Dust accumulation in the New Zealand region since the last glacial maximum

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

Dust accumulation in the New Zealand region since the last glacial maximum Dennis N. Edena,c, Andrew P. Hammondb,* b

a Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand Centre for Land Conservation, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Brisbane, Qld 4111, Australia c Educational Training Consultants, 16 The Square, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Received 9 July 2001; accepted 14 April 2002

Abstract Loess is widespread in New Zealand; deposits >1 m thick cover 10% of the land area. It has mainly been derived from dust deflated from river floodplains during the last glacial maximum (LGM). Dust accumulation continues today downwind of major river floodplains. Most loess is quartzofeldspathic, having its origins in Mesozoic and Neogene rocks of the axial ranges and hill country. In the central North Island there are deposits of volcanic loess derived from aeolian reworking of tephras. Loess morphology and properties vary greatly due to diverse parent materials, post-depositional climates and drainage conditions. The widespread 26,170 cal. yr Kawakawa Tephra provides a datum for calculating mass accumulation rates (MARs). Rates are mostly within the range 70–150 g m
2 yr
1, but enhanced deposition at one site gave a rate of 360 g m
2 yr
1. Contemporary MARs of 40–100 g m
2 yr
1 were determined for distances of 1.75–0.4 km downwind of the Rakaia River. LGM MARs of quartz for two marine cores (P69 & Q858) drilled 100–300 km east of New Zealand are 40–70 g m
2 yr
1. The MAR of the aeolian component of P69 is estimated to be ca 15 g m
2 yr
1. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction New Zealand is unique among the world’s areas of dust production and loess formation because of its maritime setting as relatively small, oceanic islands (ca 270,000 km2). Also, the South Island of New Zealand lies across the contact between the Australian and Pacific crustal plates, and has been subjected to high rates of tectonism and volcanic activity. Erosion rates are high and New Zealand provides around 1% of the sediment input into the world’s oceans (Carter et al., 2000). During Quaternary cold climate intervals, New Zealand’s mid-latitude position, extending from 35 to 46 S, resulted in the South Island experiencing valley and alpine glaciation while the southern and central parts of the North Island had greatly reduced vegetation cover and experienced widespread regolith erosion. These conditions were conducive to the creation of *Corresponding author. Fax: +61-7-38757459. Current address: Australian School of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Brisbane, Qld 4111, Australia. E-mail address: a.hammond@griffith.edu.au (A.P. Hammond). 0277-3791/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00168-9

significant amounts of dust that were deposited on land (as loess) and offshore. Loess, as defined by McCraw (1975) for New Zealand conditions, is any fine-textured deposit of aeolian origin other than sand dunes or tephra. It occurs over extensive areas of New Zealand, especially in eastern South Island and southern North Island south of about 39 N (Fig. 1). It is estimated that loess 1 m or more thick covers at least 10% of New Zealand’s land surface (McCraw, 1975), and soils with a loessial component cover approximately 60% of the country (Bruce et al., 1973). Loess occurs mostly on late Pleistocene or older river terraces and marine benches. It is also present in soils developed on ‘downlands’ and hills, especially downwind of river floodplains. Deposits vary greatly in thickness, with maxima of about 20 m (Selby, 1976). The loess has been derived mainly from dust deflated from broad, braided, river floodplains, usually by prevailing westerly winds (Cowie, 1964a; Raeside, 1964). The dust was largely produced by cold climate processes (e.g., freeze and thaw and perhaps glacial grinding) in mountain areas (McCraw, 1975), and by river abrasion, comminution, and fluvial sorting (e.g., Palmer et al.,

ARTICLE IN PRESS D.N. Eden, A.P. Hammond / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

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(a)

(b) Key to onshore MAR sites (numbered): 1 Tapapa 2 Waitui 3 Rangitatau East 4 Kimbolton 5 Aokautere

6 Pahiatua 7 Bidwill Hill & Riverside 8 Muritai 9 Marfell Downs 10 The Lamplough

11 Saltwater Forest 12 Cust 13 Barrhill 14 Darling 15 Stewarts Claim

16 Romahapa 17 Blue Spur

Fig. 1. Site maps showing. (a) LGM coastline and offshore MAR sites (P69, CHAT 1 K, Q858, DSDP 594) and (b) onshore MAR sites (numbered), distribution of loess deposits, major rivers, and volcanic centres (modified after McCraw, 1975; Nelson et al., 2000).

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1989). It has been described as mountain loess by Smalley (1978). In the North Island there are aeolian deposits formed from the reworking of tephra deposits by wind (Pullar, 1967; Pullar and Birrell, 1973; Pullar and Pollok, 1973). These are known as volcanic or tephric loess and are best developed in central North Island close to the source volcanoes (Stewart et al., 1977; Alloway et al., 1988; Benny et al., 1988). We will refer to loess that is dominantly of volcanic provenance as volcanic loess. It thickens with increasing distance from volcanic sources and it lacks the graded bedding of tephras. In addition, small amounts of dust from Australia (desert loess) have been deposited on New Zealand landscapes (Windom, 1969). Loess profile morphology (loess facies) in New Zealand is variable in response to rainfall, drainage conditions, and parent materials. New Zealand loess is non-calcareous except in low rainfall areas (o900 mm annual rainfall) such as Banks Peninsula, near Christchurch, coastal Marlborough, near Blenheim, and eastern Hawke’s Bay, e.g., Crownthorpe, near Hastings. In the drier areas (o900 mm annual rainfall) of the eastern South Island and southern and eastern North Island, layering is clearly recognizable in loess exposures that have been subject to weathering. Here pale yellowish, prismatic, compact layers which stand out in section are separated by mottled, softer, more weathered horizons representing palaeosols (Raeside, 1964). In higher rainfall areas (>900 mm annual rainfall), loess is browner, jointing is less noticeable and layers are less compact (Bruce, 1996). In the central North Island, where additions of andesitic tephra rich in ferromagnesian minerals are a significant component, palaeosols are more distinctive, having a chocolate brown colour and strongly developed blocky soil structure. These contrast with lighter yellowish brown loess that may consist of non-volcanic minerals (quartz and feldspar), with a weak structure (Pillans, 1988). The loess facies that differs most from classic loess occurs on the South Island’s West Coast where annual rainfall exceeds 2500 mm. These deposits are generally o1 m thick, are light grey to grey, massive, structureless, and saturated with water for most of the year (Mew et al., 1988a, b). Some layers have humic horizons and are peaty (Hammond et al., 1991; Almond, 1996). Loess was first recognized on Banks Peninsula, near Christchurch (Fig. 1) more than a century ago by von Haast (1878) and shortly after in the Timaru district (Hardcastle, 1889) (see Smalley and Davin, 1980), but it was some 80 yr later before serious attempts were made to describe these deposits. An extensive soil mapping programme throughout New Zealand during the 1960s and 1970s resulted in maps showing the distribution of loess deposits throughout the country at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (Bruce et al., 1973; Cowie and Milne, 1973).

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In addition, the Ninth INQUA Congress, held in Christchurch in 1973, was a catalyst for many regional loess studies from the southern South Island to the central North Island. Publications associated with this congress include ‘‘Quaternary Studies’’ (Suggate and Cresswell (1975), published by the Royal Society of New Zealand), and a special issue (volume 16) of the New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics (1973). During the 1970s and early 1980s, loess studies by scientists from the New Zealand Soil Bureau and several universities focused upon characterizing the deposits and relating their properties to those of soils. An important benchmark was the compilation of a bibliography of all publications dealing with New Zealand loess by Smalley and Davin (1980). An international loess symposium held in New Zealand in 1987 reported major advances in the knowledge of loess deposits in western and central North Island, northeastern South Island (Marlborough), and southern South Island (Eden and Furkert, 1988). At about this time and into the 1990s, studies of southern South Island loess containing microtephras (tephra datum layers not visible to the unaided eye) (McIntosh et al., 1990; Eden et al., 1992) confirmed the suggestion of Bruce (1973a) that widespread erosion (pedosphere stripping) of loess occurred close to the start of the last Glacial maximum (LGM), indicating that the stratigraphic columns for this area are incomplete. Later, Hammond (1997) found no preLGM loess on some older geomorphic surfaces in Hawke’s Bay (Fig. 1) and attributed its absence to preLGM or early LGM stripping. In 1994, an inter-INQUA conference in Hamilton also included several papers on loess which were published as conference proceedings in Quaternary International, Volumes 34–36 (1996), edited by David Lowe. By that time, the reasonably well-dated terrestrial loess record in New Zealand had been linked to the oxygen isotope record in marine cores (Pillans, 1994a, b). This showed that the New Zealand onshore and offshore records are temporarily in synchrony with global models of late Quaternary climate change and landscape stability/instability, for example, the orbitally tuned SPECMAP chronology (Martinson et al., 1987). Studies of quartzofeldspathic and volcanic loess by Horrocks (2000) in the Kauroa sequence in the Western Waikato region, found deposits dating back to around 1.7 Ma that are the oldest in New Zealand. During the mid to late 1990s the momentum of loess research in New Zealand slackened due to the restructuring of science in the country, and to a change in the focus of Quaternary studies. Loess appears to have become less important per se, although it retained its significance in palaeoenvironmental studies, e.g., Quaternary climate change, because of its association with periods of cold climate conditions. In addition, loess often contains tephra layers or volcanic glass that can be

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Table 1 Site inventory for New Zealand loess database (as at 13 January 2002)

37 600

175 540

200

2.45

90

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, TL, AA, MS

Waitui, Taranaki

39 080

174 180

160

2.5

6

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, Qtz, 14C

ca 50

Pahiatua, northern Wairarapa

40 270

175 500

180

1.4

60

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, OSL, MS, DBD, nitrogen

ca 500

Coverbeds on high Stevens 1988; dissected river terrace Vella et al., 1988

Average bulk density of 1.2 g cm
3

Rangitatau East Road, Wanganui

39 450

174 570

420

ca 0.9

40

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, MS, 10Be, U–Th, Qtz, XRF, DBD, OE-Fe, OE-Al, OE-Si, phytoliths, TL, H2O content

ca 500

11 loess layers overlying dune sand on an uplifted marine bench

Assumes bulk density of 1.3 g cm
3

Kimbolton, Manawatu

40 080

175 470

540

1.38

70

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, XRF

ca 350

Coverbeds on highly Wen et al., 1992 dissected river terrace

Assumes bulk density of 1.4 g cm
3

Aokautere, Manawatu

40 230

175 380

60

1.95

110

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, TL

ca 120

Coverbeds on last interglacial (Tokomaru) marine bench

Cowie 1964a, b; Pillans et al., 1993; Berger et al., 1992, 1994

Assumes bulk density of 1.5 g cm
3

Bidwill Hill, Wairarapa

41o 090

175 270

40

1.42

90

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, DBD, H2O content, XRF, GS, XRD, pollen, diatoms

ca 100

Coverbeds on last interglacial marine bench

Pollok, 1975; Palmer, 1982a, b, c; Palmer and Barker, 1984; Palmer et al., 1989

Average bulk density of 1.6 g cm
3

North Island Tapapa, Waikato

Depth to base Mass of Kawakawa accumulation Tephra (m) rate (g m
2 yr
1)

Data available

Extent of record (ka)

220–230

Geomorphological setting

References

Comment

Coverbeds on dissected interfluve on Mamaku Ignimbrite Plateau

Froggatt, 1988; Kennedy 1988, 1994; Newnham et al., 1999; Pillans et al., 1993; Kimber et al., 1994

Assumes bulk density of 1.0 g cm
3; max. accumulation as tephras present

Coverbeds on elevated dissected remnants of ca 500,000 yr old Eltham laharic surface

Neall, 1979; Alloway, 1989; Alloway et al., 1992

Quartz accumulation rate given

Pillans 1988; Pillans and Wright, 1990; Berger et al., 1992, 1994; Kondo et al., 1994; Pillans and Palmer, 1994; Palmer and Pillans, 1996; Graham et al., 2001

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Longitude Elevation ( E) (m)

D.N. Eden, A.P. Hammond / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

Latitude ( S)

Site name

40

3.84

240

Pedostratigraphy, tephra DBD, GS

ca 30

41 390

174 090

80

2.49

150

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, XRF, MIN, DBD, GS

ca 300

Marfell Downs, Marlborough

41 390

174 060

60

5.9

360

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, GS, MIN

ca 40

Cust, north Canterbury

43 200

172 250

100

1.95

130

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, DBD, H2O content

ca 140

Barrhill, midCanterbury

43 400

171 510

200

NA

40–900 (Cox et al., 1973) 330 (Berger et al., 1996)

Pedostratigraphy, TL

Darling, south Canterbury

44o 26’

171 140

20

1.16

70

Romahapa, south Otago

46 210

169 440

50

0.8

Stewarts Claim, Southland

45 560

169 030

160

1.8

South Island Muritai, Marlborough

Coverbeds overlying fluvial gravels

Palmer, 1982a, b, c; Palmer and Barker, 1984, Palmer et al., 1989; Pillans et al., 1993

Near source; high accumulation rate. Average bulk density of 1.6 g cm
2

Average bulk density of 1.6 g cm
2

Coverbeds on a high river terrace

Eden, 1983, 1989

Coverbeds on fluvioglacial gravels (Woodlands formation )

Milne, 1987; Eden and Froggatt, 1988

Near source; high accumulation rate. Probably includes some post-glacial loess. Assumes bulk density of 1.6 g cm
3 Assumes bulk density of 1.7 g cm
3

ca 13

Post-glacial loess wedge overlying aggradation gravel (Burnham formation) near Rakaia River

Bruce et al., 1973; Cox et al., 1973; Ives, 1973; Berger et al., 1996

High accumulation rates as close to terrace riser and to modern floodplain. Samples collected in sediment traps

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, TP, 14C

>100

Coverbeds overlying Tertiary basalt

Bruce et al., 1973; Runge et al., 1974; Tonkin et al., 1974; Eden and Froggatt, 1988; Goh et al., 1978

Assumes bulk density of 1.6 g cm
3

50

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, TL

ca 350

Coverbeds on a Last Interglacial marine bench

Bruce, 1973b; Bruce et al., 1973; Eden et al., 1992; Berger et al., 2002

Assumes bulk density of 1.5 g cm
3

100

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, XRF, TL, IRSL

?300

Coverbeds overlying fluvial gravels (Waikaka quartz gravels)

Bruce, 1973a; Bruce et al., 1973; Eden et al., 1992; Childs, 1975; Childs and Searle, 1975; Wen et al., 1992; Berger et al., 2002

Assumes bulk density of 1.5 g cm
3

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Coverbeds on highly Eden, 1982, 1983, dissected river terrace 1987, 1989; Milne, 1987; Eden and Froggatt, 1988

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175 300

D.N. Eden, A.P. Hammond / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

41 110

Riverside, Wairarapa

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Table 1(continued) Longitude Elevation ( E) (m)

Blue Spur, Westland

41 530

171 000

ca 70

The Lamplough, Westland

42 380

171 070

Saltwater Forest, South Westland

43 070

Offshore Cores P69, southern North Island

CHAT 1 K, Chatham Rise, east of South Island

Depth to base Mass of Kawakawa accumulation Tephra (m) rate (g m
2 yr
1)

Data available

Extent of record (ka)

1.8

110

Pedostratigraphy, pollen, 14C, tephra

ca 100

80

0.40

20

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, GS, 14C

ca 40

170 230

60

ca 0.40

15

Pedostratigraphy, tephra, GS, TL, IRSL, OC, XRF, OE-Fe, OE-Al, DBD, PC, 14C, MIN

40 230

178 000


2195

5.5

40

GS, Qtz, tephra, pollen, 14C, CaCO3, d18O, d13C, MF

41 350

171 300


3556

0.78

10

GS, tephra, CaCO3, MS, d18O, d13C, OC, GS, MF, DBD

Geomorphological setting

References

Comment

Moar and Suggate, 1973, 1996; Moar, 1984, 1988; Almond 1996; Berger et al., 2001

Assumes bulk density of 1.6 g cm
3

Coverbeds overlying Suggate, 1965, 1985; weakly dissected glacial Vucetich and outwash terraces Wellman, 1982; Mew et al., 1986; 1988a; Suggate and Waight, 1999

Max. depth; assumes bulk density of 1.6 g cm
3

Coverbeds overlying crest of early Last Glacial (Otiran) terminal moraine

Almond 1996, 1999; Almond and Tonkin, 1999; Almond et al., 2001; Berger et al., 2001

Almond and Tonkin assume a bulk density of 1 g cm
3 because the loess is extremely altered. Hence, the bulk density at time of deposition is indeterminate

ca 26

Continental shelf (East of southern North Island)

Stewart and Neall, 1984; Carter et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 2000; McGlone, 2001

Loessic quartz accumulation rate for oxygen isotope stage 2. Piston core from 2195 m depth of hemipelagic sediment from 100 km east of southern North Island

ca 150

Continental shelf (Northern Flank of Chatham Rise)

Lean and McCave, 1998; Carter et al., 2000

Terrigenous flux during oxygen isotope stage 2

16.5–60

Loessial coverbeds overlying a glacial outwash aggradational surface of penultimate (Waimea) glaciation

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Latitude ( S)

D.N. Eden, A.P. Hammond / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

Site name

39 500

178 040


3735

DSDP Site 594, Chatham Rise, east of South Island

45 310

174 570


1204

NA

—

150 (70)

GS, d18O, Qtz, 14C, tephra, CaCO3, MF, DBD

190

GS, d18O, d13C, 14C, >160 CaCO3, tephra, pollen, MF, DBD, TOC, C/N, quartz, Feldspar, MS

ca 20

Fenner et al., 1992; Nelson et al., 1994; Carter et al., 1995, 2000

Bulk sediment accumulation rate from 19 to 16 ka. Quartz accumulation rate in parentheses. Five sediment cores taken from lower slope of northern Chatham Rise. Last 900–1000 yr of cores missing

Continental shelf

Nelson et al., 1985, 1986, 1993, 1994; Froggatt et al., 1986: Heusser, 1986; Black et al., 1988; Heusser and Van De Geer, 1994; Kowalski and Meyers, 1997; Carter et al., 2000

Max. value as this includes all sediment accumulated during oxygen isotope stage 2. On southern margin of Chatham Rise, ca 250 km east of South Island

OE-Fe=oxalate extractable Fe; OE-Al=oxalate extractable Al; TOC=total organic carbon; OC=organic carbon; PC=phosphorus chemistry; Qtz=% quartz; tephra=tephrochronology; IRSL=infrared simulated luminescence; U–Th=uranium thorium; H2O content=water content; AA=amino acid racemisation; TP=total phosphorus; GS=grain size; MF=microfossils, e.g., foraminifera; C/N=C/N ratios; MS=magnetic susceptibility; TL=thermoluminescence; 14C=radiocarbon dates; OSL=optical dating; 10Be=beryllium dating; XRF=X-ray fluorescence; MIN=sand/silt mineralogy; XRD=X-ray diffraction for clay mineralogy; CaCO3=calcium carbonate; Feldspars=% feldspar; d18O=oxygen isotopes; d13C=carbon isotopes.

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Continental shelf (Northwestern flank of Chatham Rise)

D.N. Eden, A.P. Hammond / Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (2003) 2037–2052

Q858, Chatham Rise, east of North Island

2043

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used as marker beds to provide age information for dating land surfaces (Almond, 1996; Berger et al., 2001). The chronological relationships of loess deposits are also important for determining rates of soil formation and land deformation (neotectonics and hazard assessment) (Berryman, 1993; Kelsey et al., 1998; Berryman et al., 2000). The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge of New Zealand loess, including offshore aeolian sediments, back to the LGM at the start of marine isotope stage (MIS) 2, and to determine mass accumulation rates (MARs). In a New Zealand context, we consider the LGM to represent the period from ca 25,000–15,000 BP (Hammond, 1997; Newnham et al., 1999, 2003). Particular attention is given to those properties of New Zealand loess that relate to MARs, which are summarized in Table 1. This constitutes the New Zealand contribution to the global DIRTMAP database (e.g., Kohfeld and Harrison, 2001). In addition, we examine several offshore cores in order to provide more spatial information on dust deposition. Offshore cores are often more continuous than their terrestrial counterparts, and their physical and chemical properties provide important palaeoenvironmental information which can be related to onshore sequences through common marker beds such as tephras.

2. Grain size, bulk density, sources, weather systems, and mass accumulation rates 2.1. Grain size Loess in New Zealand has a predominantly quartzofeldspathic mineralogy and is largely derived from uplifted Mesozoic turbidite sequences which include greywackes, argillites, and schists from the main axial ranges and uplifted Neogene marine sequences. It is similar in grain size to loess deposits in the USA (Birrell and Packard, 1953; Young, 1964, 1967) with size grading curves showing a mode in the 20–60 mm size range (Fig. 2). However, regional variations in grain size reflect local conditions and other factors such as transport distance. East coast South Island loess has slightly more fine silt and clay (Fig. 2) than USA loess, which Birrell and Packard (1953) attributed to greater post-depositional weathering, though it might also reflect their derivation from argillaceous and/or Neogene (marine) sediments (Hammond, 1997). Loess of a similar texture also occurs in geographically disparate districts such as North Otago (near Oamaru) (Young, 1964), the West Coast (of the South Island) (near Hokitika) (Young, 1967), Southland (near Gore) (McIntosh et al., 1990), Wairarapa (near Martinborough) (Palmer, 1982a, b) and Taranaki (near New Plymouth) (Alloway, 1989; Alloway et al., 1992).

Fig. 2. Grain size distributions for: (a) West Coast loess, (b) North Otago loess, and (c) Kansas loess, USA (modified after Young, 1967).

Volcanic loess near Rotorua (Fig. 1) shows a mean grain size in the coarse silt fraction, but most volcanic loess seems to reflect the grain size of the tephra from which it is derived, rather than sorting by aeolian transport (Benny et al., 1988). Coarser-textured, ‘‘sandy’’ loess originating from nearby sources was recognized by Raeside (1964) on the Otago Peninsula (near Dunedin), and more recently in northern Southland (near Gore) (McIntosh and Eden, 1988), in the Awatere valley, (near Blenheim) (Eden, 1989), and Wairarapa, (near Martinborough) (Palmer, 1982a; Palmer et al., 1989) (Fig. 1). Changes in loess grain size in the Awatere valley were related to shifts in the active river floodplain source (Eden, 1989) (Fig. 1). Similarly, in Hawke’s Bay, erosion of sandy Neogene sediments produced coarser-textured loess deposits (Hammond, 1997). In an offshore core (P69) drilled about 120 km east of southern North Island (Fig. 1), Stewart and Neall (1984) found increased levels of 20–63 and 225 mm sized quartz in MIS 2 age hemipelagic (glacial) sediments. They inferred that the quartz was of terrestrial origin and had originated by wind erosion of extensive terrestrial, aggradational surfaces. To the east of the South Island, DSDP site 594 was drilled in biopelagic and hemipelagic oozes (Nelson et al., 1993) about 300 km offshore (Fig. 1). Terrigenous sediment is abundant in the hemipelagic oozes, and silt (4–63 mm) is the dominant (70–90%) grain size. Similarly, core Q858 was drilled in dominantly hemipelagic sediments on the northern slope of the Chatham Rise approximately 400 km offshore (Fig. 1) (Fenner et al., 1992). The hemipelagites here are predominantly silty clays and those of LGM age have

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the highest proportion of silt-sized quartz (40%), which is thought to be of terrestrial origin (Fenner et al., 1992). 2.2. Bulk density Bulk density has routinely been measured on New Zealand soils and is of particular importance in this paper because of its influence on loess MAR calculations. Accordingly, much of the current knowledge of the bulk density of loess is based on soil surveys undertaken during the 1950s and 1960s. However, as these surveys were for agricultural purposes, they normally concentrated on the uppermost metre or so of the soils. When drilling techniques for sampling subsurface layers became available in the 1970s, it was possible to determine bulk densities at greater depths. Concurrent with this event was the development of an automated gamma ray absorption method capable of providing a continuous measurement of bulk density values down cores (Schafer et al., 1984). Despite these advances, relatively few loess columns have been examined in detail, although some deposits from the southern North Island are well-characterized (Palmer and Barker, 1984; Palmer and Pillans, 1996). Bulk density of loess in New Zealand varies with the parent material and the climatic conditions prevailing since deposition. The lowest bulk densities occur in volcanic loess in which there are significant amounts of allophane and/or halloysite; these minerals have very porous structures, and result from the weathering of volcanic glass (Lowe, 1986). Bulk density values are usually less than 1.4 g cm
3 and may be less than 1.0 g cm
3 in the upper horizons of soils containing accessions of tephra (Stevens, 1988). In contrast, the bulk densities of quartzofeldspathic-rich soils in low rainfall areas of the South Island, such as coastal Marlborough (near Blenheim) (Fig. 1), which has an annual rainfall of approximately 600 mm, may reach 1.7–1.8 g cm
3. The highest bulk densities usually occur in subsoil horizons (Palmer and Barker, 1984) that represent relatively unweathered loess, although sometimes they occur in clay-rich B horizons immediately overlying the C horizon (Eden, 1983). The presence of tephra layers in loess deposits is clearly shown in bulk density traces, the loosely packed glass shards showing up as much lower values (Palmer and Barker, 1984). High bulk densities often correspond with the presence of hard pans in the subsoil, such as fragipans or duripans. In New Zealand, fragipans are compact, massive layers that are non-cemented and have high strength when dry (see Bruce, 1996). Many workers consider fragipans to be relict features formed under a colder, drier climate than that of today (Raeside, 1964; McIntosh and Kemp, 1991; Bruce, 1996). Duripans are cemented, tabular-structured layers that overlie fragipans in low rainfall areas (600–1000 mm/annum), which

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experience a seasonal (summer) water deficit and have received dustings of volcanic ash (Hammond, 1997). Compact layers are less recognizable where annual rainfall ranges from 1000 to 1300 mm (Bruce, 1996); in such environments, bulk densities of subsoils decrease from about 1.6 to about 1.4 g cm
3 (New Zealand Soil Bureau, 1968). In contrast, loess deposits on the South Island’s West Coast, where rainfall usually exceeds 2500 mm yr
1 are massive with very few pores and bulk densities of around 1.6 g cm
3. These deposits are often saturated with water for most of the year. Palaeosols are often humic or peaty and have lower bulk densities. 2.3. Sources and weather systems New Zealand loesses have been largely derived from the floodplains of aggrading rivers (Cowie, 1964a; Raeside, 1964). Today, dust storms occur during gales in and around braided river floodplains in eastern South Island (McGowan, 1997) and sometimes on the West Coast (e.g., Haast River valley, Fig. 1). Dust is deflated from point bars and abandoned channels and deposited downwind of the floodplains, and this is probably similar to the situation that existed during the LGM. In the Awatere River valley (Fig. 1), where the river has been aggrading since at least the early 20th century, the guttering on farmhouse roofs close to the floodplain becomes clogged with dust in windy years (Eden, 1989). On the south bank of the Rakaia River, in eastern South Island (Fig. 1), dust accumulation decreases with increasing distance from source (Cox et al., 1973). Also, the ‘‘post-glacial’’ loess there becomes finer with increasing distance from the river floodplain in the direction of the prevailing wind (Ives, 1973). Similarly, on river terraces in the Awatere valley, the loess deposited close to the river floodplain is coarser than that deposited further away (Eden, 1989), so that stratigraphical changes in texture indicate the past locations of the river floodplain. The lower sea levels during the LGM exposed large areas of the continental shelf (Fig. 1), and river floodplains were correspondingly more extensive. Several large North Island rivers (e.g., the Wanganui, Rangitikei, and Manawatu Rivers) (Fig. 1), flowing into the Tasman Sea, had extensive floodplains on the exposed continental shelf and so would have been important sources from which dust was deflated by prevailing westerly winds to accumulate on the present land surfaces. This also occurred on the West Coast of the South Island (Almond, 1996). On the east coast of the South Island, the exposed continental shelf was almost certainly an important source of dust that accumulated in the Pacific Ocean to the east. Raeside (1964) attributed the presence of sponge spicules in the loess of coastal areas to sediment deflated from the continental shelf, although some may have

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been derived from reworked Neogene marine sediments. Furthermore, in his map of loess source areas for southern South Island, Bruce (1973a) also suggested that loess deposits on the south bank of the Clutha River (Fig. 1) were derived from the shelf area beyond the present Clutha River mouth. During the LGM the zonal westerly winds probably tracked farther north than they do today (Thiede, 1979; Stewart and Neall, 1984) and the climate was probably windier, at least in some seasons. So the extensive loess deposits adjacent to the Rangitikei, Manawatu, and Wanganui Rivers, for example, may have been the result of a combination of stronger westerly winds and more extensive floodplain sources that lay, at least in part, beyond the present coastline. Following the LGM, which ended ca 15,000 BP, there was a period of 5000 yr before Holocene conditions were established, during which a combination of rising sea level and a replacement of low, open vegetation by tall evergreen forest would have reduced dust source areas. Few studies have examined local sources of loess deposits. Dust blown from fans and eroding faces in the mountainous parts of northern and eastern South Island, and in hill catchments of eastern Southland near Gore (Eden et al., 1987) have provided pockets of local loess. In the North Island, Milne (1973a) observed the wind erosion of bluffs, and in the South Island Eden (1983) suggested a thick loess column close to White Bluffs, near Blenheim, had been derived largely from silt eroded from the bluffs during the late Quaternary. In several other places in the central volcanic region of the North Island, loesses have been derived from reworking of tephra layers by wind (Kennedy, 1982; Vucetich, 1982). Benny et al. (1988) clearly demonstrate the existence of loess derived from erosion of the ca 18,000 BP Okareka Tephra at several sites in the Rotorua district. In western Hawke’s Bay (Fig. 1) the 22,590 BP (26,170 cal. yr) Kawakawa Tephra (Wilson et al., 1988; Carter et al., 2000) found in quartzofeldspathic LGM loess, is much thinner than Kawakawa Tephra nearer the coast, e.g., on Scinde Island near Napier (Fig. 1). This is because of greater landscape instability inland (Hammond, 1997) resulting in the remobilization of volcanic and quartzofeldspathic loess deposits. Consequently, reworked Kawakawa Tephra volcanic glass is found at various stratigraphical levels within LGM loess above the primary datum (Hammond, 1997). It is likely that dust from Australia reached New Zealand during the LGM by way of the Southern Hemisphere zonal westerly winds, as it does today, although accumulation rates are likely to have been much higher. Elevated dust levels during the LGM can be attributed to stronger winds, larger and more arid source areas, and less efficient scavenging of dust from the drier atmosphere (Hesse and McTainsh, 1999).

There is evidence for Australian dust in contemporary New Zealand snowfields and glacier ice (Windom, 1969; Syers et al., 1972; McTainsh, 1989; Knight et al., 1995; McGowan et al., 2000) and possibly in andesitic volcanic soils of the Taranaki district (Alloway et al., 1992). Marine cores from the Tasman Sea and southwestern Pacific Ocean show significant increases in the quantities of dust accumulated during the LGM (one and a half to three times) as opposed to the Holocene (Thiede, 1979; Hesse, 1994; Hesse and McTainsh, 1999). Amounts of Australian dust reaching New Zealand are likely to have been small in the context of overall dust deposition, though this requires further investigation. 2.4. Dust mass accumulation rates In calculating MARs (in g m
2 yr
1) from loess deposits we use the following formula: MAR ¼ ½D=Tr; where D is the depth of loess increment in m, T is the time for accumulation of loess increments in yr and r is the actual or estimated bulk density of the loess increments in g m
3. 2.4.1. Post-glacial accumulation rates Dust is accumulating at the present day to form loess in many locations on river terraces downwind of major braided floodplains, such as the Rakaia River, the Awatere River, and the Tukituki River near Napier (Fig. 1). The Rakaia River has a broad anastamosing floodplain that is more than 1 km wide for much of its course across the Canterbury Plains. The deposition of sediment on point bars and abandoned channels during spring floods provides abundant material for deflation . during frequent northwesterly fohn gales that occur at that time of year. Historical dust accumulation rates were calculated using dust traps over a 5 yr period from 1959 to 1964 by Cox et al. (1973) at distances up to 2 km from the terrace edge adjacent to the floodplain. Highest accumulation rates were within 5 m of the terrace riser and reached 900 g m
2 yr
1 but, at sites 20 m from the terrace edge, rates dropped to 200 g m
2 yr
1. Rates at sites 400–1750 m from the terrace edge ranged from 100 to 40 g m
2 yr
1. At Barrhill (Fig. 1) Berger et al. (1996) calculated early Holocene dust accumulation rates of 330 g m
2 yr
1 or 0.22 mm yr
1 for the interval between two thermoluminescence dates within Holocene loess of 11,700 and 5,500 yr. The thickness of post-glacial loess reaches a maximum of 4 m at a point about 3 km downstream from Barrhill (Fig. 1) on an extensive Rakaia River terrace (Ives, 1973), thinning rapidly southwestwards with increasing distance from the floodplain. At a distance of 2 km from the floodplain, thicknesses are less than 1 m and, at a point 10 km from the river, thicknesses are o0.3 m. Ives

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(1973) calculated that the relationship between loess thickness and distance was: Y ¼ 203:7
35:9 log X ; where Y represents the thickness in cm and X is the distance from source in m. This is fairly similar to thickness–distance relationships determined in North America (Ruhe, 1969). Post-glacially accumulated dust is also present on south bank terraces of the Awatere River. Low dust accumulation rates are recognized by the presence of over-deepened soil A horizons. Higher dust accumulation rates (within the past 1000 yr or so: Eden, 1983) result in burial of soil A and B horizons to depths generally less than 1 m. 2.4.2. Mass accumulation rates since the LGM The widespread 26,170 cal. yr Kawakawa Tephra provides a datum from which to determine accumulation rates since the LGM. Loess thicknesses above the Kawakawa Tephra datum in both islands are generally ca 1.0–2.5 m (Table 1) and MARs over the last 26,000 cal. yr are generally within the range 70– 150 g m
2 yr
1 (Table 1). Mass accumulation rates from five east coast South Island sites are slightly higher (averaging 94 g m
2 yr
1) than at the six North Island sites (averaging 75 g m
2 yr
1) because of the generally higher bulk densities in the South Island (1.6 kg m
2 yr
1 as opposed to 1.3 kg m
2 yr
1: Table 1). On the West Coast of the South Island, at Blue Spur (near Hokitika: Fig. 1), the Kawakawa Tephra occurs in loess at a depth of 1.8 m (Almond and Tonkin, 1999) indicating a MAR of 110 g m
2 yr
1. This is similar to east coast MARs, although no allowance is made here for possible losses by dissolution (Almond and Tonkin, 1999). At other sites such as at Kapitea Creek (near Hokitika: Fig. 1) (Mew et al., 1988a) and farther south at Saltwater Forest (near Harihari: Fig. 1) (Almond, 1996) the Kawakawa Tephra occurs within the top metre of loess; accordingly dust accretion rates are lower (70 and 20 g m
2 yr
1, respectively. Because these MARs are average rates, they do not show the fluctuations from high rates during the LGM to lower rates during the post-glacial (Eden and Froggatt, 1988; Almond, 1996). Two sites, namely Marfell Downs, Awatere valley (Eden, 1989) and Riverside, near Masterton (Palmer, 1982a) (Fig. 1), have post-Kawakawa Tephra thicknesses exceeding 3 m, probably because local conditions have enhanced deposition. For example, the Marfell Downs site is on the top of a bluff that acts as a barrier to sediment-carrying winds blowing down the Awatere River floodplain. Turbulence-induced deflation near the base of the bluff and reduced wind velocities at the top caused increased deposition. There is 5.9 m of loess above the Kawakawa Tephra datum, which represents

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an annual sediment accumulation rate of 360 g m
2 yr
1, assuming continuous, uniform accumulation during the LGM and post-glacial periods. It has been estimated that the thickness of material deposited during the late Holocene (last 1000 yr) was approximately 0.5 m, giving an accumulation rate of 600 g m
2 yr
1 (Eden, 1983). 2.4.3. Offshore dust deposition rates Four sites to the east of New Zealand have been studied in order to estimate rates of terrigenous deposition in marine sediments. Of these sites, P69 is closest to the coast. Lying 120 km east of southern North Island (Fig. 1), it consists of hemipelagic sediments deposited since early MIS 2. Stewart and Neall (1984) estimated that the rate of silt-sized quartz accumulation in the period ca 25,000–15,000 BP was approximately 3 g cm
2 1000 yr
1 (i.e., 30 g m
2 yr
1) with a highest accumulation rate of approximately 4 g cm
2 1000 yr
1 (i.e., 40 g m
2 yr
1) occurring between ca 18,000 and 15,000 BP (Table 1). They consider that the high quartz accumulation rate resulted from a combination of increased fluvial aggradation and subsequent dust deflation by intensified westerly winds at that time. In addition, Nelson et al. (2000) found evidence for increased upwelling offshore; this is consistent with wide dispersion of suspended sediment loads derived from rivers and aeolian fallout to be expected in a regime with stronger and more persistent winds (Carter et al., 2000). Both Stewart and Neall (1984) and Nelson et al. (2000) note a major reduction in sediment accumulation after 14,700 BP, attributing it to a southward contraction of the westerly wind belt, an event reflected in the pollen record by a change to podocarp-broadleaved forest (McGlone, 2001). In comparison, Carter et al. (2000) calculate the non-carbonate (mostly terrigenous) MIS2 MAR for P69 as 7.78 g cm
2 ka
1 (77.8 g m
2 yr
1). However, they estimate that o20% of this was of aeolian origin (i.e., o15 g m
2 yr
1). This rate is about 20% of the MAR at the nearest terrestrial site (Bidwell Hill) (Fig. 1). Core Q858 was drilled mainly in hemipelagites on the northern slope of the Chatham Rise, approximately 400 km offshore and north of P69 (Fig. 1) (Fenner et al., 1992). This area has a high terrigenous content but it lies outside the main suspended sediment transport routes and consequently contains a relatively undisturbed and uninterrupted record (Fenner et al., 1992). These authors estimate a quartz accumulation rate from bulk sediments for the interval 19,000–16,000 BP of about 7 g cm
2 ka
1 (70 g m
2 yr
1). At this site Carter et al. (2000) calculated a non-carbonate MIS2 MAR of 2.75 g cm
2 ka
1 (27.5 g m
2 yr
1). These values include deposition of suspended sediment originally derived from rivers, so that the aeolian input is likely to be much less (probably o10 g m
2 yr
1). Fenner et al. (1992) noted a reduction in MAR after about 15,000 BP, but

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the magnitude of this reduction is about half of that found by Stewart and Neall (1984) at site P69, possibly reflecting the greater distance from terrestrial sources. To the east of the South Island, DSDP site 594 lies about 300 km offshore (Fig. 1). It is located on the southern flank of the Chatham Rise at the junction of transport routes for sediments moving north and east by the Southland Current, and those moving south through the Mernoo Saddle (Carter et al., 2000). High sedimentation rates occur at this site (Carter et al., 2000). The sediments consist of biopelagic (interglacial) and hemipelagic (glacial) oozes (Nelson et al., 1993), showing characteristic fluctuations in oxygen and carbon isotope ratios, carbonate and microfossil contents (e.g., Nelson et al., 1993; Kowalski and Meyers, 1997). Terrigenous sediment is abundant in the hemipelagic ooze and is attributed by Nelson et al. (1993) to a major increase in sediment supplied by rivers together with westerly wind dust transportation. MARs of 190 g m
2 yr
1 were obtained for the dominantly terrigenous sediment that accumulated in MIS 2 (Kowalski and Meyers, 1997). However, Carter et al. (2000) calculated a lower rate of 5.63 g cm
2 ka
1 (56.3 g m
2 yr
1) for the non-carbonate fraction. It is not known how much of this was aeolian in origin but, in view of the site location, most of the sediment may have been water transported. Much further offshore, on the northern Chatham Rise 1100 km east of the South Island (Fig. 1), core CHAT 1 K was drilled into contourite drifts (sediments deposited by currents flowing subparallel to the continental slope). Terrigenous sediment is deposited in this area by the Deep Western Boundary Current that reworks turbidite mud from the Bounty Fan further south (Lean and McCave, 1998). These authors estimated a terrigenous MAR of about 20 g m
2 yr
1 for MIS 2 with deposition during glacial periods up to four times greater than during interglacial periods. This may also reflect increased dust deposition. Terrigenous deposition is about five to 10 times less than at the other sites described above, so that the aeolian MAR is possibly an order of magnitude less than at those sites.

3. Concluding remarks Loess is an important surficial deposit on New Zealand’s North and South Islands. It varies greatly in its morphology and physical properties in response to variations in composition, post-depositional climatic regimes and drainage conditions. On the basis of a study of 18 sites in the North and South Islands, MARs since deposition of the Kawakawa Tephra at 26,000 cal. yr fall mostly within the range 70–150 g m
2 yr
1. The highest rate (350 g m
2 yr
1) occurred at a site where deposition was enhanced by turbulence. Aeolian MARs for deepsea cores drilled east of New Zealand are largely

unknown because it is difficult to differentiate between terrigenous sediment transported by currents and sediments arising from direct aeolian sedimentation. However, rates appear to be less than those on land and approximate to ca 15 g m
2 yr
1 for MIS 2 (Carter et al., 2000). Contemporary dust deposition rates, measured over a 5 yr period on the downwind side of the Rakaia River at Barrhill, range from 900 to 40 g m
2 yr
1 at sites close to the terrace edge. These values suggest that current dust accumulation rates at this site are similar to mean values since the LGM. This is not surprising since the floodplain source operating today is probably similar to that contributing dust during the LGM. However, as it is likely that there was little dust accumulation during the Holocene at many sites, then the annual terrestrial accumulation rates during the LGM may have been greater by a factor of two or more. Also, it should be borne in mind that the Barrhill site has probably the highest current MAR in New Zealand. MARs for New Zealand loess for the period from the LGM to the present (70–150 g m
2 yr
1) equate to 0.07–0.15 mm of sediment accretion/yr; these are at the lower end of the range of long term average rates estimated for other regions of the world such as China and Uzbekistan (Pye, 1987, p. 264; Kohfeld and Harrison, 2001).

Acknowledgements We thank Grant McTainsh for his support and helpful comments on drafts of the manuscript and Harley Betts and Silvana Schott for assistance with figures. David Lowe, Peter Almond, Phil Tonkin and Alan Palmer reviewed the site inventory and we thank them for their suggestions that have extended and updated the data presented. We thank journal reviewers, John Catt and Matt McGlone and editor Ed Derbyshire for comments that have helped improve the paper.

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