Dynamic behavior and stability of soil foundation in heavy haul railway tracks: A review

Construction and Building Materials 205 (2019) 111–136

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Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Dynamic behavior and stability of soil foundation in heavy haul railway tracks: A review Georgy Lazorenko, Anton Kasprzhitskii, Zelimkhan Khakiev ⇑, Victor Yavna Rostov State Transport University, Russian Federation

h i g h l i g h t s
Mechanical properties of soils under the dynamic impact of heavy trains are analyzed.
Typical failures of track foundation under the heavy haul trains are reviewed.
The modern methods and structures of reinforcing the track formation soils are reviewed.
Research gaps are identified and suggestions for further development are proposed.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 22 May 2018 Received in revised form 24 January 2019 Accepted 27 January 2019

Keywords: Railway track Heavy haul train Soil Subgrade Sub-ballast Track-train dynamics

a b s t r a c t The roadbed is the most deformable and most heterogeneous component of the railway track infrastructure, which state is the main factor determining the efficiency of the road, and the main cause of premature degradation of the path and the failure of its components, increasing the cost of current maintenance. In the face of the increasing dynamic impact of trains on the railway infrastructure resulting from intensive development of heavy haul transportation, this problem becomes particularly important. In this paper, an analysis is made of the problem of degradation and providing the stability of the track foundation with an increased axial load on the track, with a special emphasis on analysis of the excitation mechanisms of cyclic impacts and the process of their damping by the soil environment. The main types of deformations and defects are described; the mechanisms and reasons for their occurrence are analyzed. Much attention is paid to the analysis of soil degradation processes of the roadbed under the dynamic impact of heavy trains. Various elements of the roadbed are considered, which require reinforcement for operation under heavy haul traffic and large axial loads. The modern methods and structures of reinforcing the roadbed are described, the use of which allows to increase the efficiency of the heavy haul transportation. In conclusion, the authors identified areas of additional research to address the problem of ensuring the stability of the roadbed in the organization of heavy haul traffic. Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

3.

4.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deterioration of railway track foundation on heavy haul lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Description of the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Deterioration processes in railway track foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Typical failures of track foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic interaction between heavy-haul train and soil subgrade bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Vibration induced by heavy haul trains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Degradation of subgrade soil under loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Cohesionless soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2. Cohesive soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current solutions for stability improvement of soil foundation in heavy haul railway tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Khakiev). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.184 0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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4.1. Protective layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Soil improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Structural solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Patents related to the improve of stability of railway track foundation under heavy haul lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction All over the world, the growth in weight norms of freight trains is one of the priority to meet the increasing volumes of cargo transportation and improving the efficiency of railways in market conditions. The heavy haul traffic has developed significantly in different countries on all continents: Australia, Brazil, India, Canada, China, Russia, USA, Sweden, South Africa [1], becoming one of the main indicators of technological progress of railway transportation at the present stage of railway development. The operation of longer and heavier trains provides significant benefits in terms of carrying capacity, operating expenses and the cost of a rolling stock. At the same time, the introduction of the increased weight and length of freight trains inevitably increases the costs associated with changing the longitudinal dynamics of the train and the emergence of additional loads on the infrastructure [2–4]. There are large dynamic shock loads having a very high intensity and short duration, depending on the nature of the oscillations of the wheels or rails [5,6], and also on the dynamic response of the base [7,8]. A large cyclic load from trains with heavy axle loads operating at high speeds often causes excessive deformation and degradation of rail track elements. This problem is most acute with regard to the fundamental element of the construction of the railway - the roadbed (foundation), which in many sections of the railways was built according to the technical norms of previous years, not designed for increased axle loads, and which, unlike the top of the railway, operation was not replaced or updated. The loss of stability of the roadbed and, as a consequence of the geometry of the path, inevitably entails a significant increase in the cost of servicing the railway track, estimated in different countries by hundreds of millions of dollars per year [1]. The railway track formation is a complex of ground objects that function in difficult conditions of the natural and climatic environment and dynamic train loads. Such loads can change the state of the ground environment and affect the level of reliability of the roadbed, especially under conditions of heavy haul traffic, in which the amplitude and frequency of loading cycles are very high [9,10]. The degree of displacement of the track under the train load is largely determined by the characteristics of the roadbed soil, which are distinguished by a wide variety, and has a tendency to rapidly change over time. During long-term operation, the railway roadbed is affected by adverse environmental impacts (temperature, water, etc.). As a result, transformations occur in the soils over time. Namely the physical and mechanical properties, moisture regime, density, and, as a consequence, the stress-strain state of the roadbed as a whole change. For this reason, the roadbed has a huge impact on the operation of the railway and its maintenance. The railway track, which has been stable for a long time, can begin to deteriorate after applying large axial loads typical for heavy haul rolling stock, resulting in a failure to provide the required weights and train speed. In the current situation of increasing speeds and train loads, special attention should be paid to improving the stability of the track formation. A deeper understanding is required for the mech-

122 126 128 129 131 131 131 131

anisms of dynamic load propagation from heavy haul trains to the track foundation soils and their influence on the mechanical behavior of soils, which in turn depends on the soil type, the water content, the degree of compaction and the type of loading. The further development of existing and creation of new technical solutions for increasing the strength and stability of the roadbed is required. In recent years, great progress has been made in the research aimed at understanding the processes occurring in soils under the vibrodynamic effect of heavy haul trains. A great theoretical and experimental material has been obtained, which requires generalization and systematization. So far, several reviews have been published in the field of degradation and stabilization of materials and structural elements of the railway track under the influence of heavy haul trains [2,11–21]. Most often, researchers have focused on the permanent way. Published scientific reviews refer to rails [13–16], sleepers [2,18,20], elastic elements [19]. Several recent reviews have been published with a focus on ballast and transition zones of the variable stiffness transitions between the ballast structure and man-made structures, particularly in Sol-Sánchez and D’Angelo (2017) [17] and Sañudo et al. (2016) [21]. At the same time, there are no review articles devoted to the problems of degradation and stability of the soils of the track formation under the dynamic impact of heavy haul trains. Most of the work in this area is diverse and multidirectional. However, in the last few years, there have been quite a lot of changes in this field of research, worthy of attention and discussion. The purpose of this review is to analyze the degradation and stability of the track foundation under the heavy haul train traffic in the context of the latest scientific research and operational experience, with an emphasis on the features of the mechanisms of excitation and analysis of the consequences of the vibrodynamic impact on the soils of the foundation. The first section briefly describes the problems of the railway track foundation, which originate in the lower structure of the track and are associated with intensive deformation processes under conditions of increased axle loads from heavy haul trains. The main defects and degradations in the construction of the track foundation due to railway degradation under heavy haul transportation are given. In the second section, the mechanisms of generation and propagation of vibration are analyzed in the interaction of heavy haul rolling stock and engineering infrastructure. The estimation of the vibrational modes of the permanent way structure and the frequency ranges of its elements is given, as well as the nature of their influence on the track formation. The frequency patterns of the track formation geostructure under vibration influence are established. The effect of parameters of ground media is analyzed including water saturation and external pressure on its mechanical characteristics (shear modulus and damping coefficient) in the region of small and medium shear stresses. The last section discusses the main directions for increasing the stability of the roadbed under high axle loads, such as the arrangement of protective layers, strengthening of soils, and constructive solutions. Their most characteristic features are analyzed. The

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section also explains how the use of these methods alters the properties and parameters of the railway track foundation. An attempt is made in the article to reveal current tendencies in the field of inventive activity in the considered direction on the basis of the analysis of patents of the last 10 years.

sub-ballast zones is a necessary condition for the safety of the transportation process. Thus, a correct understanding of the processes occurring in the track foundation under high axle loads allows efficient maintenance of the normal functioning of the railway track.

2. Deterioration of railway track foundation on heavy haul lines

2.2. Deterioration processes in railway track foundation

2.1. Description of the problem

The railway track is a complex engineering structure that can be divided into two main components: the upper track structure (permanent way) and the track substructure (track foundation) [37]. The cross section of a railway track showing its structure is given in Fig. 1. The condition of both the track structure and substructure plays an important role for the safety and comfort of any kind of transportation. Effective and stable operation of the railway under the heavy haul trains is possible when its track structure is able to bear the periodic force impacts of high axle loads from heavy haul trains. The upper structure of the railway track consists from rails, sleepers, fastenings and other elements [38,39]. Dynamic processes and deteriorations in the permanent are of great interest and widely discussed in the liturature. Among The typical deteriorations of the permanent way are usually related to the rail head wear, accumulation of residual deformations and material fatigue in rail joints, track geometry degradation [40–43]. These problems become more frequent in the conditions of heavy haul transportation and may lead to the speed limitations or even trains derailment [44–46]. Rail track substructure is the most essential component of the railway system in view of track stability. It includes ballast and sub-ballast layers (granular layers), blanket and a subgrade. Granular layers of the railway track are packed with angular rock particles (usually 20–60 mm). The ballast is the key load-bearing layer that provides structural support against dynamic stresses caused by moving trains. It performs a number of functions [44,47,48]: - regulates the distribution of the loads intensity from the sleepers transferred to the roadbed; - reduces the pressure from sleepers on the underlying structural layers preventing settlement of the upper structure of the track; - providing resistance to the movement of sleepers under the influence of forces (for example, in curved sections); - provides the necessary drainage and traping of surface water; - accumulates fine particles within the voids. Under the influence of dynamic loads from the heavy haul trains, granular layers usually demonstrate two types of deformations: elastic deformations associated with the bearing capacity of the track due to the elastic properties of the ballast material and residual deformations, which make the main contribution to the

The development of rail transport in the direction of high-speed and heavy haul traffic with increased load on the axle leads to the fact that the construction of the railway track and its base becomes increasingly overloaded [22–25]. The traditional railway track is not capable of providing reliability under the influence of increased axle loads and train speeds [26,27]. This causes the emergence of two major problems: the deformations of the upper and the disturbances of the lower structure of the railway. In other words, the rapid growth of axle loads leads to a more intensive wear and tear of the permanent way and track formation and a shorter formation time of deteriorations in the structure of the entire railway track. As a result, additional risks arise in terms of traffic safety, as well as the cost of the railway track maintaining. Thus, the study of the dynamic processes that arise in the construction of the railway track under heavy axle loads is extremely urgent. As practice shows, the deterioration of the railway state is an inevitable phenomenon for the railway infrastructure, primarily related to traffic and climate influence. The problems of the dynamic interaction of rolling stock with the construction of the railway track have been widely studied and are covered in the literature [28–31]. However, since the heavy haul and high-speed transport is intensivly developing in the wolrld, further research is needed on problems that arise during the railway track operation. Among the typical failures in the literature, in particular, the longitudinal dynamics of long heavy trains [32], as well as the problems of the track geometry deformations [33,34] are considered. Separate works are devoted to important problems of rail surface wear and fatigue phenomena in the elements of the permanent way [35,36], which can lead to deteriorations and train derailments. At the same time, the most important component of the railway is the track foundation. Large and frequent cyclic loads from heavy haul trains lead to acceleration of degradation processes and the occurrence of excessive deformations in the railway track. Accumulation of such deformations in the track foundation layers (primarily in ballast layer) and their rough settlement, along with the diffusion of particles from the lower soil structural layers, requires a frequent and expensive track maintenance to ensure its stability. Accelerated degradation and deterioration of the railway track is the main problem for the heavy haul transport and requires constant maintenance costs. Indeed, the stability of the ballast and

Fig. 1. Section through railway track and foundation showing the ballast and formation layers.

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Fig. 2. Fouling status: (a) fresh ballast, (b) partially fouled ballast and (c) fully fouled ballast [58].

settlement of the roadbed and determine the service life of the railway track [49–52]. Increasing train speed and axle load causes high undue stresses transferred to the ballast and track formation. Thus, the ballast degradation is a major factor affecting track stability under the heavy haul transportation. Ballast degradation is influenced by the strength of parent rock, the aggregate size, the particle shape, etc. [53]. These ballast material properties are of great importance in view of the heavy haul trains with high axle loads. Accumulation of deteriorations in the geometry of the track under the process of increased dynamic loads leads to the need for frequent maintenance. The uneven settlements of the ballast and sub-ballast layers of the railway track, associated with the decrease in the thickness of the ballast layer in a longitudinal direction over time, has an important effect on the deteriorations in track geometry [54]. The ballast settlement occurs in several phases. For the first time, the ballast settlement occurs immediately after the building railroad track, renewal or tamping the ballast material and is associated with the consolidation of the ballast (fast phase). Then comes the slow phase of ballast settlement, which is determined by the number of load cycles. In other words, the amount of ballast material decreases due to the rearrangement and breakage of particles, their attrition. Besides, fine particles from the sub-ballast layer and subgrade penetrate into the voids of the ballast layer (so called ballast fouling) [33]. Most deteriorations of the track geometry are usually occurs due to wear and ballast settlement. The cyclic impact of heavy haul trains on the ballast layer results in the compaction of ballast material and breakage of particles. Moreover, the compaction and attrition level of the ballast material is not uniform along the entire path (for example, ballast material and its properties may

Fig. 3. Effect of Material Gradation and Moisture on Granular Behavior (based on Freeme and Servas [59]).

differ). This uneven compaction of the ballast layer results in roughness in the longitudinal direction and thus increases the dynamic loads on the track [55,56]. Another super problem for the railway is the ballast fouling which is understood as major cause of track deterioration in many countries over the world. The porosity of ballast material is affected by the fouling with fine particles reducing intergranular space (Fig. 2). As a result, ballast layer drainage doesn’t function properly. Poor drainage leads to accumulation of water in the ballast and lower layers of the track. In this way, the track foundation suffers from overmoistening and stability degradation and its load bearing capacity decreases [44,45,57]. Freeme and Servas [59] has shown in their laboratory tests that an increase in the number of fine particles in the ballast layer under the repeated cyclic loads leads to an increase in the number of deformations (Fig. 3). They also showed that the presence of moisture in the ballast material leads to a change in the rate of ballast settlement under the effect of repeated load. Railway sub-ballast layer beneath the ballast is composed of much finer particles than the upper ballast (sand or gravel stones) and provides a solid support for the ballast. It is an important loadbearing layer in the track foundation, intended to transmit and spread the cyclic loads from the moving trains to the soft soil subgrade. Sub-balast is also considered as a filter which can prevent the mutual penetration between the ballast and soft soil subgrade (known as the slurry pumping). Besides, it permitts drainage of water from the above ballast layer (due to precipitations) and wet subgrade below [46,60].

Fig. 4. Example of track geometry deformations [67].

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The stability and condition of the ballast is directly related to the proper functioning of the sub-ballast layer. In other words, less deterioration of the rail track and sleepers can lay on a more stable and less degraded ballast and sub-ballst layers. For those reasons, sometimes an elastic mat is placed between the sub-ballast and ballast layers, thereby significantly reducing vibration and ballast tension stresses and improving the mechanical behavior of rail track [61,62]. The railway subgrade as a key component of the track foundation, is also subject to internal deformation processes. It is the most deformable element of the whole railway track. The dynamic loads from the heavy haul trains creates stresses in the subgrade to 5 m and above. The deformation of track foundation under the impact of the heavy loads is determined by its condition, the magnitude of these loads and their cyclicity. A stable foundation can begin to destruct rapidly after a noticeable increase in the axial load under heavy haul traffic. The type and quality of soils forming the track foundation can also cause deformation processes. A severe problem for the construction and operation of heavy haul railway track is the presence of expansive soils in the subgrade. [63-65]. Expansive soils are described as soils that swell or increase their volume when moistened [66]. As a result of volume increase of such soils (for example, after intensive rains), the track foundation deforms causing geometry deformations of the permanent way (Fig. 4) [67–69]. The presence of heterogeneous soils with different moisture in the zone of seasonal freezing with different intensity of swelling, may lead to the uplift deformation in the railway track [70,71]. At the same time, a series of studies considers the presence of ice rich frozen soil in the railway embankment as main cause of its settlement [72,73]. Silty soils are also may reduce the bearing capasity of railway and lead to the track deteriorations. Consequently, stabilization is needed for this kind of soil, otherwise the proper functioning of railway subgrade is not possible [74,75]. The stability of the railway track is also affected by the karstic soils (karst caves, sinkholes) [76,77]. Karst occur in areas with soluble rocks (carbonates, gypsum, chlorides and other) and efficient underground drainage [78]. The development of karst in the railway subgrade leads to railway track settlements. Usually, ground subsidence occur very quickly, resulting in partial or complete destruction of the railway subgrade. Thus, the deformation processes and appropriate deteriorations in ballast and track foundation under the heavy haul trains can be related to the following reasons: weak track subgrade, granular layers (ballast and sub-ballast) contamination, uneven ballast thickness, presence of expansive or soft soils in a subgrade and poor drainage. Under large dynamic stresses exerted by heavy haul trains, the degradation of ballast and track foundation becomes significant. This in turn affects the track stability and creates frequent maintenance, thus increasing the life cycle cost of the rail network. Therefore, mitigating degradation of the ballast layer is vital in view of track longevity and safety.

Table 1 Typical failures of track foundation [37]. Failure or deformation type

Possible reason

Features and Description

Intensive plastic deformation with formation of ballast pocket Progressive shear failure

Impact of repeated cyclic loads. Soft or loose soils

Uneven settlement of track foundation. Ballast pockets formation.

Repeated overstressing of subgrade. Fine-grained subgrade soils. High water content. Highly plastic soils. Changing moisture content: - gypsum content and the rainfall combination - high silt content of subgrade or subballast Soluble salty soils. Periodic freezing. Presence of water. Frost susceptible soils. Repeated loading of subgrade by ballast. High ballast:subgrade contact stress. Clay rich rocks or soils. High water contact at subgrade surface. Weight of train, track and subgrade. Inadequate soil strength. Embankment weight. Saturated finegrained soils. Repeated loading. Saturated silt and fine sand.

Squeezing near subgrade surface Heaves in crib and/or shoulder Depression under ties.

Swelling/Shrinkage

Frost action (heave and softening)

Attrition with mud pumping

Massive shear failure (slope stability)

Consolidation settlement

Liquefaction

Slope erosion

Sinkhole failure

Soil collapse

Running surface and sub-surface water. Wind. Karst voids. Mining tunnel under the track foundation. Kariz (underground water channels). Water inundation of loose soil deposits.

Rough track surface

Occurs in winter/spring period. Rough track surface Muddy ballast. Inadequate sub-ballast. Poor ballast drainage.

High embankment and cut slope. Caused by increased water content. Increased static soil stress as in newly constructed embankment. Large displacement More severe with vibration Can happen in sub-ballast Soil washed or blown away

Ground settlement. Voids and dips on the surface

Ground settlement

2.3. Typical failures of track foundation As was discussed in the section above, due to the impact of cyclic loads from the rolling stock, as well as the influence of climatic factors on the railway geostructure, various deformations arise in the track formation, leading to deteriorations. Obviously, the railway track degradation process accelerates under high axial loads and takes less time. Table 1 provides typical failures of track foundation and the causes of their genesis.

When operating the railway track under large axle loads and high freight traffic, the most common defects of the track foundation are intensive plastic deformation with the formation of ballast pockets (Fig. 5), progressive shear deformations with squeezing near subgrade surface and mud pumping [58,79]. Fig. 6 shows the process of progressive shear deformation with squeezing the ground masses. Such deformation, usually, occurs in the case of fine-dispersed soils due to repeated over-stressing. As a

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As shown by the practice of operating the railway in heavy axle conditions [80,81], in order to reduce the risks of railway track deterioration and minimize the costs for the current maintenance of the railway track, it is necessary to thoroughly control the condition of track foundation and correctly identify defects to determine the actions for their prevention and elimination. Frequent surveys and appropriate maintenance of railway track the way to prevent possible deteriorations. 3. Dynamic interaction between heavy-haul train and soil subgrade bed 3.1. Vibration induced by heavy haul trains

Fig. 5. Example of railroad ballast pocket [80].

result, the soil is gradually squeezed out in the direction of less resistance. Intensive plastic deformation occurs under the influence of the train load and often leads to the formation of ballast pockets, which can accumulate water. Water is filtered into the track foundation and softens the soil, causing the deformations.

Vibrations are a consequence of the movement of heavy-haul train and the contact interaction of wheels, rails and subgrade. Their impact on a track foundation increases along with the increasing maximum axle load from 7 to 40 tons [82]. There are many parameters that affect the level and characteristics of the induced heavy haul train vibration, including, in particular, [48,83–89]: vehicle characteristics, wheel-rail interface, irregularities on the rail, geometry and stiffness of the support structure (Fig. 7). One of the main mechanisms for excitation of ground vibrations from a moving heavy-haul train, is the quasi-static pressure created

Fig. 6. Formation shear failure stages [80].

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Fig. 7. The main group of characteristics affecting the induced heavy-haul train vibration.

Table 2 Examples of the parameters of the dynamic impact of a heavy-haul train on railway track. Vehicle Speed

Axle load

Vertical acceleration (m/s2)

(km/h)

(t)

Sleeper

Ballast

Subgrade

Ballast

Subgrade

60 72 72 72 90 100 100 100 120 200 350

23 25 30 40 23 23 25 30 23 14,5 15

– 11,00 11,30 11,50 – – – – – 4,00 –

5,00 7,50 7,60 7,70 8,00 – – – 11,00 – 0,8

1,43 2,37 – – – 6,05 6,40 7,22 – – 0,4

74 250 300 400 76 – – – 82 – –

35 75 100 125 38 47 49 63 40 82 40

Dynamic pressure (kPa)

Reference

[92,93] [91,94] [91] [91] [92] [94] [94] [94] [92] [95] [96]

Table 3 Frequency of typical vibration, generated depending on train speed. Vehicle Speed (km/h)

40

80

160

Reference

Moving load (Hz) Track unevenness (Hz) Rail corrugation (Hz) Wheel unevenness (Hz)

2–5 150  500 5

4–6 250  1000  10

10–15 450  2000  10

[111-114] [114,115] [109,110,114,116] [114,117-120]

by the wheel axle on the rail track. Such pressure extends into the track foundation through the sleepers [48,83,84]. The length of the train speed and the spacing between sleepers determine the mechanism of vibrodynamic impact characterized by temporal delay between the forces and their location in space, represented as a superposition of elastic waves transmitted into the ground [90,91]. Examples of loads on the railway track with resulting accelerations and pressures on the roadbed are shown in Table 2. Studies of the dynamic load and vehicle designs in solving the problem of the impact of heavy haul train on the transport infrastructure have shown that the rolling stock, rail track, ballast and subgrade play different roles in the generation of propagating vibrations [91–106]. Vibrational modes of the railway track are determined by the resonant frequencies of the elements of the track infrastructure, which can include in-phase and out-of-phase vibrations [83,107– 110] and can be divided into low- (0–40 Hz), medium- (40– 400 Hz) and high (400–1500 Hz) frequency ranges affecting the track foundation and permanent way [48,83,108,109]. The vibration frequencies resulting from the described above mechanisms depend on the speed of the train. Table 3 presents the characteristic frequencies for each of the key elements generated by the dynamic impact on the roadbed. The vibration created by the railway movement is transmitted through the upper structure of the railway track to the ground. The soil is not a homogeneous medium and has significant differ-

Fig. 8. Variation in shear modulus with different shear strain levels [144].

ences between the layers, which determine the specific features of the process of the elastic waves propagation [121–125]. Therefore, a correct understanding of the degradation processes arising in the ground environment is an actual transport task and is of great importance.

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3.2. Degradation of subgrade soil under loading The dynamic stability of soils is important, since it is the basis for solving the problem of reducing the rigidity and strength of soils under dynamic loads from heavy haul trains. The characteristic dynamic impact from the rolling stock, transmitted from the track to the subgrade through the ballast layer, leads to various deformations in the structure of the railway track and generates stresses on the subgrade (see Table 3.1). The magnitude of the stresses and their distribution over an area depends on many factors: the characteristics of the rolling stock (first of all, the axial loads and the distances between them); train speeds; type of track superstructure; characteristics of the subgrade [91–106]. The mechanism of stability degradation of the roadbed is due to the ability of soils to absorb the energy of dynamic impacts, growing under the intensive development of heavy haul transport, leading to a change in the relationship between the external force and the stability of structural bonds [82,91,99]. At the same time, the accumulation of stresses in the places susceptible to breaking structural bonds leads to the formation of new free surfaces and, as a result, the loss of track superstructure stability. It has features in groundwater of various genesis [126]. According to the reaction to the vibrodynamic effect, the soils composing the track foundation can be divided into Cohesive soil and Cohesionless soil [127,128]. The most important factors determining the dynamic properties of track foundation besides vibrodynamic frequency and duration of impact are the mechanical characteristics: shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D), determining its damping properties [129]. The characteristic dependence of shear modulus (G) on shear strain (c), presented on Fig. 8, makes it possible to classify geomaterials used in railway tracks by stress ranges: very small, small and large deformations [130–133]. Usually, the deformations of sleepers are in the region of very small values up to c  10–3%

Fig. 10. Cumulative deformations in cohesionless soil under heavy-haul train loading [151].

[134–136]. Deformations of the ballast material are in the region of small values and varies from 0.01 to 1% [137–139], while for subgrade soil they varies in 0,003–0,6% [140–143]. In the range of very small strains, smaller than the threshold value c  10–3-10–2%, the shear modulus (G) is determined depending on the plasticity index (Ip), which characterizes the mechanical behavior of both the cohesive soils [144] and cohesionless ones [145] . With further deformation growth, the soils become elastoplastic together with a decrease in shear modulus (G) and an increase in damping ratio (D). With shear strain (c)  10–3 and more, both the shear modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) depend on the number of cycles and the frequency of the vibrodynamic effect [146–149]. Furthermore, in [149], it was shown that the shear modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) depend on the plasticity index, PI, of the soil (Fig. 9). 3.2.1. Cohesionless soil The vibrational processes that occur during cyclic loads in highly compressible disperse soils are accompanied by a redistribution of ground particles and an increase in its density, leading to a decrease in the sensitivity of non-cohesive soil to dynamic loads, reaching the existing critical values of density and porosity coefficient [129,150]. Fig. 10 shows the characteristic behavior of non-cohesive soils with the increase of cyclic dynamic impacts

Fig. 9. Relationship between shear modulus and material damping, shear strain and plasticity index (PI) [145].

Fig. 11. Proposed G/Gmax for cohesionless soil [169] based on the experimental results of several researchers [153–168].

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from heavy haul train. The accumulation of shear deformations leads to settlement of the ground mass, demonstrated in the mutual displacement of particles, accompanied by their repackaging and can be prolonged [128,129,151]. Increasing the train axle load accelerates the process of settlement of cohesionless soil. The consolidation of particles of disconnected soils is maximum in the dry and water-saturated state but decreases noticeably with increasing humidity. Hyperbolic dependence between the coefficient of porosity of sand and acceleration (or power) of vibrations from heavy-haul train in the region of vibration acceleration to 10 m/s2 is determined by linear dependence [128,150–152]. Rapid growth of pore pressure in conditions of increasing moisture content and dynamic impacts can provoke the processes of its liquefaction and the loss of its bearing capacity, caused by the loss of direct contact between the grains of the ground environment. Continuing dynamic impact leads to the removal of water and soil compaction, increasing the resistance to subsequent vibrodynamic effects. For dynamically stable cohesive soils, negative pore pressure is characteristic, accompanied by an increase in the cohesion of soil medium particles [84,128,151,153]. In conditions of continuous low-amplitude cyclic loads, mobility under dynamic loads and without inversion of the stress sign does not allow dense water-saturated cohesionless soils to provide considerable shear resistance, which can lead to their sudden liquefaction (within the more friable zones that are formed in this case). The degree of sign inversion of the tangential stresses in each load cycle has an immense influence on the nature of development and the consequences of cyclic mobility, since the deformation of the soil is thereby greatly facilitated [152,153]. Analysis of a wide class of samples of non-cohesive soils studied in [153–168] was completely generalized in [169], which summarized data is given in Fig. 11. Their approximations allow determining the dependence for the normalized shear modulus G/Gmax on shear strain (c) as a slowly varying hyperbolic function. The empirical relationship between shear modulus (G) and shear strain (c), determined in [169], is described by the following equation:



G=Gmax  1= a þ bc 1 þ 10cc ;

where a, b, c are the parameters that depend on the selected noncohesive soil, which are selected considering the deviation of the experimental data and the curve values for the selected c is minimal. When calculating the optimal values of the parameters (a, b, c) for the regression function G (c), the least squares method can be used to achieve a minimum discrepancy with experimental data [170]. For approximation by the averaged data from [153–168], the parameters correspond to the values: a = 1.2; b = 16; c = 20 and

Fig. 12. Proposed D curves for cohesionless soil [169] based on the experimental results of several researchers [154,155,158,162,164–167,171].

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were determined with an accuracy of ± one standard deviation [169]. These parameters give a curve passing near the center of the data range represented in Fig. 11. A similar result was obtained earlier in [168] for sands. It was found that the regularity parameters vary depending on the granulometric composition of the cohesionless soil. The relative decrease in the deformation modulus usually occurs faster in soils of a larger fraction. At the same time, the curve topology describes well the experimental data [153–168], wherein their accuracy can level the existing variation. During each dynamic load cycle, a certain amount of vibrodynamical energy is damped. With a small deformation (c h1 0 5), the damping ratio (D) is rather low (2–4%) for cohesionless soil, changing significantly less than shear modulus (G) for small deformations, see Fig. 12. With an increase in the shear strain, the effect of the plasticity index Ip on shear modulus (G) becomes more pronounced. At a shear strain level of 10-3, the damping coefficient is about 10–15% in low-plastic (granular) soils, whereas attenuation in cohesive soils is much less – the order of 3–8% [168,169]. The average value of the data for sand and gravel presented by Seed et al. [168] is in good agreement with the data obtained by Vucetic and Dobry [144].

3.2.2. Cohesive soil Dynamic instability of cohesive soils manifests itself in the form of partial or complete (until liquefaction) loss of strength under dynamic action, which leads to large uneven settlements of engineering structures, landslide formation and other negative consequences [172–176]. After vibration stop, these soils are capable of thixotropic restoration of strength, due to the complete or partial destruction of structural bonds of the soil under the action of an external load and their subsequent spontaneous restoring in rest with constant temperature, porosity and moisture [107,108,177]. However, the ultimate strength of natural cohesive soils after the completion of the restoration, as a rule, does not reach the initial level, which is due to their quasi- thixotropic. Restoration can be partial or almost complete, when the soil is liquefied, although it is quite rare in comparison with cohesionless and weak soils. In this case, the strength changes only through adhesion, and the angle of internal friction of the soil does not change [175]. The effect of cyclic loads leads to the accumulation of deformation by cohesive quasi-isotropic soils (Fig. 13). For small deformations (c h1 0 5), the changes in the shear modulus (G) coefficient occur according to a quasilinear law. Gmax is constant and does not depend on the magnitude of the shear strain. The main factors affecting Gmax are the porosity coefficient and the acting voltage [108,178,179]. The minimum value of the damping coefficient Dmin is also independent of c in the region of small deformations and is determined by the pore fluid and load frequency in the interval up to 10 Hz [180]. The growth of cyclic deformations (10-5 < c h1 0 2) leads to the appearance of a hysteresis effect [181]. In this case, the possible increase in pore pressure and a decrease in the bearing capacity leads to an increase in plastic deformation [182,183]. An increase in the cyclic loading time can lead to an increase in the rate of deformation, as well as when a critical number of cycles is reached, to loss of ductility of cohesive soils [184,185]. Based on the results of the analysis of cyclic loads on cohesive soils in the conventional and consolidated state, it was established in [189,190] that the main factor affecting the normalized shear modulus G/Gmax and the damping coefficient D is plasticity index (PI), see Fig. 14. The observed regularity is due to a change in the deformation mechanism from the viscous to the hysteresis mechanism [180].

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Fig. 13. Impact of cyclic loads on cohesive soils [186] based on the experimental results of several researchers [186–188].

Fig. 14. Curve G/Gmax (a) and D (b) for cohesive soil [189] based on the experimental results of several researchers [189,190].

At the time of the termination of the vibration action, a hardening having a thixotropic nature occurs. Three effects are based on this hardening: 1) an increase in the interaction energy of particles in the secondary potential well due to the approach to the optimum; 2) an increase in the number of structural bonds per unit volume of soil due to the destruction of microaggregates; and 3) the formation of a new bond more homogeneous in strength structure [107,175,189,190]. In studies [144,191] with compacted cohesive soils, an increase in the value of Dmax to 10% was found in comparison with the natural state of bound soils. A similar tendency is observed in [192–194], where an increased damping factor Dmax is reported for naturally cemented cohesive soils.

An increase in the creep rate during vibration, leading to degradation of the soil strength (lowering the creep threshold) and accelerating its destruction or accumulation of deformations occurs in conditions of prolonged vibrational loads. The moisture increase accelerates the degradation of strength under dynamic influence, and the dependence of the value of the softening coefficient on moisture passes through a maximum, usually near the yield point [175,177,189]. This is explained by the weakening of structural bonds and the increase in the mobility of particles as their hydrate shells thicken when the moisture rises to a critical level, above which the initial strength of the soil already in the fluidly or even stealthy consistency decreases sharply, leading to a decrease in the relative softening [195–198]. The moisture content of the maximum softening is practically independent of the dynamic load parameters and is determined by the physico-chemical activity of the soil [174–176]. Here, the optimum moisture content occupies a special place, at which the shear modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) of the samples increase [199,200]. In [200], an additional study was made of the influence of the water saturation of the cohesive soil on the normalized Young’s modulus E/Emax, which showed its linear dependence on the moisture content in the sample. The increase in pressure leads to the fact that Gmax ceases to depend on the water content in the sample, and the damping coefficient Dmax taking values in the range 6.5–8.5%. The factors of maximum reduction in the strength of cohesive soil under dynamic impact is the time or number of impact cycles. For relatively high frequency (5–40 Hz) tests on a shaker, this time interval does not exceed 5 min for clay soils of plastic consistency and is reduced to 1–3 min when testing specimens of fluid or secretive consistency [189,201,202]. Thus, the number of loading cycles necessary for the most complete degradation of soil strength or the accumulation of critical deformations can be very great under certain conditions but depends on the power characteristics-the amplitudes of the acting stresses and vibration acceleration. With their increase, the energy of the dynamic effect on the soil increases, causing an increase in its softening, which, however, is damped: when a certain critical level of power is reached, most structural bonds that determine the strength of the soil are destroyed. Therefore, a further increase in the amplitude of the stresses and in the acceleration of the oscillations can no longer lead to any noticeable additional softening. The greatest decrease in strength, as a rule, is observed with vibroacceleration up to 0.7 g [173-175,189]. The influence of frequency on the dynamic properties of cohesive soils is determined, first of all, by the duration of the action

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of the maximum stresses in each cycle. In addition, in one way or another, the influence of the frequency of impact on the dynamic reaction of cohesive soils determines: 1) the rate of pore pressure dissipation, 2) the growth of the energy of the action with frequency, 3) resonant phenomena, 4) creep and 5) thixotropic restoration [108,175,189,203]. In the region of vibrational frequencies (above 5 Hz) with increasing frequency of loading at a constant amplitude, the energy of impact on the ground increases, causing a progressive decrease in strength. However, this increase in softening is not a monotonous function of the frequency and is complicated by resonance effects. Most often, the resonant strengthening of softening for different clay soils is recorded in the range of 11–25 Hz, and for quasiisotropic soils one sufficiently flat resonance maximum of the strength degradation is observed [175,202,203]. The accumulation of deformations and soil weakening can be slowed down by a decrease in frequency due to partial thixotropic soil restoration between load phases. And thixotropic restoration begins to appear not immediately, but after a certain level of destruction of structural bonds of soil - in this case, when the specimen is axially deformed, about 3% (after about 50–60 cycles) [144,189-202]. Further differences in the behavior of the soil at different frequencies increase - for a sufficiently long cycle, it is possible to recover approximately the same percentage of broken contacts, and to maintain the achieved level of deformation they must be destroyed again in each subsequent cycle of impact. As the frequency increases, the coupling between the particles does not have time to recover, and the deformations increase almost linearly. The determining influence on the described dependence is caused by the soil moisture: when the mobility of particles decreases along with the degree of moisture, the role of partial thixotropic restoration becomes indistinguishable even at extremely low frequencies [175,202,203]. The combined influence of the described effects leads to the fact that the dynamic stability of cohesive soils usually decreases with increasing frequency in the region of vibration, which is also due to the possible resonant strengthening and softening. And the higher the clay soil moisture, the more pronounced the effect of the frequency of the dynamic load on its behavior.

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4. Current solutions for stability improvement of soil foundation in heavy haul railway tracks One of the main reasons of the roadbed reinforcement under increasing freight traffic and dynamic loads from heavy haul trains is its insufficient bearing capacity, which is primarily caused by defects and deformations of the track foundation and the decrease in the stability of embankments slopes and cut sections [204]. In general, the reliability of the railway track is determined by the quality of the construction of the roadbed during its building. Implementation of any changes in the roadbed on the operating railway section is rather difficult. This tightens the compliance requirements for construction and building technologies. During the maintenance of the operated section of the railway, the most simple and economical way to keep it in proper condition is to provide internal or external drainage to drain an unwanted water from the inside and outside the track. In some cases, to lower the stresses in the ground to a level sufficient for reducing the progressive shear and plastic deformation, it may be enough only to increase the thickness of the ballast and sub-ballast layers. However, this does not exclude the need for repair or modification of the roadbed construction. The main features of the reinforcement of the existing railway track foundation are that the maintenance must be carried without interrupting train traffic in a short time on a limited and small working area. In this regard, many reinforcement techniques that can be used during the new roadbed building, in these conditions are not applicable. Usually, the implementation of these activities for existing railway section is carried out with overhaul works or reconstruction of the track. Today, various techniques and approaches have been used for the track foundation reinforcement providing its stability and the load-bearing capacity. The current techniques for improving the operational characteristics of the roadbed are given in Fig. 15. They are intended to increase the efficiency of the heavy-haul traffic. These techniques can be divided into three groups: (1) protective layers, (2) soil improvement, (3) structural solutions (Fig. 15). A wider classification of soil improvement methods, covering not

Fig. 15. The main group of methods for improving of stability of railway track foundation under heavy haul trains.

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only railway, but also civil engineering, can be found in the special literature [205–210]. 4.1. Protective layers One of the most effective technique for the railway subgrade reinforcement is installing the protective layers under the ballast to perform the following basic functions:
reinforcement –uniform distribution of the train load on the soils of the subgrade, reducing vertical stresses in order to provide the load-bearing capacity;
waterproofing – protection of the subgrade from atmospheric water;
separation – preventing mixing the particles of the ballast material and the subgrade soils;
frost protection – protection against freezing of the underlying frost-susceptible soils of the subgrade;
vibration protection – providing effective mitigation of impact and vibration damping from trains. The standard material for the construction of protective layers of the subgrade is artificially selected sand and gravel mixtures. Their main disadvantages in reinforcing the existing subgrade are insufficient mechanical characteristics and the need for deep cutting the soil, which becomes expensive under the conditions of the operating railroad section and does not fit into traditional repair techniques. At present, with the reinforcement of the subgrade by installing the protective layers, various geosynthetic materials made of polymers and synthetic materials are widely used. These include geotextiles [211], geomembranes [212], geocells [213], geofoams [214], geogrids [215], geocomposites (combination of different geosynthetics) [216]. The functions of geosynthetics are to reduce the stresses in the ground of the subgrade, to separate the layers and increase the strength and rigidity of the layer into which they are installed. The function of isolation is to prevent the penetration of water from one side of the geosynthetic layer to another. Isolating waterproof geomembranes should be used to prevent the penetration of water into the subgrade, thereby minimizing soil softening and changing the volume of swelling soils. Reinforcement of the track foundation with the use of geosynthetic materials such as geogrids, provides soil resistance to tensile stresses in the transverse direction. The geogrid reinforced ballast layer provides a smooth change in rigidity and leads to a decrease in the vertical stresses transmitted to the underlying layer. The reinforced layer also takes a portion of the shear stresses, which are then not transferred to the underlying layers. The effectiveness of the geogrid protective layer was confirmed by Ashpiz and Zamukhovskiy (2017) [204] at the test site near

Fig. 16. The simulation results of the reinforced protective layer with geogrid (SSLA30) [204].

Zelenogorsk (Russia) on the full-scale physical models of the railway construction. The heavy haul train load was simulated by a vibrating machine, providing an application to the rails of a static axle load of 25 tons. The results of the railway construction modeling without protective layers and with a protective layer reinforced with a geogrid are given in Fig. 16 and showed significantly better characteristics for the reinforced structure (Fig. 16). The results of the tests carried out by the authors were confirmed by the experimental observations of operation on the Moscow-St. Petersburg line. The results of observations showed the at comparable railway sections after reconstruction with the geogrid protective layer the track alignment correction was carried out for the 4th year, and without the protective layer – for the second year, and then every year. A similar result is applied to the heavyweight sections was obtained by Petriaev et al. (2017) [217] based on the results of field tests of biaxial geogrids and geocells (Fig. 17), carried out in Emperor Alexander I St. Petersburg State Transport University. When using non-woven geotextile materials in combination with geogrids (installed directly under the geogrid), for more efficient functioning of separate components, it is possible to simultaneously provide reinforcement of the subballast layer, and also to maintain the drainage. The combination of the reinforcement function of the geogrid and the filtration and separation functions of the non-woven geotextile, prevents the movement of the fine particles of the ballast material and soil, protecting the ballast from contamination and degradation, especially in wetlands. Indraratna et al. (2010) [218] has conducted a field study at a test site in Bulli, New South Wales, Australia, in order to assess the advantages of the geocomposite installed in the sub-ballast zone. The characteristics comparison was made of a moderately polluted and heterogeneous ballast with a homogeneous new ballast. It was found that the geocomposite can reduce the vertical and lateral deformations of the ballast and, as a consequence, improve the stability of the track. The results of the authors’ research have shown the possibility of ffective reuse of recycled ballast in the construction of a protective layer from the geocomposite [218,219]. Indraratna et al. (2012) [220] have shown that the geocomposite allows to reduce the vertical deformation of the new ballast by 33% and by 9% of the recycled ballast. The installation of the protective layer from the geocomposite also provides the reduction of the lateral deformation of the new ballast by about 49% and 11% of the recycled ballast. Examples of the use of geosynthetic and other structural materials in the installing of protective layers for reinforcing the roadbeds (both existing and being constructed) under heavy haul trains are presented in Table 4. Along with geosynthetic materials, one of the most common techniques of strengthening the track formation is the use of asphalt mixtures as protective layers. The main areas where asphalt mixtures can improve the operation of the roadbed are:
waterproofing – impenetrability of the asphalt mixture layer forms an inclined surface for diversion of atmospheric water, which subsequently contributes to reducing residual deformations and the track foundation settlement;
reduction of stresses in the ground – the stresses under the asphalt mixture are lower than in the suballast layer at the same thickness;
increase in rigidity of the railway track – is provided due to the rigidity of the asphalt mixture layer itself and by creating an additional barrier for the penetration of ballast material particles into this layer.

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Fig. 17. Laying of geocells and two geogrid layers [217].

Table 4 Examples of the use of protective layers for stability improvement of railway track foundation under heavy haul trains. Type/material of protective layer

Application area

Positive effect

Reference

Epoxy asphalt-based concrete

Sub-ballast

Liu et al. (2018) [221]

Polymer-cement foam concrete Asphalt mixture

Sub-ballast, subsoil Sub-ballast, ballast Sub-ballast Subgrade Sub-ballast

Improvement of the cracking resistance and deformability of substructure. Improvement the stress and deformation behavior of the subgrade bed. Improvement of the capacity in vibration attenuation. Increase of frost resistance of the subgrade. Increase of energy absorbing properties of the subgrade. Increase of the vertical track strength and waterproofing.

Asphalt mixture Asphalt concrete Shock mats (under ballast mat) Shock mats (rubber pads) Shock mats (under ballast mat) Shock mats (under ballast mat) Rubber Tire-Confined Capping Layer Geogrid Geogrid Geogrid Geogrid Geogrid Geotextiles Geocomposite Geocomposite Polyurethane - mixed ballast

Sub-ballast Sub-ballast Sub-ballast Sub-ballast

Ballast, subgrade Ballast Ballast Subgrade Ballast Sub-ballast Ballast Sub-ballast Ballast

Sychova et al. (2017) [222] Rose and Souleyrette (2014) [223]

Improvement the mechanical response of the track. Increase of the strength and water preventing ability. Reduce of the vibration and noise. Reduce of the ballast deformation and degradation. Decrease of the strains in ballast. Reduce of the ballast deformation and degradation. Vibration protection. Reduce of the dynamic stresses and vibrations. Reduce of the ballast breakage. Stiffness adjustment. Improvement of the damping properties. Reduce of the ballast degradation. Increase of the bearing capacity of subgrade.

Sol-Sánchez (2015) [224] Jiang et al. (2016) [225] Sinniah et al. (2016) [226],

Reduce of the subgrade deformation. Reduce of the transient track deformation. Increase of the bearing capacity and reduce of the settlement Increase of the lateral resistance of ballasted track Load bearing capacity improvement of subgrade. Reduce of the lateral spreading and fouling of ballast.

Chen et al. (2017) [215] Nimbalkar and Indraratna (2016) [229] Esmaeili et al. (2018) [231] Esmaeili et al. (2017) [232] Raymond (1984) [211] Indraratna et al. (2006) [233], Indraratna et al. (2012) [220] Nimbalkar and Indraratna (2016) [229] Khakiev et al (2018) [234]

Decrease of the settlement of the ballast. Increase of the track stiffness. Increase of the lateral resistance to the shift of the sleeper.

The asphalt mixtures can be effectively applied on the heavy haul lines provided that they are properly selected, prepared and compacted according to the area of their application. It is important that there is no softening of the layer of asphalt mixture with time. Currently, a hot asphalt mix is recommended for use on US railways in accordance with ASTM Standard No. 3515, providing a layer of approximately the same particle size distribution that is prescribed for high-speed roads [1]. The layer of such a mixture has a maximum particle size of the filler from 25 to 38 mm, the content of the asphalt binder is of the order of 6% (by 0.5% more than in the layer on highways) and the degree of compaction to 1– 3% of the void content. The mechanical characteristics of the protective bitumen layer of the sub-ballast zone were studied by Sol-Sánchez et al. (2015) [224] in a wide range of loads and temperatures. The authors have

Indraratna et al. (2017) [227] Navaratnarajah and Indraratna (2017) [228] Nimbalkar and Indraratna (2016) [229] Indraratna et al. (2018) [230]

Petriaev et al. (2017) [217]

shown that the use of bituminous binder can provide the necessary bearing capacity of the roadbed at high loads, due to the increase in rigidity of the sub-ballast zone (Fig. 18). At the same time, it has been found that temperature has a significant effect on its mechanical characteristics and service life, which may limit the potential for its use in regions with a hot climate. At temperatures above 25° C there was a sharp decrease in the crack resistance of the bituminous layer. Esmaeili et al. (2016) [235] investigated an influence of hot mix asphalt (HMA) as underlayment trackbed (with thickness of 100 and 150 mm) and full depth trackbed (with thickness of 100, 150 and 200 mm) (Fig. 19) on lateral resistance od the railway. According to the results of a series of field tests at the Qom-Jamkaran railway testing site, it was shown that track lateral resistances with underlayment HMA and full-depth HMA layers is respectively less by 47,8% and 41,3% than for regular ballasted track construction. At

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Fig. 18. Evolution of the water flow drained and pressure transmitted by different type of sub-ballast under various loading and temperature conditions [224].

Fig. 19. Railway track construction including concrete asphalt layer. Adapted from Ref. [235]

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Fig. 20. Installation of placement of shockmat on concrete deck of bridge [229].

Fig. 21. Track foundation formation with rubber tire-confined capping layer [230].

the same time, the thickness of the asphalt layer has a slight effect on the lateral resistance of the railway track. The decrease in lateral resistance in the case of HMA layers can be explained by a smaller frictional contact between the ballast layer with the HMA than with the ground. Generalized in [1] experience of using hot asphalt mixtures on railways worlwide indicates that this solution provides a reduction in stresses in the track foundation, reduces the the track uneven settlement and allows to increase the repair intervals. Therefore, this make it possible to successfully use hot asphalt mixtures in the creation of sections variable rigidity in the transition zone of the ballasted track to man-made structures. However, positive results from the use of a hot asphalt mixture layer in this case are possible with regard to reinforcing the track foundation of a low bearing capacity. In recent years, the elastic elements have been increasingly used in the construction of the railway track in order to reduce the level of vibration and noise, as well as deformations of the roadbed and ballast [218,236–240]. There are three main types of elastic elements used in the construction of the track: (1) rubber rail pads installed between the rail foot and the sleeper; (2) elastic

under sleeper pads installed beneath the sleepers at the border with the ballast layer; and (3) sub-ballast mats installed under the ballast layer. The use of elastic elements (shock mats) on the railroad track can significantly reduce the dynamic impact on the track foundation. The effectiveness of shock mats in reducing the level of vibration and noise along a railway with a rigid base (concrete bridges, tunnels and other man-made structures, Fig. 20) was studied earlier in [238–240]. In the work of Indraratna et al. (2012) [220] the results of laboratory tests, field monitoring and theoretical FEM analysis are described, demonstrating the use of shock mats in the construction of a railway with heavy haul train traffic. In particular, the authors have shown that shock mats can reduce impact on ballast by 50% when placed on top or below the ballast layer. In addition, a decrease in the degree of degradation was noted for the ballast material particles by 47% in the case of a hard subgrade and by approximately 65% in the case of a typical subgrade with no shock mats. In a study by Navaratnarajah et al. (2017) [230] cyclic loads were simulated from high-speed and heavy haul trains on a ballastless track using rubber mats made from recycled tires

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(Fig. 21). The results of laboratory studies show that in the case of a slab track, the damping characteristics of rubber mats reduce deformation and ballast degradation. The study shows that rubber mats more evenly distribute the load from the rolling stock, increasing the effective contact area, contributing to a decrease in dynamic impact. In the case of installing mats under the ballast layer on a concrete base, a decrease of 10–20% in vertical plastic deformation and a decrease of 5–10% in shear plastic deformation were observed. On average, the total degradation of ballast has decreased by approximately 35–45%, when installing rubber mats under ballast. There was also a 20% decrease in vertical stress at the boundary of the ballast and the subgrade. The use of the tire derived aggregate (TDA) in the structural layers of a railway track is very promising in terms of reducing vibrational impact from railway rolling stock [241,242]. Along with economic attractiveness, an important advantage of this solution is the environmental aspect associated with the efficient disposal of waste tires. It was proposed in recent works of Esmaeili et al. (2016, 2017, 2019) [243–245] that in some cases it is optimal to use 10% by mass of TDA in subgrade, sub-ballast and ballast mixtures. The authors concluded that using TDA in mix of soil provides a decreasing in failure load and crest settlement by 24.78 and 17.21% compared to an embankment without TDA. By adding 10% by mass of TDA to the ballast, the particle breakage and the long-term settlement of ballast can be reduced by 47 and 6%, respectively. At the same time, a slight decrease in ballast shear strength is observed. Thermally insulating protective layers are used to prevent frost heaving during seasonal temperature changes and to prevent thawing of permafrost soils. These include various layers of thermally insulating materials, installed within the ballast prism in the upper part of the track foundation [222]. Thermally insulating layers are usually installed in wetlands of weak soils with poor water loss in case of uneven swelling of the roadbed. Mainly they serve to eliminate the landslides of slopes, composed of clay soils.

Table 5 Examples of the soil improvement for increase of the railway track foundation stability under heavy haul lines. Technology/material

Positive effect

Reference

Cement

Increase of the dynamic shear strength and modulus Increase of the bearing capacity

Yonghui et al. (2017) [255] Esmaeili and Khajehei (2016) [261] Lambert et al. (2012) [262]

Deep mixed columns (cement) Deep mixed columns (cement) Lightweight foam concrete Cement soil piles Cement soil piles

Short soil–binder columns Jet-grouting

Jet-grouting

Jet-grouting

Jet-grouting

Increase of the bearing capacity

Increase of long-term dynamic stability under cyclic loads Increase of the bearing capacity Control the settlement of subgrade surface and horizontal displacement of slope Increase both the stiffness and the strength of the surface layer of the track platform Increase of the bearing capacity

Improve of the strength, the stiffness, the bearing capacity and the soil compactness of the subgrade Control of the horizontal displacement at toe of slope and improve of the foundation stability Increase of the bearing capacity

Huang et al. (2017) [265] Xue (2014) [266] Liu et al. (2014) [267] Francisco et al. (2018) [268] Esmaeili and Mosayebi (2011) [269] Di et al. (2013) [270] Liu and Wang (2012) [271] Di et al. (2014) [272]

4.2. Soil improvement The second group of track reinforcement techniques under consideration is soil improvement methods, which are currently widely used in civil engineering. Complete replacement of substandard soils in the track foundation is the most effective way to restore its performance. However, such a technique is feasible only when the trains are completely stopped for a long period of time and only in those regions where the network of railways and highways is well developed and it is possible to redistribute traffic to other roads for the period of repairs. The way out of this situation seems to be the application of methods to increase the stability of the operating sections of the railway roadbed, based on the transformation of the initial physico-mechanical properties of soils. The essence of these methods lies in the use of various soil treatment technologies, along with partial or complete artificial transformation of their structure. These include: thermal fixing of ground with hot air and combustible fuel, electroosmosis, lowering of groundwater level, sealing by loading, vibration, use of various fibrous materials, silicification, use of enzymes, resin treatment, jet cementation bitumization, etc. [246–249]. However, with regard to rail transport, the economic feasibility of the above methods is ambiguous and requires careful analysis in each specific case (on the one hand, rather cheap solutions, on the other - expensive equipment and labor-intensive strengthening works). The most reasonable and tested in the conditions of heavy haul traffic to date are techniques of reinforcing the roadbed, providing the treatment of soils with cementitious binder materials (Table 5). Depending on the work technology and the treatment area, these methods are divided into two types:
in-depth - hardening of soils is carried out without a disturbance of its natural formation;
surface - hardening of soils is carried out with a disturbance of its natural formation by mixing it with the hardening solutions. Generally, the purpose of treating the soils of the railway track formation with cementitious binders is to increase their strength and waterproofness [250–254]. Shang et al (2017) [255] used cement to stabilize the swelling soils of the subgrade of the heavy haul section of the Menghua, Haolebaoji-Ji’an, China railway. Using the dynamic triaxial test method, the authors studied the regularities of the dynamic characteristics of a cement-stabilized swelling soil in a wide range of vibrodynamic loads. The results of their studies show that, in comparison with the initial unstabilized swelling soil, the dynamic shear strength and modulus of elasticity of stabilized cement soil increases by 2–3 times, while its critical dynamic stress - by 5–6 times. The expediency of using cement binders to stabilize swelling soils was also evaluated in [256,257], confirming the effectiveness of this approach. One of the in situ methods of the roadbed stabilization is the jet grouting technique, based on the simultaneous destruction and mixing the soil with a high-pressure jet of a cementing material [269,270]. This technique allows strengthen a wide range of soils - from gravel deposits to finely dispersed clays and silts [273]. An important feature of this technology for the stabilization of a railway roadbed is the high speed of construction of soil–cement piles. Thus, it allows to perform construction and repair works during the limited time windows, in cramped and difficult conditions - on slopes [274], tunnels [275], approaches to the bridges [276]. At the same time, an inaccurate determination of the technological parameters of jet grouting under given geotechnical conditions significantly increases the production time and cost of construction

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Fig. 22. View of an excavated soil-cement column(a) and view of the load test system (b) [262].

[274,277]. Therefore, the economic feasibility of using this technology requires at the preparatory stage a very thorough assessment of the quantitative parameters characterizing the effectiveness of the soil treatment process for various working conditions and areas of technology application. Furthermore, one of the main limitations of jet grouting technology is the difficulty of reliably predicting the geometry of the final ground-cement body, which is strongly dependent on the parameters of the medium injection and the properties of the soil to be strengthened [278]. Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) technology is known as one of the most effective ways to stabilize weak soils under road and railway embankments to improve their stability [258–260]. The technology of deep soil mixing is the production of soil-cement piles using special drilling-mixing equipment. Deep mixing is performed by feeding the binder (cement, lime, gypsum, slag) under pressure

into a weak soil with simultaneous stirring. As a result of the application of the technology, a substantial increase in the strength and deformation characteristics of the weak soil is achieved. In the study by Esmaeili and Khajehei (2016) [261], laboratory tests were carried out on the deep mixed columns when strengthening the embankment on sandy grounds using cement. Based on the laboratory experiments carried out on the physical models of embankments, the authors showed the possibility of increasing the bearing capacity of the embankment using deep mixed columns by 63%. In the work of Lambert et al. (2012) [262], static load testing of two 600 mm diameter columns on silty ground is discussed (Fig. 22). The results of these tests showed a strong mechanical response of the columns providing an increase in the bearing capacity of the base. At the same time, laboratory tests of

Fig. 23. Short soil–binder columns in railway track reinforcement [268].

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Table 6 Examples of the structure solutions for increasing the stability of railway track foundation under heavy haul lines. Constructions

Positive effect

Reference

Tied back-to-back system

Increase of the bearing capacity. Reduce of the settlement.

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls Micropiles

Increase slope stability.

Esmaeili and Arbabi. (2015) [279] Hu and Luo (2018) [280]

Micropiles Micropiles Prefabricated vertical drains

Prefabricated vertical drains Screw piles Lime-soil compaction piles

Ensuring local stability of the surface area of the embankment slopes. Increase of the load-bearing capacity. Increase slope stability. Increase of the slope stability of high railway embankments. Rapid excess pore pressure dissipation. Reduction in lateral strain. A gain in shear strength of the soil. Optimizing the accelerated of consolidation. Improvement of soft soil foundation. Increase of the bearing capacity. Improve of the stiffness and strength of soil subgrade. Reduce of the deformation. Increasing the bearing capacity.

Dong et al. (2018) [281] Esmaeili et al. (2013) [282] Esmaeili et al. (2013) [283] Indraratna (2008) [284]

Indraratna et al. (2007) [285] Wheeler et al. (2018) [286] Kai and Lianjun (2017) [287]

excavated columns showed heterogeneity of the ground-cement material, which affects the uneven distribution of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity along the length of the column. Francisco et al. (2018) [268] presents the results of a theoretical study of the effectiveness of reinforcing the soil of a railway track foundation using short soil-binder columns made by injecting a cement binder below the ballast layer (Fig. 23). The authors analyzed the stress-strain state of the structure, taking into account

the dynamic interaction of the train and the nonlinear elastic behavior of the ballast. The results of Francisco et al. (2018) [268] show that the reinforcement of the railway structure by short soil-binder columns provides a local (between and around the columns) decrease of the deviatoric stresses at the level of the subgrade (Fig. 23). The results of the analysis of the influence of the columns relative position on the construction stress-strain state carried out by the authors show that in the case of the columns position along the track axis, the greatest negative bending moments in the sleepers occur. This is an important negative aspect of the use of such structures, which can limit the service life of the elements of the track structure in term perspective. These questions require additional research to better understand the mechanism of joint work of the reinforced railway constructions. A summary of some examples of the use of DSM for the stabilization of railway tracks of different constructions and under various conditions is presented in Arulrajah et al. (2009) [263] and Smekal (2008) [264]. 4.3. Structural solutions The third group under consideration is constructive solutions for increasing the stability of the track foundation soils. Table 6 presents some well-known examples of the implementation of the methods of this group with respect to the problem of strengthening the railway track under heavy haul traffic. Study of Esmaeili and Arbabi (2015) [279] was devoted to an experimental and theoretical study of the separated tied back-toback system (STBBS), which is a rod with support plates at the ends, and designed to stabilize high rail embankments (Fig. 24). The results of laboratory tests indicate that STBBS can increase the load capacity of the track foundation to 35%. The results of numerical finite element analysis showed that with the construction of a single row of STBBS, the calculated safety factors of 10, 15 and 20 m embankments under a load of 25 tons per axle increase by 12.5%, 19.5% and 24% respectively. The use of the second row of STBBS can provide for 15 and 20 m embankments an

Fig. 24. Physical and Numerical Model of the separated tied back-to-back system [279]

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Fig. 25. A typical prefabricated vertical drains (a) [294] and the area of field tests (b) [295].

increase in the safety factor by 27% and 40.4%, respectively. In the subsequent works of Esmaeili and Arbabi (2017) [288] it was shown that the increased effect of the application of the tied back-to-back system can be achieved by grouting, the use of which increases the failure load of railway embankment by up to 37% compared to the tied back-to-back without groutng. Another study of Sabermahani et al. (2018) [289] considers the possibility of stabilizing existing embankments using the integrated tied back-to-back system (ITBBS), in which, unlike the previously proposed STBBS, separated ties are attached to each other through continuous end bearing plates. This decision, in addition to increasing the side-slope of the mound, allowed increasing its bearing capacity by up to 50%. The possibility of using the methods of horizontal reinforcement to improve the stability of the roadbed under the impact of heavy haul trains is also considered by Hu and Luo (2018) [280], using the example of a mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) wall, which is a block of soil reinforced externally by a facing wall, and inside by a reinforcing element (metal nets, geotextiles, geonets, etc.). Strengthening of the foundation soils of heavy haul lines can also be carried out with use of piles [290]. For this purpose, different types of piles are used [281,286,287]. Pile reinforcement is one of the technologically simple methods and allows to save materials in comparison with the complete excavation of weak soils and replacement of them with stronger ones. Depending on the construction method and types, piles can play the role of bearing elements that receive loads from the structure, or can be used to compact and improve the properties of weak water-saturated soils. Micropiles, which include piles with a diameter of less than 300 mm, can increase the bearing capacity of the roadbed and reduce the development of sediment [290]. Vertical and inclined grillageless micropiles can be used for the formation of the reinforced soil array to increase the stability of the bases [291] and the embankment slopes [283,292]. In particular, based on the results of physical and FEM simulations, it was shown in Esmaeili et al. (2013) [282], that using at the embankment toe with 2 vertical and 2 inclined at 45° micropiles provides an increase in loadbearing capacity of 65%, while the settlement of the embankment crest decreases by about 35% and uplift movements of the bed sides are reduced by more than 65%. A method for reinforcing a railway track is known, based on a device for vertical drainage wells (Prefabricated Vertical Drains, PVD), which functions to disperse the excess pore pressure that occurs when consolidating the soils of a weak base. PVD are used

to accelerate the consolidation of weak cohesive soil substrates under embankments [293–295]. Field test of Indraratna et al. (2012) [219] showed that geosynthetic PVDs can reduce the accumulation of excess pore water pressure during cyclic loading and continue to disperse the excess pore pressure in after the load is removed. The authors have shown that the use of even relatively short drens can help limit lateral displacement of the foundation. The most common type of PVD is roll drainage (Fig. 25), which is a core of polymeric matreial (filter element), wrapped in a geotextile to prevent its siltation.

4.4. Patents related to the improve of stability of railway track foundation under heavy haul lines A study of the technical level and development trends in the field of creation of techniques and methods of improvement the stability of the railroad track for heavy haul trains was carried out on the basis of an analysis of patent applications published in the period from 2008 to 2018 in the Russian Federal Institute of Industrial Property (FIPS) , as well as in the international esp@cenet database in the collection ‘‘Worldwide” (https://worldwide.espacenet.com), which includes sources of patent information from various state patent offices, incl. the three largest patent offices: the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), the European Patent Office (EPO) and the Japan Patent Office (JPO). According to the results of the analysis of the selected relevant patent documents in the considered field, issued to organizations and individuals over the past 10 years, the greatest number of inventions fall on methods based on the protective layers for the sub-ballast zone, performing the functions of reinforcement, waterproofing, and raising the bearing capacity of the base. Active work is being carried out on the use of geosynthetic materials, polymer and bituminous binders. Among them are the development of methods for stabilizing the soils of the subgrade with polyurethane foam, expanded lightweight concrete, bitumen, bitumen emulsions and coal tar resins. Table 7 summarizes some examples of such patents. Parallel analysis of known technical solutions in patent applications and scientific publications referred to in the previous sections of this article reflects the impact of previous scientific developments on new patent applications. This indicates the existence of advanced links between scientific and inventive activities in the development of techniques to increase stability and create reinforced structures of the track foundation for the needs of heavy haul traffic.

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Table 7 Patents documented on improve of stability of railway track foundation under heavy haul lines. Patent name

Inventors

Description

Positive effect

Publication Date (Year)

CN 105862521 (A)

Roadbed foundation bed structure of heavy haul railway

Jiang C. et al.

Increase of long-term stability. Increase of durability.

2016

EP2744942 (B1)

Railway track support system

Hoffman A. M.

Improves the track modulus and/or track stiffness. Decrease of deformations.

2016

CN 104652179 (B)

Surface layer-reinforced and waterproof heavy-axle load heavyhaul railway subgrade bed structure

Jiang C. et al.

Method for improving heavy haul railway subgrade by use of fiberreinforced stabilized soil

Zhao Y. et al.

WO 2015170185 (A2)

Geocell with improved compaction and deformation resistance Foam light-weight concrete material used in railroads subgrade bed bottom layer Construction of t he subgrade

Halahmi I., Erez O.

Increase of subgrade strength. Improve waterproofing. Decrease of deformations. Increase of stability and durability. Improvement of water-stability. Improvement of mechanical properties (shearing resistance, tensile strength, resistance to deformation, crack resistance). Improvement of deformation resistance.

2016

CN 104358198 (B)

Track foundation of 3 m thic, including a lower layer of thickness 2.4–2.8 m., coefficient of subgrade reaction (K30) 190–110 MPa/m Stabilisation system comprising insertion of an elongate a hollow pile into the ground, insertion a cementitious material into the hollow of the pile and insertion of ballast material is subsequently into the void between the support and the ground surface The reinforcing subgrade bed (0.15 m) with bituminous concrete material (permeability coefficient k  10-6 cm/s, bending and tensile strength RB  4 MPa, the freeze-thaw splitting strength ratio TSR  70%) Railway subgrade soil, which contains 0.05–0.5% of monofilament bunched fiber and 3–7% of soil stabilizer (aluminosilicate, ferrous aluminate, sulfate, sulfite, sulfoaluminate, chloride, oxide) Geocells from polymeric strips having improved compaction and deformation resistance The foam light-weight concrete material in the railway subgrade bed bottom layer

CN 104761276 (A)

RU 156221 U1

Wang W. et al.

Yushkov B.S., Degtyar A.A.

Method for constructing heavy haul railway subgrade bed

RU 2535378 C1

Method for reinforcing of railway track

WO 2013004242 (A1)

A substructure system of a railway track

RU 2448212 C2

Method for reinforcing of railway track

WO 2012080406 (A1)

A polyurethane railway track bed, a preparing method and the usage thereof Protective sub-ballast layer of railway Muratov G.R. et al. track reinforced polymer geogrid

RU 103362 U1

CN101245574 (A)

Method for building over loading railway road-bed on salting ground

Jilian X. et al.

A layer of nonwoven geotextile with Kfgreater than 1 * 10–4 m / s at P = 200 kPa, on which a polymeric geogrid filled with compacted granular materials Construction based on the packaged sand drain method to reinforce and tightly compact the saline ground

2015

Increase of subgrade stiffness. Increase of resistant to plastic deformations.

Strengthening the subgrade and increasing loadbearing capacity. Ensuring resistance to frost penetration of the soil Luo Q. et al. The layered compacted subgrade with layers from 1.8 to 0.3 Increase of long-term stability. Increase of durability. m; a coefficient of subgrade reaction (K30) from 90 to 190 MPa/m Ballast layer homogenized with normal hardening foam Strengthening the foundation of the sub ballast Svatovskaya L.B., concrete. zone. Shershneva M.V., Saveleva Waterproofing of the main site. M.Yu. Gylov H. H., Gatzwiller K. B. Sub-ballast layer comprising a resilient bottom plate in the - Mitigating dynamic forces; form of a mineral fiber plate having a Young’s modulus of 0.5 - providing for effective load distribution MPa to 1 MPa and also a high bending strength top plate Gritsyk V. I., Okost M.V. Homogeneous layer of old gravel, organic binders (bitumen Strengthening the foundation of the sub ballast emulsion or resin) and geotextile zone. Waterproofing of the main site. Zhang C. X. The molding polyurethane layer comprisins ballasts and Reduce of subgrade deformation. molding polyurethane foam on the subgrade Stiffness adjustment of track bed.

CN 104018403 (A)

Pile foundation of double-cone piles with flexible grillage in the form of a spatial geogrid and geotextile material

2015

2015

2014

2014

2013

2012

2012

2010 Increasing the load-bearing capacity of the structure. Increasing the rigidity of the sub ballast layer. Increasing the load-bearing capacity of the base on 2008 saline soils

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Publication Number

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5. Conclusions This article comprised a state-of-the-art review of dynamic behavior and stability of soil foundation in heavy haul railway tracks. From this review, the following concluding remarks can be drawn:
The track foundation is the most important element of the railway track construction. It is subject to intensive dynamic impact under the development of heavy haul transport. The operation of heavy trains with increased axle load results in rapid occurrence of deformations and defects in the track foundation, which increases the cost of track maintenance and the requirements for its construction.
Typical failures in the track foundation are mostly associated with ballast degradation and insufficient load-bearing capacity under heavy haul traffic conditions. In particular, high axle loads contribute to the uneven settlements of the ballast layer (ballast pockets); fooling the ballast material, causing drainage deterioration and consequently overmoistening the track foundation. As a result, the track foundation degrades and its load bearing capacity decreases.
The main factors that determine the dynamics of soil behavior of the roadbed under cyclic loads from heavy haul trains are its magnitude and duration. In the case of cohesionless soils, an increase in the number of loading cycles leads to a hyperbolic dependence on its deformation, and the steepness of this curve is determined by the amount of loading accelerating the process of shrinkage of soil with increasing accumulation of shear deformations. Stabilization of shrinkage of cohesionless soil of the track foundation reaches a maximum in the state of optimum moisture and significantly decreases with the growth of water saturation and long cyclic loads without inversion of the stress sign, leading the ground environment to liquefaction. The shear modulus in the region of small deformations is determined by the hyperbolic dependence, which rate of decrease rises with increasing fraction of the soil. The growth of the damping properties of cohesionless soils is low (2–4%), for small deformations substantially increases (20%) with prolonged cyclic loads during compaction.
The basis for increasing the load-bearing capacity of cohesive soils under cyclic loads from a heavy haul trains is a taxotrophic effect that ensures the complete or partial restoration of the broken structural bonds of the soil. The factors of maximum reduction in the strength of cohesive soil under dynamic impact is the time or number of cycles of impact. The influence of the frequency of cyclic impacts on the dynamic properties of cohesive soils is determined, first of all, by the duration of the action of the maximum stresses in each cycle. The balance between the accumulation of deformation and the destruction of structural bonds of ground is dense, determined by the period of cyclic loads. The complete degradation of the strength of the ground or the accumulation of critical deformations is determined by the amplitude of the acting stresses and by the acceleration, reaching 0.7 g. The mechanical properties of cohesive soils in the region of small deformations, which depend only on the porosity coefficient and the acting stress with increasing strain, are determined significantly by the Plasticity index (PI), which is due to the change in the deformation mechanism from viscous to hysteresis.
The use of geosynthetics, asphalt mixtures, concrete and piles are currently the most common ways of stabilizing the railway track foundation when organizing heavy train traffic. The choice of a technical solution should be based on an integrated assessment of soil, hydrological, climatic conditions, the type of con-

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struction (embankment height, depth of excavation, steepness of slopes), based on a technical and economic comparison of options. At the same time, the wide introduction of the methods of reinforcing the roadbed in question requires the methodically correct observation of the construction and operation of experimental structures and the generalization of the results of these observations.
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