these are scored annually by the "first team" (illegal drugs) with the "reserves" (alcohol and tobacco) scoring a further 10,000 and 100,000 respectively. This raises the question, "What do we mean by a drug?" Educationalists would suggest that a drug is any substance that modifies a body function, or any chemical substance used for its physiological or psychological effects. Certainly, various categories of drug may be identified in terms of uselmisuse, legallillegal, beneficiallharmful and socially acceptable1 unacceptable. Because drugs are part and parcel of everyday life and experience today, the process of education must equip people to operate in a drug-orientated society. Education is for people about people, and a 4th R , Responsibility, should perhaps be added to the well-known 3 Rs. Education must allow youngsters to acquire knowledge, identify with attitudes and values and develop social and personal skills. These especially will lead to self-esteem which is vital for informed decision-making and behaviour. Drug education should occur within a programme of healthlpersonal and social education involving schools, homes and communities. Public education is not one-off talks, "shock horror" tactics or facts alone; this is public information and there is a world of difference between the two.
Drugs and Personality Disorder Professor AH Ghodse, Drug Dependency Unit, St George's Hospital, London Personality disorder, said Professor Ghodse, was marked by the individual's failure to adapt to changes in society and by his difficulty in relating to others; it was a state capable of objective diagnosis. Epidemiological studies, while showing a link between disorder and drug abuse, had failed to demonstrate a causal relationship, or even the existence of a typical addiction-prone personality. Instead, a range of personality traits had been identified as predisposing factors to initiation of drug use. This was not 344
surprising; a wide range of substances was abused-from tobacco-and a full cross-section of society was involved.
solvents to
Interacting with personality traits were social factors, including prevailing attitudes in society towards specific drugs, drug use by peers, and the family and cultural background of the individual. The more accepted a drug was in society, the less likely it would be that the user would display a personality disorder. Initial motivation to drug use arose from a reduced ability to adapt to society; for example, a short-term solution to tension, shyness or sleeplessness. Other initiating factors were peer group pressure and hedonism. If the experience was successful, and the drug available, then drug-taking would continue and might result in psychological dependence. Pyschoactive drugs such as the opiates, amphetamine and especially cocaine base had primary reinforcing properties, producing an intense and relentless drive for their further administration, regardless of cost. This overwhelming drive, rather than an underlying personality disorder, was the reason for the addict behaving in a persistently deviant and criminal way. In summary, Professor Ghodse said that drug abuse and dependence was the result of a progressive and complex interaction between drug, personality and society. Drug Dependency Clinics Dr J Strung, Director, Drug Dependency Clinical Research and Treatment Unit, Maudsley Hospital, London The philosophy of the early drug clinics, opened in the south of England in the 'sixties, had been one of competitive prescribing to attract the user and thus provide an opportunity for behaviour modification. Dr Strang said that this approach had since been found to have drawbacks, including a tendency to perpetuate the condition; consequently, it was no longer used. Recently, drug abuse had escalated considerably forcing a radical change of approach. A greater complexity in the problem was being recognised; there had been a move away from the simple disease concept of addiction, with its implied ideal cure, towards an individual-orientated approach geared to personality and environmental circumstances. Rehabilitiation of drug addicts, he explained, involved bringing about a process of change, definable in terms of a progression through a series of distinct states. Treatment agencies were involved in the 'action' phase-helping the subject from a point of 'contemplation' of withdrawal towards actual attainmentand, subsequently, in 'maintenance' of the drug-free state. Addict care, once solely the responsibility of the specialist in his hospital clinic, was now shared with the general practitioner and a variety of special agencies. Rehabilitation houses, based on a Californian concept, were the most 345
common of these agencies; they sought a progressive build-up in the subject's sense of responsibility for himself and others. Second most common were Christian houses, one type of which had a particularly caring approach; there were also Community houses, which placed emphasis on the early reintegration of the individual into society. Other agencies included, in the London area, a newly-enlarged Narcotics Anonymous. Despite expansion, the services were failing to keep pace with need. It was important, said Dr Strang, to attract the user at an early stage, before debt, legal and family problems encroached on the individual.
A Wider Role for Forensic Science Mr M R Loveland, Deputy Director, Metropolitan Police Forensic Science Laboratory, London This presentation covered all aspects of the forensic scientist's involvement with drugs investigations, its main theme being that traditional attitudes and training within the Metropolitan and Home Office Laboratories may not be adequate to cope with the projected demands on those forensic scientists involved in drugs cases. These demands were itemised as: new initiatives to combat drug-dealing and trafficking; a continuing workload of drugs-driving and drugs-possession cases; illicit drugs manufacture and violence against the person; pressures created by the courts, defence examinations and the new Crown Prosecution Service; and in-service quality assurance. Traditionally, the forensic scientist's role in cases involving restricted drugs is to carry out chemical analysis to determine the nature and quantity of a potentially restricted substance. Nowadays, the detailed chemical analysis of different drugs seizures can be used to establish similarities in terms of country of origin, laboratory of manufacture and distributor. So far, such 'chemical profiling' has been concentrated on the range of opiates present. Impurities may provide better discrimination, but more work needs to be done to establish the best discriminators and build up an adequate body of background data. Drugs profiling has tremendous potential in the field of drugs intelligence. In its wider role, however, forensic science must start to share out the drugs load among all its practitioners, and not rely just on the chemists. For example, the examination of the packaging materials used for drugs requires marks comparison skills, and the examination of the scene of a drugsrelated crime can often only be completed by the attendance of scientists skilled in the enhancement of fingermarks or in the interpretation of blood splashing. In conclusion, the audience were reminded of the fact that people still come to the United Kingdom from all over the world to learn of our approach to all aspects of drug analysis. 346
The Abuse of Other Substances Dr PA Toseland, Department of Toxicology, Guy's Hospital, London Dr Toseland talked about the abuse of drugs other than narcotics, giving his audience a fascinating, sometimes bizarre, insight into the investigation of death under unusual circumstances. He dealt initially with the common drugs of abuse-alcohol and tobacco-pointing out that chronic cyanide poisoning can result from taking both alcohol and tobacco. Referring to cases dealt with in his laboratory, those where death was caused by alcohol abuse numbered 56 in 1985 and 42 in 1986. The corresponding figures for solvent abuse were 8 in 1985 and 24 in 1986; most solvent self-abuse is now inflicted with typewriter correction fluids. Instances were then described where death, initially thought to have a straightforward cause, was found by toxicological means to have been actually rather more involved. Chloroform (used for sexual excitation) was found in the blood of one individual thought to have died of alcohol abuse as was hexane in another case where there had been abuse of petrol with alcohol. Nitrous oxide in the blood was found in an apparently simple hanging case. (An aside reference was made to designer drugs, when it was pointed out that amyl nitrite was "designed" about 120 years ago. The substance is now used solely by homosexuals on account of its ability to dilate smooth muscle.) The presentation was concluded on a more serious note with a case example. A young man died in a car crash; there wasn't a mark on him, hence no cause of death was given. Chromatograph analysis of post-mortem samples showed the presence of the drug disopyramide in quantity; this had never been prescribed, so where did it come from? It was known that the deceased was a fitness fanatic, and that he took vitamin capsules. Could it be that he intended taking yellow and green "A11Bee with C" vitamin capsules and took the almost identical "Rythmoden" disopyramide capsules by mistake? Closing Address Dr J Marks, Liverpool Drug Dependency Clinic Dr Marks threw down a challenge at the outset of his short but compelling presentation, inviting members of the audience to fault his argument if they could. Efforts here and in the United States seem to be not controlling the drugs problem but aggravating it; at present, most of the drugs are not seized, most of the offenders not prosecuted and most of the addicts not treated. Although not advocating the free availability of drugs, the speaker felt that drug-abuse strategy should be based on the experience already gained, exemplified by a schematic plot which he showed of demand vs supply. 347
Prohibition leads to soaring demand satisfied only by black-market gangsterism; on the other hand, free availability results in epidemic intoxication. The black market mechanism and pyramid selling make the whole drug business inherently epidemic. The happy medium of moderate social use of opium and alcohol was achieved in England between 1920 and 1960 (in contrast to the United States) and in conclusion, Dr Marks suggested that we should look again at controlled availability for drugs.